VCE M AT HEM AT I CS U N I T S 1 & 2

MATHS QUEST 11
Mathematical

3RD EDIT ION

Methods CAS
ROBYN WILLIAMS | NICOLAOS KARANIKOLAS | KYLIE BOUCHER
GAYLE ROBERTS | JENNIFER NOLAN | GEOFF PHILLIPS

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
ROBERT CAHN | DOUGLAS SCOTT | HOWARD LISTON

SUPPORT MATERIAL
JOHN DOWSEY | DENNIS FITZGERALD | EMILY HUI | CAROLINE MEWS
VINOD NARAYAN | PETER SWAIN | DAVID TYNAN | IAN YOUNGER
WAYNE YOUNGS | SIMONE RICHARDSON | DINA ANTONIOU | NORRENE HILL
 Third edition published 2013 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064

First edition published 2009

Second edition published 2010

Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std

© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2009, 2010, 2013

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data

Title: Maths quest 11 mathematical methods

CAS/Robyn Williams . . . [et a l.].
Edition: 3rd ed.
ISBN: 978 1 118 31058 8 (paperback)
978 1 118 31067 0 (flexisaver)
978 1 118 31060 1 (ebook)
Notes: Includes index.
Target audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics — Textbooks.
Other authors/
contributors: Williams, Robyn (Robyn Ellen) 1967–
Dewey number: 510

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Contents
Introduction vi 2K Using technology to solve quadratic equations 80
About eBookPLUS viii Exercise 2K 82
Acknowledgements ix 2L Simultaneous quadratic and linear equations 83
Exercise 2L 87
CHAPTER 1 ■ Summary 90
■ Chapter review 92
Linear functions 1
■ ICT activities 95
1A Solving linear equations and inequations 1 ■ Answers 96
Exercise 1A 3
1B Rearrangement and substitution 4 CHAPTER 3
Exercise 1B 6
1C Gradient of a straight line 8
Cubic and quartic functions 105
Exercise 1C 10 Polynomials of degree 3 and 4 105
1D Sketching linear functions 12 3A Expanding 105
Exercise 1D 14 Exercise 3A 106
1E Simultaneous equations 15 3B Long division of polynomials 107
Exercise 1E 17 Exercise 3B 109
1F Finding the equation of a straight line 18 3C Polynomial values 109
Exercise 1F 20 Exercise 3C 110
1G Distance between two points and midpoint of a 3D The remainder and factor theorems 111
segment 21 Exercise 3D 113
Exercise 1G 22 3E Factorising polynomials 114
1H Linear modelling 24 Exercise 3E 116
Exercise 1H 25 3F Sum and difference of two cubes 117
■ Summary 27 Exercise 3F 118
■ Chapter review 28 3G Solving polynomial equations 118
■ ICT activities 34 Exercise 3G 120
■ Answers 35 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method 121
Exercise 3H 124
CHAPTER 2
3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method 126
Quadratic functions 39 Exercise 3I 127
2A Polynomials 39 3J Graphs of cubic functions in power function
Exercise 2A 40 form 128
2B Expanding quadratic expressions 41 Exercise 3J 130
Exercise 2B 43 3K Domain, range, maximums and minimums 132
2C Factorising quadratic expressions 44 Exercise 3K 134
Exercise 2C 46 3L Modelling using technology 136
2D Factorising by completing the square 47 Exercise 3L 137
Exercise 2D 50 3M Finite differences 138
2E Solving quadratic equations — Null Factor Law 50 Exercise 3M 142
Exercise 2E 53 ■ Summary 144
■ Chapter review 146
2F Solving quadratic equations — completing the
■ ICT activities 150
square 55
■ Answers 151
Exercise 2F 57
2G The quadratic formula 58 EXAM PRACTICE 1
Exercise 2G 61
Based on Chapters 1–3 159
2H The discriminant 62
Exercise 2H 66 CHAPTER 4
2I Graphs of quadratic functions as power functions
(turning point form) 66 Relations, functions and transformations 161
Exercise 2I 68 4A Set notation 161
2J Graphs of quadratic functions (intercepts Exercise 4A 162
method) 70 4B Relations and graphs 163
Exercise 2J 78 Exercise 4B 165
 4C Domain and range 167 6E Identities 269
Exercise 4C 170 Exercise 6E 272
4D Types of relations (including functions) 172 6F Sine and cosine graphs 273
Exercise 4D 174 Exercise 6F 277
4E Power functions (hyperbola, truncus and square root 6G Tangent graphs 280
function) 175 Exercise 6G 282
Exercise 4E 182 6H Solving trigonometric
4F Function notation 183 equations 283
Exercise 4F 186 Exercise 6H 287
4G Special types of function (including hybrid 6I Applications 288
functions) 187 Exercise 6I 290
Exercise 4G 189 ■ Summary 293
4H Inverse relations and functions 192 ■ Chapter review 296
Exercise 4H 193 ■ ICT activities 301
4I Circles 193 ■ Answers 302
Exercise 4I 195
EXAM PRACTICE 2
4J Functions and modelling 197
Exercise 4J 197 Based on Chapters 1– 6 307
■ Summary 200 CHAPTER 7
■ Chapter review 202
■ ICT activities 209 Matrices 309
■ Answers 210 7A Addition and subtraction of
matrices 309
CHAPTER 5
Exercise 7A 315
Exponential and logarithmic functions 217 7B Multiplying matrices 316
Introduction 217 Exercise 7B 318
5A Index laws 217 7C Solving matrix equations 320
Exercise 5A 220 Exercise 7C 324
5B Negative and rational powers 221 7D Matrices and transformations 325
Exercise 5B 224 Exercise 7D 328
5C Indicial equations 224 ■ Summary 330
Exercise 5C 226 ■ Chapter review 331
5D Graphs of exponential functions 227 ■ ICT activities 335
Exercise 5D 230 ■ Answers 336
5E Logarithms 231
EXAM PRACTICE 3
Exercise 5E 233
Based on Chapters 1– 7 339
5F Solving logarithmic equations 234
Exercise 5F 236 CHAPTER 8
5G Logarithmic graphs 236
Exercise 5G 237
Rates of change 341
5H Applications of exponential and logarithmic 8A Identifying rates 341
functions 238 Exercise 8A 342
Exercise 5H 239 8B Constant rates 343
■ Summary 243 Exercise 8B 345
■ Chapter review 246 8C Variable rates 347
■ ICT activities 250 Exercise 8C 348
■ Answers 251 8D Average rates of change 349
CHAPTER 6 Exercise 8D 351
8E Instantaneous rates 353
Circular functions 255 Exercise 8E 355
6A Trigonometric ratio revision 255 8F Motion graphs (kinematics) 357
Exercise 6A 256 Exercise 8F 359
6B The unit circle 258 8G Relating the gradient function to the original
Exercise 6B 261 function 364
6C Radians 262 Exercise 8G 364
Exercise 6C 264 8H Relating velocity–time graphs to position–time
6D Symmetry 265 graphs 365
Exercise 6D 268 Exercise 8H 366

iv Contents
 8I Rates of change of polynomials 369 11B Calculating probabilities 478
Exercise 8I 373 Exercise 11B 481
■ Summary 375 11C Tree diagrams and lattice diagrams 483
■ Chapter review 377 Exercise 11C 485
■ ICT activities 383 11D The Addition Law of Probabilities 487
■ Answers 384
Exercise 11D 490
CHAPTER 9 11E Karnaugh maps and probability tables 492
Exercise 11E 495
Differentiation 389 11F Conditional probability 497
9A Introduction to limits 389 Exercise 11F 500
Exercise 9A 392 11G Transition matrices and Markov chains 501
9B Limits of discontinuous, rational and hybrid Exercise 11G 506
functions 393 11H Independent events 507
Exercise 9B 395 Exercise 11H 511
9C Differentiation using first principles 397 11I Simulation 513
Exercise 9C 399 Exercise 11I 515
9D Finding derivatives by rule 400 ■ Summary 516
Exercise 9D 405 ■ Chapter review 518
9E Rates of change 407 ■ ICT activities 523
Exercise 9E 410 ■ Answers 524
9F Sketching graphs containing stationary points 412
CHAPTER 12
Exercise 9F 417
9G Solving maximum and minimum problems 418 Combinatorics 529
Exercise 9G 421 12A The addition and multiplication principles 529
■ Summary 423 Exercise 12A 531
■ Chapter review 425 12B Permutations 533
■ ICT activities 431 Exercise 12B 534
■ Answers 432
12C Factorials 536
CHAPTER 10 Exercise 12C 537
12D Permutations using nPr 538
Antidifferentiation (integration) 437
Exercise 12D 540
10A Antidifferentiation 437 12E Permutations involving restrictions 541
Exercise 10A 439 Exercise 12E 544
10B Deriving the original function from the gradient 12F Arrangements in a circle 545
function 440
Exercise 12F 546
Exercise 10B 442
12G Combinations using nCr 547
10C Approximating areas enclosed by
Exercise 12G 549
functions 444
12H Applications to probability 551
Exercise 10C 448
Exercise 12H 554
10D The fundamental theorem of integral
calculus 452 ■ Summary 557
■ Chapter review 558
Exercise 10D 456 ■ ICT activities 561
10E Applications of antidifferentiation 457 ■ Answers 562
Exercise 10E 459
■ Summary 463 EXAM PRACTICE 5
■ Chapter review 465 Based on Chapters 1–12 565
■ ICT activities 468 ■ Answers 567
■ Answers 469

EXAM PRACTICE 4 Cumulative exam practice 569

Based on Chapters 1– 10 473 Functions and graphs 569
Algebra 570
CHAPTER 11 Rates of change and calculus 573
Introductory probability 475 Probability 575
■ Answers 585
11A Introduction to experimental probability 475
Exercise 11A 477 Index 587

Contents v
Introduction
Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS Third edition is specifically designed for the VCE
Mathematical Methods CAS course and based on the award-winning Maths Quest series. This resource
contains:
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vi Introduction
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Introduction vii
 About eBookPLUS

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Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and
individuals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.

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Acknowledgements ix
CHAPTER 1
Linear functions
CHAPTER CONTENTS DIGITAL DOC
doc-9695
1A Solving linear equations and inequations 10 Quick Questions
1B Rearrangement and substitution
1C Gradient of a straight line
1D Sketching linear functions
1E Simultaneous equations
1F Finding the equation of a straight line
1G Distance between two points and midpoint of a segment
1H Linear modelling

1ASolving linear equations

and inequations
A linear equation is one that involves a variable raised to the power of 1 only. Recall that x1 is the same
1
as x, so a linear equation involving x would contain only x’s, and not x , x2, x3, x −1, x −2 and so on. For
2

8
example, y = 7x − 3, ax + by = c and 3 x + 1 = 9 are all linear equations.
1 1
Note that y = is not a linear equation, as the is really x −1.
x x
To isolate a particular variable — known as ‘making x (or whatever the variable is) the subject’ — we
focus on the variable by ‘undoing’ other terms and operations. Remember to do the same operation to both
sides of an equation, in the reverse order to that originally used to make up the equation.
Though the focus of this chapter is linear equations, some other types of equations will be included
for skills practice.
When there is only one variable involved in an equation, we may attempt to solve and find a numerical
value by rearranging to make the variable the subject.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Solve the following linear equations.

3x − 2 ⎛ 4x ⎞
a 7x − 4 = 17 b +5=1 c 2⎜ − 1⎟ = 6
4 ⎝ 5 ⎠
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. a 7 x − 4 = 17

2 Add 4 to both sides. 7 x = 21
21
3 Divide both sides by 7. x=
7
x=3
3x − 2
b 1 Write the equation. b +5=1
4
3x − 2 −
2 Subtract 5 from both sides. = 4
4

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 1

 3 Multiply both sides by 4. 3 x − 2 = − 16
4 Add 2 to both sides. 3 x = − 14
−14
5 Divide both sides by 3. x=
3
c 1 Write the equation. c 2⎜
⎛ 4 x − 1⎞ = 6
⎝ ⎟⎠
5
4x
2 Divide both sides by 2. −1 = 3
5
4x
3 Add 1 to both sides. =4
5
4 Multiply both sides by 5. 4 x = 20
20
5 Divide both sides by 4. x=
4
x=5

When an equation has variables on both sides, at some stage they must be gathered together on the
same side of the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Solve:
9 x + 3 13 x + 7 3 − x 9( x + 7)
a 4x − 3 = 3(6 − x) b = c = + 1.
2 3 4 10
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. a 4x − 3 = 3(6 − x)

2 Expand the right-hand side (RHS). 4x − 3 = 18 − 3x
3 Collect x’s on one side, for example, the side that results 7x − 3 = 18
in a positive x term, in this case, the left-hand side (LHS).
(That is, add 3x to both sides.)
4 Add 3 to both sides. 7x = 21
5 Divide both sides by 7. 21
x=
7
x=3

b 1 Write the equation. b 9 x + 3 13 x + 7

=
2 3
2 Find the lowest common denominator for both terms. LCD = 6
3 Write all terms with the common denominator, 3(9 x + 3) 2(13 x + 7)
=
adjusting numerators accordingly (so that numerator and 6 6
denominator have been multiplied by the same amount).
4 Now that all terms have the same denominator, the 3(9 x + 3) = 2(13 x + 7)
numerators must be equal. (Multiply each side by 6.)
5 Expand all brackets. 27 x + 9 = 26 x + 14
6 Collect x’s on the LHS and numbers on the RHS. 27 x − 26 x = 14 − 9
7 Simplify and solve. x=5
3 − x 9( x + 7)
c 1 Write the equation. c = +1
4 10
2 Find the lowest common denominator for all three terms. LCD = 20

2 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 Write all terms with the common denominator, 5(3 − x ) 2 × 9( x + 7) 20
adjusting numerators accordingly (so that numerator and = +
20 20 20
denominator have been multiplied by the same amount).
4 Now that all terms have the same denominator, the 5(3 − x) = 18(x + 7) + 20
numerators must be equal. (Multiply each term by 20.)
5 Expand all brackets. 15 − 5x = 18x + 126 + 20
6 Collect x’s on the RHS and numbers on the LHS. 15 − 126 − 20 = 18 x + 5 x
− 131 = 23 x
−131
7 Simplify and solve. =x
23
−131
x=
23

There is only one solution to a linear equation. For example, the equation 3x + 2 = 8 has the solution
x = 2. The solution to a linear equation can be represented as a single point on a number line. If the
equals sign is replaced with an inequality sign, the solution is a portion of a number line. These
expressions are referred to as linear inequations (sometimes called inequalities).

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

Solve the following linear inequations.

a 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5 b −3m + 5 < −7
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the inequations. a 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5

2 Combine the variable terms by subtracting 3x − 7 ≥ 5

3x from both sides.
3 Add 7 to both sides. 3x ≥ 12
4 Divide both sides by 3. x≥4

b 1 Write the inequations. b −3m + 5 < −7

−3m
2 Subtract 5 from both sides. < −12
3 Divide both sides by −3. Reverse the inequality sign, m>4
as you are dividing by a negative number.

Exercise 1A Solving linear equations and inequations

1 WE1 Solve the following linear equations.
DIGITAL DOC
a 3x − 19 = −13 b 4x + 25 = −7 c 9x + 19 = −2 doc-9696
3x − 1 12 − 3 x 4x − 6 Equation solvers
d =5 e =5 f −7=3
4 3 3
7x + 4 ⎛ 3 x − 1⎞ = 10 ⎛ x⎞
g − 8 = −9 h 2⎜ ⎟⎠ i 7 8− = 77
3 ⎝ 5 ⎝ 4⎠
2 WE2 Solve the following linear equations.
a 2x − 9 = 3(2x − 11) b 7x − 1 = 17(3x − 13) c x + 11 = 2(x + 12) d 3x − 7 = 3(35 − 2x)
x+2 x−5 x + 11 2( x + 14) 4 x + 66 13 − 3 x x + 10 2(7 − 3 x )
e = f = g = h =
6 3 3 9 3 4 9 5
6 x + 7 5x + 1 2 x + 29 x + 44 7 x − 9 21 − x 17 − x 49 + 2 x
i = +1 j = +2 k = − 18 l = +5
5 4 3 8 9 3 2 5

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 3

 3 WE3 Solve the following linear inequations.
11 − 3 x 19 − x
a 15 − 6x ≤ 2 b ≥6 c −
+ 3 > −1
7 4
4 − x 2( x + 1)
d 16 − 4x < 7(1 − x) e 3x − 7 ≥ 2(35 − 2x) f ≤
3 6

1B Rearrangement and substitution

When there is more than one variable involved in an equation, we may rearrange the equation to make a
particular variable the subject using the same rules of equation solving described in the previous section.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Rearrange each of the following to make the variable in parentheses the subject.
1 m
a 6x + 8y − 48 = 0 (y) b s = ut + at 2 k(u) c T = 2π k(k)
2 k
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. a 6x + 8y − 48 = 0

2 Add 48 to both sides. 6x + 8y = 48

3 Subtract 6x from both sides. 8y = 48 − 6x

Divide both sides by 8. 48 − 6 x

4 y=
8

Cancel if possible. Here, divide the numerator and 24 − 3 x

5 y=
denominator by 2. 4
24 3
6 Other ways of representing the answer are shown or y = − x
opposite. 4 4
3
= 6− x
4
−3
= x+6
4
b 1 Write the equation. b s = ut + 12 at 2

2 Subtract 12 at 2 from both sides. s − 12 at 2 = ut

3 Multiply both sides by 2. 2s − at 2 = 2ut

2s − at 2
4 Divide both sides by 2t. =u
2t
2s − at 2
5 Write the equation with the desired variable on the left. u=
2t
m
c 1 Write the equation. c T = 2π
k

2 Divide both sides by 2π. T m

=
2π k

3 Square both sides. T2 m

=
4π 2 k

4 Form the reciprocal of both sides to make k the 4π 2 k

=
numerator. T2 m

4 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 5 Multiply both sides by m. 4π 2m
=k
T2
4π 2m
6 Write the equation with the desired variable on the left. k=
T2

Once a variable is isolated, we may substitute values of other variables to calculate various values of
the isolated variable. The following worked example illustrates some practical applications.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

a The formula for converting temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (F) (which is the system used in
5( F − 32)
the USA) to degrees Celsius (C ) is C = .
i Make F the subject. 9
ii What is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit when the temperature measured in degrees
Celsius is 21° C?
b The area (A) of a circle is given by A = π r 2, where r is the radius. Calculate the value of r correct
to 2 decimal places when A = 20 cm2.
THINK WRITE

5( F − 32)
a i 1 Write the equation. a i C=
9
2 Multiply both sides by 9. 9C = 5( F − 32)
9C
3 Divide both sides by 5. = F − 32
5
9C
4 Add 32 to both sides. + 32 = F
5
9C
5 Write the equation with F first. Sometimes it may be F= + 32
appropriate to use a common denominator. 5
9C + 160
or F =
5
9 × 21
ii 1 Replace C with 21. Note that 9C means 9 × C. ii F= + 32
5
189
2 Evaluate F. F= + 32
5
F = 37.8 + 32
F = 69.8
so 21°C = 69.8 °F
b 1 Write the equation. Solve for r (make r the subject) b A = πr2
as follows.
A
2 Divide both sides by π. = r2
π
A
3 Take the square root of both sides, and write r first. r=
As r is the radius, we take the positive root only. π

4 Substitute A = 20 into the new formula. If A = 20,

20
r=
π
5 Evaluate r. r = 2.52 cm, correct to 2 decimal
places

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 5

 WORKED EXAMPLE 6

Note: In this example, m represents metres, m/s represents metres per second (velocity),
and m/s2 represents metres per second per second (acceleration).
The final velocity, v m/s, of an object that begins with velocity u m/s and accelerates at
a m/s2 over a distance of s m is given by the equation v2 = u2 + 2 as.
a Find the value of v when u = 16, a = 2 and s = 36.
b Rearrange the given equation to make s the subject.
c Find the distance travelled by an object that begins with a velocity of 10 m/s and has a final
velocity of 4 m/s while accelerating at −1 m/s2.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the given equation and then make v the subject a v 2 = u 2 + 2as
by finding the square root of both sides.
v = ± u 2 + 2as
2 Substitute u = 15, a = 2 and s = 36. = ± 162 + 2 × 2 × 36
3 Simplify and evaluate v. = ± 256 + 144
= ± 400
= ± 20
The final velocity is 20 m/s.
b 1 Begin with the given equation. b v 2 = u 2 + 2as
2 Subtract u2 from both sides. v 2 − u 2 = 2as
3 Divide both sides by 2a. v 2 − u2
=s
2a
v 2 − u2
4 Reverse so that s is given on the left. s=
2a
c 1 Match the variables with the given information. c u = 10
v=4
a = −1
v 2 − u2
2 Write the formula that has s as the subject s=
(see part b above). 2a
3 Substitute the values given in step 1. 4 2 − 10 2
=
2 × −1

4 Simplify and evaluate. 16 − 100

= −
2
− 84
= −
2
= 42
5 Explain the answer in words. The object travels 42 m in its initial
direction.

Exercise 1B Rearrangement and substitution

1 WE4 Each of the following is a real equation used in business, mathematics, physics or another
area of science. Make the variable shown in parentheses the subject in each case.
a A=L+P (P) b A = lw (l)
d
c v= (t) d C = 2πr (r)
t

6 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 kQq
e E = αθ + βθ 2 (β) f F= (r)
r2
1 2 1 2
g Fd = mv − mu (v) h v = γ rT (γ)
2 2
i S = 2w(l + h) + 2lh (w) j S = 2πr2 + 2πrH (H)
2 WE5 Calculate the value of the subject (the first mentioned variable), given the values of the other
variables.
k
a I= 2 k = 60, d = 15
d
b E = K + mgh K = 250, m = 2, g = 10, h = 5
1
c D = (n − 2
)λ n = 3, λ = 2.8
d E = hf0 − W h = 6.62, f0 = 5000, W = 20 000
e v = ω r 2 − y2 ω = 2, r = 1.6, y = 1
3 Make the variable in parentheses the subject and find its value using the given information.
a A = l2 (l) A = 60
4
b V= 3
πr3 (r) V = 1000
c v = u + at (a) v = 25, u = 0, t = 6
l
d T = 2π (l) T = 4, g = 9.8
g
cα 2
e K= (c) K = 6.9, α = 0.05
1− α
4 WE6 The perimeter, P, of a rectangle of length l and width w may be found using the equation
P = 2(l + w).
a Find the perimeter of a rectangle of length 16 cm and width 5 cm.
b Rearrange the equation to make w the subject.
c Find the width of a rectangle that has perimeter 560 mm and length 240 mm.

5 The area of a trapezium (Figure A) is given by A =

⎛ a + b ⎞ , where a and b are the lengths
h
⎝ 2 ⎠
of the parallel sides and h is the height.
a Find the area of the trapezium shown in Figure B.
b Using Figure A, find an equation for determining side a in terms of the area A and side b.
c Find a in Figure C.

9m
a
50 cm
16 m 62 cm a
h Area
A Area = 2000 cm2
b 21 m
Figure A Figure B Figure C

⎛ r ⎞2
6 The size of a 2-year investment account with a particular bank is given by A = D 1 + ,
⎝ 100 ⎠
where A is the amount ($) in the account after two years, D is the initial deposit ($) and r is the
interest rate (%).
a Find the amount in such an account after two years if the initial deposit was $1000 and the
interest rate was 6%.
b Make r the subject of the equation.
c Find the rate required for an initial deposit of $1000 to grow to $2000 after 2 years.

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 7

 7 The object and image positions for a lens of focal length f are related by
1 1 1
the formula + = , where u is the distance of the object from the lens
u v f
and v is the distance of the image from the lens. 2 3 4
a Make f the subject of the equation.
b Make u the subject of the equation.
c How far from the lens is the image when an object is
30 cm in front of a lens of focal length 25 cm?
b
8 The length of a side of a right-angled triangle can be found using
Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the length of the longest side, and a and b are the lengths
of the two shorter sides. Find the value of b in the triangle above.
1
9 The volume of a cone is given by the rule V = 3 π r2h, where r is the radius of the widest r
DIGITAL DOC part of the cone and h is the vertical height of the cone. Given that the volume of a
doc-9697
Career profile cone is 100 cm3 and its radius at the widest point is 12 cm, find the height of the
h
Rick Morris – vigneron cone, expressing your answer in terms of π.

1C Gradient of a straight line cone

The gradient of a line describes its slope or steepness.
y y y y
Zero
gradient Infinite
Negative
Positive gradient gradient
gradient
x x x
x

y The gradient may be calculated using the formula:

(x2, y2) rise y −y
m = run or m = 2 1
Rise x 2 − x1
(x1, y1) Run These terms are illustrated at left.
Here are two examples of where gradient can affect our
x everyday lives. Can you think of others?

A cliff face with

a steeper
gradient
provides a
greater
challenge for
climbers.

Scientists calculate the required gradient of solar

panels so that the maximum amount of energy is
absorbed.

8 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 7

Calculate the gradient of this linear graph using the intercepts shown. y
THINK WRITE
14
1 Identify the rise and run.
Rise = 14, run = 2.
14
2 Calculate m = rise . m=
run 2
=7 −2 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

Calculate the gradient of the line passing through the points (3, −6) and (−1, 8).
THINK WRITE
y2 − y1 y2 − y1
1 Use the formula m = . m=
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
2 Match up the terms in the formula with the values given.
(x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(3, −6) (−1, 8)
8 − −6
3 Substitute the given values. m= −
1− 3
14
14
4 Simplify. =
= −−
44
−
7
5 Cancel if possible. = −7
= 2
2

If the angle a line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis is known, the gradient may be found
using trigonometry applied to the triangle shown below.

rise

θ
run x

tan (θ ) = opposite = rise = m

adjacent run

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
y
a Calculate the gradient (accurate to 3 decimal places) of a line making
an angle of 40° to the positive x-axis.
b Calculate the gradient of the line shown at right. Express your answer 60°
to 2 decimal places. x
y
THINK WRITE

a Since the angle the line makes with a m = tan (θ)

the positive x-axis is given, the = tan (40°) 40°
formula m = tan (θ) can be used. = 0.839, correct to x
3 decimal places

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 9

 b 1 The angle given is not the one between b θ = 180° − 60° y
the graph and the positive direction of the = 120°
x-axis. Calculate the required angle θ.
60° θ
2 Use m = tan (θ) to calculate m to m = tan (θ) x
2 decimal places. = tan (120°)
= −1.73

Exercise 1C Gradient of a straight line

1 WE7 Calculate the gradient of each of the following linear graphs using the intercepts shown.
a y b y

6
2

−3 x 6 x

2 WE8 Without drawing a graph, calculate the gradient of the line passing through:
a (2, 4) and (10, 20) b (4, 4) and (6, 14)
DIGITAL DOC c (10, 4) and (3, 32) d (5, 31) and (− 7, 25).
doc-9698 3 WE9a Calculate the gradient (accurate to 3 decimal places) of a line making the angle
Gradient of a
straight line given with the positive x-axis.
a 50° b 72°
c 10° d − 30°
e 150° f 0°
g 45° h 89°
4 WE9b Calculate the gradient of each line below. Give answers to 2 decimal places.
a y b y

43°
x
69°
x

c y d y

x
28° 15°
x

5 Which of these lines has:

y B
a a non-zero positive gradient? D
5
b a negative gradient? 4
c a zero gradient? 3
2
d an undefined gradient? 1 C
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2
A −3
−4
−5

10 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 6 MC
a Which of the following lines has a b Which of the following lines has a
gradient of −2? gradient of 3?
y A y
B A C D B C
5 5
4 4
3 3
2
E 2
1
1 D
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x −5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5 E

7 Burghar plots the coordinates of a proposed driveway on a plan that is shown below. What is the
gradient of the proposed driveway?

Garage

way
Drive
2 m

17 m

8 An assembly line is pictured below. What is the gradient of the sloping section? (Give your answer as a
fraction.)
BOFFO
Made in
Austra
lia
BOFFO
Made in
Austra
lia
BOFFO
Made in
0.85 m Austra
lia

15 m

9 Determine the value of a in each case so the gradient joining the points is equal to the value given.
a (3, 0) and (5, a), gradient 2
b (2, 1) and (8, a), gradient 5
DIGITAL DOC
c (0, 4) and (a, −11), gradient 3
doc-9699
d (a, 5) and (5, 1), gradient −2 SkillSHEET 1.1
Using a gradient to
10 For safety considerations, wheelchair
find the value of a
ramps are constructed under regulated parameter
specifications. One regulation requires
that the maximum gradient of a ramp
exceeding 1200 mm in length is 1 .
14
a Does a ramp 25 cm high with a
horizontal length of 210 cm meet
the requirements?
1
b Does a ramp with gradient meet
18
the specifications?
c A 16 cm high ramp needs to be
built. Find the horizontal length
of the ramp required to meet the
specifications.

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 11

 1D Sketching linear functions
The general form for linear equations is y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and c is the
y-intercept.

y y
m
ient
ad
Gr
y = mx + c y-intercept
x x
Gradient y-intercept
x-intercept

These lines have identical

gradients (equal m values).

To sketch a graph from a linear equation expressed in general form, follow these steps.
Step 1 Plot the y-intercept on a set of axes.
Step 2 Find and plot a second point on the line. Do this by substituting any value of x into the equation
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9700 and finding the corresponding y-value.
WorkSHEET 1.1 Step 3 Join the two points.
Alternatively, you can use a CAS calculator or other graphing technology.
To find the equation of a line given the gradient and y-intercept, simply substitute the values of m and
c into y = mx + c.

Sketching linear graphs using intercepts y

To draw a graph, only two points are needed. A line may then be drawn
through the two points, and will include all other points that follow the
given rule. The two points can be chosen at random; however, it is often
easier to sketch a graph using the points where the graph crosses the axes.
These points are called x- and y-intercepts. The x-intercept occurs when x
y = 0, and the y-intercept occurs when x = 0.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10

Sketch the graph of y = −x + 6, showing x- and y-intercepts.

THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). Substitute If x = 0: y = −1 × 0 + 6

x = 0 into the equation. y= 6 (0, 6)

2 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). If y = 0: 0 = −x + 6

Substitute y = 0 into the equation. x=6 (6, 0)
3 Mark the intercepts on a set of axes. y

4 Join the intercepts with a straight line.

(0, 6)

(6, 0)
x

12 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 11

Sketch the graph of 3x − 2y = 12.

THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). Substitute If x = 0: 3 × 0 − 2y = 12

−2y = 12
x = 0 into the equation.
12
y= −
2
y = −6
2 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). Substitute If y = 0: 3x − 2 × 0 = 12
y = 0 into the equation. 3x = 12
x=4
3 Mark the intercepts on a set of axes. y

4 Join the intercepts with a straight line.

4 x

−6

The graphs of some equations do not have two intercepts, as they pass through the origin (0, 0). Such
equations are of the form y = k x or a x + by = 0.
To sketch graphs of such equations, we use (0, 0) and any other point, for example the point where
x = 1. (We could choose any other non-zero value.)

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

Sketch the graph for the equation 4 x − 3y = 0.

THINK WRITE/DRAW TUTORIAL
eles-1404
1 Try substituting x = 0 to find the y-intercept. If x = 0: 4 × 0 − 3y = 0 Worked example 12
−3y = 0

y=0
2 Note that the graph passes through (0, 0)
(0, 0). There is no point substituting
y = 0, as we know we’ll get x = 0.
3 Substitute another x-value. In this example If x = 1: 4 × 1 − 3y = 0
we use x = 1. 4 − 3y = 0
4 = 3y
4
y=
3
4
(1, )
3
4 Plot the points (0, 0) and (1, 43 ) on a set of y
axes. Note that 4 is 1 1 , which is a little less 2
3 3
than 1 1 . (1, 4–3 )
2
1
(0, 0)
1 x

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 13

 Exercise 1D Sketching linear functions
1 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of axes.
a y=x b y = 2x c y = 3x d y = −x e y = −2x
2 In question 1, what is the effect on the graph of the number in front of the x (the ‘x-coefficient’ or
‘gradient’)?
3 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of axes.
a y=x+1 b y=x+2 c y=x+3 d y=x−4
4 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9701 axes.
Linear graphs a y = 2x + 1 b y = 2x − 7 c y = −3x + 6 d y = 3x − 5
5 In questions 3 and 4, what is the effect on the graph of the number at the end of the equation (the
‘y-intercept’)?
6 Write the equation of a line having the following properties (where m = gradient and
c = y-intercept).
a m = 2, c = 7 b m = −3, c = 1 c m = 5, c = −2
2 1 −3 −1
d m= ,c= e m = 4, c = 2 f y-intercept 12, gradient −2
3 3

7 Rearrange the following equations and state the gradient and y-intercept for each.
−y
a 2y = 8x + 10 b 3y = 12x − 24 c = 3x − 1 d 16 − 4y = 8x
e 21x + 3y = −27 f −10x + 5y = 25 g −11y − 2x = 66 h 8x + 3y − 2 = 0
i 15 − 6y + x = 0 j 2y + 7 + 5x = 0
8 State the equation for each of the following graphs.
a y b y
6
5 3
4 2
− 1– 3 1
2
2 −2 0 2 x
1 −1
−2
−1 0
−1
1 2 x −3
−2 −4
−5

c y d y
3 5
2 4
1 3
2
−2 −1 0 1 2 x 1
−1
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−3 −1
−4 −2
−5 −3
−4
−5

e y f y
9
5 8
4 7
3 6
2 5
1 4
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x 3
−1 2
−2 1
−3
−4 −3 −2 −1 −10 1 2 3x
−5 −2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9

14 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 9 WE10 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations, showing x- and y-intercepts.
a y = 6x + 18 b y = 3x − 21
c y = −2x − 3 d y = 10 − 5x
e y = −9x + 30 f y = 2(x − 8)
10 WE11 Sketch graphs for each of the following equations.
a 2x + 3y = 6 b 4x + 5y = 20
c 6x − 3y = −18 d 7x − 5y = 35
11 Sketch the graph for each equation.
a 6x + 7y + 42 = 0 b 5x − 2y + 20 = 0
c −3x + 4y − 16 = 0 d y − 3x + 6 = 0
12 WE12 Sketch the graph for each equation.
a x+y=0 b x−y=0
c 2x + y = 0
13 MC Which of the following is in the form ax + by = c?
A 2x − 3y − 1 = 0 B 2x + 3y + 1 = 0
C 2x + 3y = x D 2x + 3y = 1
2
E y= x−1
3

14 MC The x- and y-intercepts for the equation 2y = −3x + 12 are (respectively):

A 2 and 3 B −3 and 12
−
C 4 and 6 D −4 and −6
E 4 and 6
15 MC Which of the following has a y-intercept of −3?
A y = −3x − 3 B y = −3x + 3
C x + 3y = 9 D x − 3y + 9 = 0
E 3x + y + 9 = 0

1E Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations are groups of equations containing
y
two or more variables. In this section, we look at pairs of linear
equations involving the variables x and y. Each equation, as Both graphs have
we have learned in previous sections, may be represented by a the same x- and
linear graph that is true for many x- and y-values. If the graphs x y-values here.
intersect (when wouldn’t they?), the values of x and y at the
intersection are those that make both equations true.

Graphical solution
Finding the point of intersection of two straight lines can be done graphically; however, the accuracy of
the graph determines the accuracy of the solution.
Consequently, using a calculator to solve the equations graphically is more reliable than reading the
solution from a hand-drawn graph.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13

Use a CAS calculator to solve the following simultaneous equations graphically.

y = −3x + 5 4x − 7y + 8 = 0
THINK WRITE

1 Using a CAS calculator, make y the subject of the solve (4x − 7y + 8 = 0, y)

second equation. 4( x + 2)
Complete the entry line as: Result: y =
7
solve (4x − 7y + 8 = 0, y)

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 15

 2 On a Graphs page, complete the function entry f 1(x) = −3x + 5
lines as: 4( x + 2)
f 2(x) =
f 1(x) = −3x + 5 7
4 × ( x + 2)
f 2( x ) =
7
Use the calculator to find the intersection point.
3 Write the answer. Solving y = −3x + 5 and 4x − 7y + 8 = 0
simultaneously produces the solution
(1.08, 1.76).

Algebraic solution
It is possible to solve simultaneous equations without graphs, that is, algebraically. The methods of
substitution and elimination taught in earlier years may be used.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14

Use the substitution method to solve the following simultaneous equations.

y = 2x + 5
−x + 3y = 25

THINK WRITE

1 Write down and label the equations. y = 2x + 5 [1]

−x + 3y = 25 [2]
−x
2 Substitute [1] into [2] and label the resulting + 3(2x + 5) = 25 [3]
equation [3].
−x
3 Solve [3] for x and label the solution as [4]. + 6x + 15 = 25
5x + 15 = 25
5x = 10
x=2 [4]
4 Use the solution to solve for y and label the Substitute [4] into [1].
solution as [5]. y = 2(2) + 5
y=4+5
y=9 [5]
5 State the complete answer. Solution: (2, 9)
6 Optional check: substitute [4] and [5] into [2] Check in [2].
to check that these values for x and y make LHS = −x + 3y
[2] true. = −2 + 3(9)
= 25
= RHS ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 15

Use the elimination method to solve these simultaneous equations.

2 x + 9y = −5
5 x − 2y − 12 = 0
THINK WRITE

1 Write down and label the equations. 2x + 9y = −5 [1]

5x − 2y − 12 = 0 [2]
2 Rearrange [2] so it is in a similar form to [1]. 5x − 2y = 12 [3]
Call this [3]. Write down [1] again. 2x + 9y = −5 [1]

16 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 Obtain 10x in both [1] and [3]. 2 × [3] 10x − 4y = 24 [4]
5 × [1] 10x + 45y = −25 [5]
4 Eliminate x as shown. [5] − [4]: 49y = −49
− 49
5 Solve for y. y=
49
y = −1 [6]
6 Substitute [6] into [1] to find x. Substitute [6] into [1].
2x + 9 (−1) = −5
2x − 9 = −5
2x = −5 + 9
2x = 4
x=2 [7]
State the solution. −1)
7 Solution: (2,
8 Again, [6] and [7] may be checked in [2] if desired. Check in [2].
LHS = 5x − 2y − 12
= 5(2) − 2(−1) − 12
= 10 + 2 − 12
=0
= RHS ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 16

Two shoppers buy the following at a fruit shop, paying the amounts given. What was the cost of
each apple and each banana?
Shopper 1: 4 apples and 3 bananas for $2.59
Shopper 2: 6 apples and 5 bananas for $4.11
THINK WRITE

1 Decide on variable names for the unknown Let a = cost of an apple (in cents).
quantities. Let b = cost of a banana (in cents).
2 Write equations involving these variables. 4a + 3b = 259 [1]
Work in terms of cents. 6a + 5b = 411 [2]
3 Choose a variable to eliminate, in this case b. 5 × [1]: 20a + 15b = 1295 [3]
3 × [2]: 18a + 15b = 1233 [4]
4 Find [3] − [4] and solve for a. [3] − [4]: 2a = 62
a = 31 [5]
5 Solve for b. Substitute [5] into [1].
4 × 31 + 3b = 259
124 + 3b = 259
3b = 135
b = 45 [6]
6 State the answer using [5] and [6] as a guide. The cost of an apple is 31 cents, and
the cost of a banana is 45 cents.

Exercise 1E Simultaneous equations

1 WE13 Use a CAS calculator to solve the following simultaneous equations.
DIGITAL DOCS
a y = −2x, y = −4x − 6 b y = 3x − 5, y = 20 doc-9702
−3x
c y = 3x + 5, y = 7x − 4 d + y = −4, y = 6x + 5 Simultaneous linear
equations —
e y = 10x + 1, 2x + y = −6 f 9x + y = 17, x + y = 14 graphical method

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 17

 2 WE14 Use the substitution method to solve the following simultaneously.
a y = 3x + 1, y = 2x + 2 b y = 5x + 5, y = −x − 19
c y = x + 2, 3x − 4y = −1 d y = −2x + 3, −5x + 2y = 1
−4x
e − 3y = 2, y = −6x + 7 f y = 10 − x, 2x + 7y = 5
3 WE15 Use the elimination method to solve these simultaneous equations.
a 9x + 10y = 153, 3x − y = 12 b 7x − 11y = −13, x + y = 11
−
c 6x − 2y = 10, 2x + 5y = 8 d −3x + y = 8, 4x + 2y = 21
e 7y − x = 11, x + y = 10 f x − 11y = −15, y + 6x = 9
4 WE16 At the conclusion of a tour of Wonky Willy’s confectionery factory, Nutrina buys 10 choc
balls and 8 fizz wizzers for $4.30, and her friend purchases 6 choc balls and 9 fizz wizzers for $4.05.
Determine the cost of each type of lolly.
5 The sum of two whole numbers, x and y, is 41. The difference between them is 3. Write two equations
involving x and y and solve them to find the numbers.
6 A farmer counts emus and sheep in a paddock, and notes there are 57 animals and 196 feet. Assuming
no animal amputees, how many of each animal are there?
7 A sports store supplies 24 basketballs and 16 cricket balls to one school for $275.60, and delivers
12 basketballs and 32 cricket balls to another school for $211. If delivery is free, how much did the
supplier charge for each type of ball?
8 A businessperson hires a stretch limousine for 2 days and a sedan for 3 days while on an interstate trip.
If the total car hire cost of the trip was $675, and the limousine cost triple the price of the sedan, find
the cost per day of the limousine.
9 MC A manufacturing plant produces square and circular metal panels in fixed sizes. If the mass of a
square panel is 13 kg and that of a circular panel is 22 kg, how many of each panel are there in a truck
loaded with 65 panels of total mass 1205 kg?
The equations to solve are:
A 13s + 22c = 1205, s + c = 65 B 22s + 13c = 1205, s + c = 65
C 13s + 22c = 65, s + c = 1205 D 22s + 13c = 65, s + c = 1205
E 13s + 22c = 1205, s + c = 35
10 MC Which of the following is a solution of 11x + 2y = −121 and 10x + 12y = −222?
A (11, 2) B (−121, −222) C (10, 12) D (−9, −11) E (6, 10)

1F Finding the equation of a straight line

Consider a general linear graph containing the particular points (x1, y1), y (x2, y2)
(x2, y2) and the general point (x, y) (which could be any point). (x, y)
Using the first two of these points in the formula for gradient, we have
y2 − y1 (x1, y1)
m= x −x [1]
2 1

Using the first point and the general point in the same formula yields x

y − y1
m= [2]
x − x1
y − y1 y2 − y1
Putting [2] = [1] gives = , which may be rearranged to
x − x1 x 2 − x1
⎛y −y ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ( x − x1 )
⎝ x 2 − x1 ⎠ [3]
y2 − y1
Since m = , equation [3] may be written
x 2 − x1
y − y1 = m(x − x1) [4]
This last formula may be used to find the equation of a straight line when two points are given or
when the gradient and only one point are given. When two points are given, the gradient m may be found
y2 − y1
first using m = x − x and substituted into the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1) along with one of the points.
2 1

18 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 17

Find the equation of the line having gradient 34 that passes through (7, 11).
Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
THINK WRITE

1 As one point and the gradient are known, use the y − y1 = m(x − x1)
formula y − y1 = m(x − x1).
3
2 List the given information. m= 4
(x1, y1)
(7, 11)
3
3 Substitute for all variables except x and y. y − 11 = 4
(x − 7)
4 Simplify, expressing in the form i 4y − 44 = 3(x − 7)
ax + by + c = 0. 4y − 44 = 3x − 21
3x − 4y + 23 = 0
5 Express your answer in the form ii 3x + 23 = 4y
y = mx + c. 3 23
y= 4x+ 4

WORKED EXAMPLE 18

Find the equation of the straight line containing the points (2, −5) and (−3, 1).
Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
THINK WRITE

1 Write down the points so they match the (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
variables in the formula. (2, −5) (−3, 1)
y2 − y1
2 As two points are known, first use the m=
y2 − y1 x 2 − x1
formula m = to find m.
x 2 − x1 1− −5
= −
3− 2
6
= −
5
−6
= 5

3 Write the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1). y − y1 = m(x − x1)

−6 −6
4 Substitute the calculated gradient m = 5 and y − −5 = 5
( x − 2)
the first point (x1, y1) = (2, −5). Leave x and y as they are.
6
5 Simplify and express in the two forms required. y + 5 = −5 ( x − 2)
−5y − 25 = 6(x − 2)
−5y − 25 = 6x − 12
−5y = 6x + 13

i So 6x + 5y + 13 = 0, or
−6 13
ii y= 5
x− 5

Perpendicular lines
Perpendicular lines are lines that meet at right angles. The gradients of two perpendicular lines, when
multiplied together, equal −1. Stated mathematically:
m1 × m2 = −1

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 19

 −1
Another way to write this relationship is m1 = m . This type of relationship is known as a negative
2
2 −3
reciprocal. For example, the negative reciprocal of 3
is 2
. So, two lines are perpendicular if their
gradients are negative reciprocals.

Exercise 1F Finding the equation of a straight line

1 Copy and complete the table below.

Gradient of Gradient of
DIGITAL DOC Equation 1 equation 1 Equation 2 equation 2
doc-9703 f1(x) (m1) f2(x) (m2) m1 × m2
SkillSHEET 1.2
Reciprocals and −1
negative reciprocals
a y = 2x + 1 y= x
2
−1
b y = 3x − 4 y= x+2
3
1
c y = 4x + 6 y = −4x − 9
2 −5
d y = 5x − 3 y= 2
x+4
−9 7
e y= 7
x y = 9x + 1

2 Sketch f1(x) and f2(x) for part a above using a calculator or using graph paper with identical scales on
each axis to produce accurate graphs. What do you notice about the graphs?
3 Repeat question 2 for graphs b to e. Do you notice anything special about each pair of graphs?
4 Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to another line that has a gradient of:
−9 1 −8 7
a 4 b c d e f 1.
7 9 2
5 Find the gradient of a line that is perpendicular to the line with equation:
2
a y = −5x + 2 b y=x−1 c y= 3
x+1
−7
d y= x−2 e 2x + y = 5 f 3x − 4y = 7.
6
6 WE17 Find the equation of a straight line having the gradient given and passing through the point
listed. Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
DIGITAL DOC
a (1, 2) gradient 3 b (4, 1) gradient 5
doc-9704 c (3, −2) gradient −1 d (−3, 2) gradient 1
Equation of a 2
straight line 7 WE18 Find the equation of the line containing each pair of points. Express your answers in the
forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
a (5, 2) (3, 1) b (1, 1) (5, 5) c (6, 3) (8, 2) d (2, −2) (0, 1)
−
8 Find the equation of the line passing through (3, 3) that makes an angle of 45° with the positive x-axis.
9 Find the equation of the line containing (7, −2) that makes an angle of 71.565° with the positive x-axis.
10 Find the equation of the line (in y = mx + c form) that:
a is perpendicular to the line with equation y = 3x + 1, passing through (−3, 6)
2
b is parallel to the line with equation y = x − 9, passing through (4, −7)
5
c is parallel to the line with equation 3x + 6y = 8, passing through (2, 2)
d is perpendicular to the line with equation −6x + 7y − 2 = 0, passing through (4, 0)
e has gradient 2, passing through the intersection of the lines with equations y = 3x − 5 and y = −2x + 5
−3
f has gradient 4 , passing through the intersection of the lines with equations x + 4y = −14 and
−5x + 2y = 4.

11 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point of intersection of the lines whose equations
are 7x − 3y − 19 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 5 = 0, given that the required line is parallel to the line with equation
−5x − 2y = 3.

12 Find the equation of a line containing the intersection of the lines with equations y = −3x + 4 and
5x − 3y + 40 = 0 that:
6 2
a has a gradient of 7 b is perpendicular to the line with gradient 3
c passes through the point (−1, 9) d is parallel with the line joining (−8, 5) and (0, 4).

20 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 13 A line passes through the points ( 8, 5), (4, 3) and (a, 12). Find the value of a.
14 The points (2, 7) and (6, 9) lie on the same straight line. Does the point (4, 8) also lie on this line?
15 The height of a particular young pine tree is found to increase in a linear manner each month in the first
year after planting. Find an equation connecting height with time in months after planting, using the
information supplied in the diagram below.

DIGITAL DOC
doc-9705
WorkSHEET 1.2

52 cm

34 cm

After 2 months After 5 months

Distance between two points and

1G
midpoint of a segment y
y (x , y )
2
2 2
INTERACTIVITY
int-0260
The distance, d, between any two points on the Cartesian plane may be Distance between
two points
found using Pythagoras’ theorem applied to a right-angled triangle as d (y2 y1)
shown at right. (x1, y1)
Using Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 or c = a 2 + b 2 and y1 (x2 x1)
replacing c with d, a with (x2 x1) and b with (y2 y1),
we have d = ( x 2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2 .
x1 x2 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 19

Find the distance between the points ( 3, 7) and (5, 2) correct to 3 decimal
places. TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE eles-1405
Worked example 19
1 Match up ( 3, 7) and (5, 2) with (x1, y1) (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
and (x2, y2). ( 3, 7) (5, 2)

2 Substitute into the formula for d and d = ( x 2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2

simplify.
= (5 - - 3)2 + ( - 2 - 7)2
= (8)2 + ( - 9)2
= 64 + 81
= 145
= 12.042, correct to 3 decimal places

CHAPTER 1 � Linear functions 21

5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_01.indd 21 8/05/13 2:27 PM

 Midpoint of a segment
The middle or midpoint M (xm, ym) of a segment joining two general points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is
shown on the Cartesian plane below.
y B (x2, y2)

y2 − ym
M (xm, ym)
x2 − xm E
ym − y1
A (x1, y1)
xm − x1 C D

Consider the triangles ACM and MEB.

∠MAC = ∠BME (since AM and BM have the same slope)
∠CMA = ∠EMB (since ∠ACM and ∠MEB are both 90°)
AM = BM (given, as M is the midpoint)
Therefore ΔACM ≡ ΔMEB.
Since the horizontal and vertical sides of the two triangles must be equal, we have:
xm − x1 = x2 − xm and ym − y1 = y2 − ym
Simplifying these,
2xm = x2 + x1 2ym = y2 + y1
x 2 − x1 y2 + y1
xm = ym =
2 2
x +x y +y
So the point M has coordinates ⎛ 1 2 ,   1 2 ⎞ .
⎝ 2 2 ⎠

WORKED EXAMPLE 20

Find the midpoint of the segment joining (5, 9) and (−3, 11).
THINK WRITE

1 Match (5, 9) and (−3, 11) with (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(5, 9) (−3, 11)
x1 + x 2 y1 + y2 ⎞
2 Substitute values into the formula for M and simplify. M=⎛ ,
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 5 + − 3 9 + 11 ⎞
=⎜ ,
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
2 20 ⎞
= ⎛⎜ , ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠
= (1,10)

Distance between two points and

Exercise 1G

DIGITAL DOC
midpoint of a segment
doc-9706 1 WE19 Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points.
Distance between
two points a (4, 5) and (1, 1) b (7, 14) and (15, 8) c (2, 4) and (2, 3) d (12, 8) and (10, 8)
2 Calculate the distance between each of the pairs of points below, accurate to 3 decimal places.
a (−14, 10) and (−8, 14) b (6, −7) and (13, 6) c (−11, 1) and (2, 2)
3 Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points in terms of the given variable(s).
a (a, 1), (2, 3) b (5, b), (0, 6) c (c, 2), (4, c) d (d, 2d), (1, 5)

22 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

4 Two hikers are about to hike from A to B (shown on the map below). How far is it from A to B ‘as the
crow flies’, that is, in a straight line?

N
50 m
100 m
200 m
100 m
200 m B (E7, N4)
300 m
Lake Phillios
W E

A (W12, S5)

Grid spacing : 1 km S

5 Using the coordinates shown y (in metres)

on the aerial photo of the golf
course, calculate (to the nearest
metre):
a the horizontal distance travelled
by the golf ball for the shot down
the fairway
b the horizontal distance that needs A (320, 148)
to be covered in the next shot to (225, 96)
reach the point labelled A in the x (in metres)
bunker.

(80, –64)

6 WE20 Find the midpoint of the segment joining each of the following pairs of points.
a (1, 3) and (3, 5) b (6, 4) and (4, −2) c (2, 3) and (12, 1) d (6, 3) and (10, 15)
7 Find the midpoint of the segment joining each of the following pairs of points. DIGITAL DOC
doc-9707
a (7, −2) and (−4, 13) b (0, 22) and (−6, −29) c (−15, 8) and (−4, 11) d (−3, 40) and (0, −27)
Midpoint of a segment
8 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of each of the following pairs of points, in terms of a variable or
variables where appropriate.
a (2a, a) and (6a, 5a) b (5, 3c) and (11, 3c) c (3f, 5) and (g, −1)
9 Find the value of a in each question below so that the point M is the midpoint of the segment joining
points A and B.
3
a A (−2, a), B (−6, 5), M (−4, 5) b A (a, 0), B (7, 3), M (8, 2 )

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 23

 10 A fun-run course is drawn (not to scale) at right. y
If drink stations D1, D2 and D3 are to be placed at (1.5, 3.5)
the middle of each straight section, give the map (−4.5, 5) D1

coordinates of each drink station. D2 Official tent

11 Find the equation of a line that has a gradient x
of 5 and passes through the midpoint of the segment (1.5, −2)
START/
joining (−1, − 7) and (3, 3). FINISH
12 Find the equation of a line parallel to the line with
equation 9x − 3y = 5 that passes through the midpoint (13, −8)
Coordinates (3, −7) D3
of the segment connecting (0, −4) and (−2, 10). are in kilometres.

1H Linear modelling
Many real-life applications, such as fees charged for services, cost of manufacturing or running a
business, patterns in nature, sporting records and so on, follow linear relationships. These relationships
may take the form of a linear equation; for example, F = 50 + 30t may be used by a tradesperson to
calculate her fee (in dollars) for t hours of work.
Here, F is the fee in dollars, and t the time in hours. The 50 represents an initial fee for simply turning
up, while the 30t is the amount charged for the time spent on the job.
For example, if t = 2 hours, 30t = 60, so the total charge for the work would be $(50 + 60) = $110.
Equations like F = 50 + 30t are sometimes referred to as ‘linear models’, a common form of which is:

Total cost = Fixed cost + Cost per unit × Number of units.

This is, of course, equivalent to y = mx + c. y = c + mx.

WORKED EXAMPLE 21

A generator company charges a $200 delivery fee, and a rental fee of $1500 per day.
a Find an expression relating total charge to the number of days for which the generator is hired.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for 4 weeks of rental?
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Define convenient variables. a Let T = total charge (in dollars) and

n = number of days the generator is hired.
2 The fixed cost is $200, and the cost per unit is T = 200 + 1500n
$1500. (c = 200, m = 1500)
b 1 Find the vertical intercept (when n = 0). b If n = 0, T = 200

2 The total cost rises $1500 each day, so the T ($)

graph must show this. 3200

1700

200

1 2 n (Days)

c 1 After 4 weeks, n = 28. Substitute this c If n = 28

in the equation from part a. T = 200 + 1500 × 28
= 200 + 42 000
= 42 200
2 Write the answer in words. After 4 weeks, the total cost is $42 200.

24 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 22

‘Rent-a-Chef’ provides food cooked and served by a qualified chef at parties.

The company charges $120 as a booking fee, and an additional $30 per hour. TUTORIAL
Another company, ‘Greased Lightning’, provides fast food served by two eles-1406
Worked example 22
students at a cost of $65 per hour, with no booking fee. Under what conditions
would it be cheapest to hire ‘Greased Lightning’?
THINK WRITE

1 Define convenient variables. Let C = cost (total) in dollars and t = time in hours.
2 Write an equation for the cost of hiring both Rent-a-Chef C = 120 + 30t [1]
organisations. Greased Lightning C = 65t [2]
3 Use simultaneous equations to find when the Put [1] = [2]
cost is the same with each group. 120 + 30t = 65t
120 = 35t
120
t=
35
= 3.4 hours
4 At 3.4 hours, the cost is the same. Since Greased It is cheaper to hire Greased Lightning for food
Lightning has the higher per hour cost, after preparation and service of less than 3.4 hours
3.4 hours, they would be more expensive. (3 hours and 26 minutes) duration.
Notes
1. 0.4hours = 0.4 × 60 minutes = 24 minutes.
2. An alternative approach would be to use a CAS calculator and find the point at which the
two graphs crossed.

Exercise 1H Linear modelling

1 WE21 The cost of hiring a floodlit
DIGITAL DOC
tennis court consists of a booking fee and doc-9708
an hourly rate. Simultaneous linear
a Use the photo to write an equation equations
for the total hire cost in terms of the
hourly rate.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for
3 hours?
2 A singing telegram service charges a $60
appearance fee, and $8 per minute sung.
a Write an equation for the total cost
of a singing telegram in terms of the
number of minutes sung.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for a 5-minute singing telegram?
3 Colleen delivers junk mail and is paid $32 to traverse a particular route, and a further 10 cents per
leaflet delivered.
a Write an equation for the total payment she receives.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship expressed in a.
c What would be Colleen’s pay if she delivers 1650 leaflets along the route?
4 A pay-TV salesperson receives $300 per week plus $20 for every household he signs up to have pay-
TV connected. How much does the salesperson receive for a week in which he signs up 33 households?
5 WE22 A computer firm, SuperComputers Inc., offers a back-up plan covering the ongoing service and
troubleshooting of its systems after sale. The cost of signing up for the service plan is $215, and there is an

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 25

 hourly rate of $65 for the serviceperson’s time. Purchasers not signing up for the plan are charged a flat rate
of $150 per hour for service. Would it be advisable to sign up for the service plan if you expected to need
3 hours of service assistance during the life of a computer purchased from SuperComputers Inc?
6 Two amusement parks show the following information for school-age tourists in a promotional
brochure. After how many rides does an excursion to Fun World become the cheaper option for the
same number of rides?

A qua Wor ld
$8.00 entry
$2.50 per ride

$12 entry
$1.50 per ride

7 A telephone company, Opus, offers calls to Biddelonia for a connection fee of $14, and thereafter
$1 per minute. Its rival, Elstra, offers calls for $2 per minute (no connection fee) to the same country.
a Compare the cost of a 10-minute call to Biddelonia using each company.
b At what point would it be cheaper to use Opus?
8 It costs you $6 to get into a taxi (the ‘flagfall’), and $1.50 per kilometre if you use PinkCabs, while
NoTop taxis charge $8 flagfall, and $1.20 per kilometre.
a How much would it cost with each company to travel 15 kilometres in one of its cabs?
b When would it cost the same to use both companies?
9 Medirank, a health insurance company, charges $860 per year (for a single person) and requires
customers to pay the first $100 of any hospital visit. HAB, on the other hand, charges an annual fee
of $560 and requires its members to pay the first $150 of any hospital visit. Determine the number of
hospital visits in a year for which the cost of health services is the same whichever company insures you.
10 Nifty is a car hire firm that charges insurance of $135 and $50 per day car hire. A competitor, Savus,
simply charges $65 per day and offers ‘free’ insurance. You are planning a holiday, and would prefer to
use Savus. Under what conditions (days hired) could you justify this choice?

26 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Summary
Solving linear r
Do the same to both sides and remember inverse operations + and −, × and ÷, √ and 2.
equations and r
Aim to get a single variable by itself.
inequations r
Solve inequations the same way as equations, keeping the original inequality sign at each step,
unless multiplying or dividing by a negative number.

Rearrangement and r
‘Make x the subject’ means manipulate into the form ‘x = …’.
substitution r
‘Substitute’ means to replace a variable with a value.

y2 − y1
Gradient of a straight r
m = m = tan (θ )
line x 2 − x1
where θ is the angle the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.

Sketching linear r
The general equation for a straight line of gradient m and y-intercept c is y = mx + c.
functions r
Lines with the same gradient (m) are parallel.
r
To find the y-intercept, let x = 0 and find y.
r
To find the x-intercept, let y = 0 and find x.
r
If y = 0 when x = 0, substitute another x-value (for example x = 1) to find another point
on the line.
r
Join two points and/or intercepts with a straight line.

Simultaneous r
Simultaneous equations can be solved with a calculator.

equations r
For equations of the form y = ax + b, y = cx + d, consider using substitution.
r
For equations of the form ax + by = c, dx + ey = f, consider using elimination.

Finding the equation r
Formulas for finding the equation of a straight line:
of a straight line ⎛y −y ⎞
y = (mx + c) y − y1 = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ( x − x1 ) y − y1 = m(x − x1)
⎝ x 2 − x1 ⎠
r
For perpendicular lines, m1 × m2 = −1.

Distance between two r
d = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2

points and midpoint of
a segment ⎛ x1 + x 2 , y1 + y2 ⎞
r
M = ⎝
2 2 ⎠

Linear modelling r
Total cost (y) = fixed cost (c) + cost per unit (m) × number of units (x)
r
y = c + mx

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 27

Chapter review
3(5 x − 4) 6(4 x + 3)
SHORT 1 Solve the equation = .
ANS WER 7 5
⎛ 7x + 8 ⎞
2 Find the value of x where 3 ⎜ = 4 x − 9.
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
− 3( x + 4)
1− x
3 Solve the inequality . ≤
4 2
4 The following formula may be used to study planetary motion.
GmM m 4π 2 R
=
R2 T2
Make T the subject of the equation. c
6
5 Using Pythagoras’ theorem, find the length of the hypotenuse of the
triangle shown. Express your answer:
a in surd form
b to 3 decimal places.
9
6 Calculate the gradient of each of the following lines.
a y b y
6
6 5
4
3
2
1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6x
−1
−8 x −2
−3

c y d y
1 grid
square = 1 unit x

(−12, −3)
x

(−4, −10)

7 Find the gradient of the line joining (−7, 15) and (2, −6).
8 Find the gradient of the line shown.
y

77°
x

9 State the gradient of the line below.

y

5 x

28 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

10 State the gradient and y-intercept (in that order) for each of the following.
a y = 3x − 7 b 5x + 3y = 30 c 2x − 4y − 8 = 0

11 Find the equation for a linear graph having gradient 2

and y-intercept −3.
5
12 Sketch graphs of the following, showing intercepts.
a y = −3x + 24 b −x + 8y = 40 c 9x − 7y − 63 = 0 d y + 6x = 0
−2x
13 Solve y = 3x + 10 and y = − 15 graphically.
a Sketch the solution on a set of axes. b State the solution (point of intersection).
14 Solve y = −3x, y = 6x − 15 using substitution.
15 Use the method of elimination to solve 4x − 7y = 21, −2x + y = 6.
16 A piggybank contains 67 coins. If there are only one- and two-dollar coins in the piggybank,
and there are 25 more one-dollar coins than two-dollar coins, how many of each type are there?
17 Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to 3x − 9y = 7.
18 Find the equation of the line containing (−4, 8) and (3, 1).
−6
19 Find the equation of the line having gradient that passes through (1, 4).
7
1
20 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = x − 5 that passes through (−8, 6).
4
21 The distance between (2, −7) and (a, −2) is 41 units. Find the value of a if it is positive.
22 Show that the triangle with vertices (3, 7), (3, 3) and (6, 3) is a right-angled triangle.
23 The midpoint of the line joining (k, 2h) and (9k, 6h + 2) is (20, −11). Find k and h.
24 The washing machine repair company ‘Washed out’ charges $75 to come to your house, as well as an
hourly charge of $65, calculated to the nearest half hour.
a Write an equation that may be used to calculate the cost of any service call if the
time taken by the repairer is known.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship between repair cost and time taken to do a repair.
1
c How much would it cost to have a repair done that takes 3 2 hours?

7 x − 23 M U LTIP L E
1 The first step in solving = 99 would be to: C HO IC E
A add 23 to both sides 3 B divide both sides by 3
C divide both sides by 7 D multiply both sides by 3
E multiply both sides by 7
2 x = −5 is a solution to the equation:
x + 25
A 3x + 7 = −8 B 2x − 7 = −5 C =5
6
− 5x
D 2(x + 3) = 10 E = 45
9
x + 14
3 The solution to ≥ 2( x + 2) is:
3
2 2 −2 −6
A x ≤ 10 B x≥5 C x≤5 D x≤
5 E x≤ 5

4 When c2 = a2 + b2 is rearranged to make a the subject, the equation becomes:

A c= a2 + b2 B a2 = b2 + c2 C a2 = c2 − b2
D a= c2 − b2 E a=b+c
1
5 Which values, when substituted into K = 2 mv 2, give a value for K of 4?
1
A m = 2, v = 4 B m = 4, v = 2 C m = 8, v = 2
D m = 8, v = 1 E m = 1, v = 16

6 Using the equation P = m1v1 + m2v2, if P = 10, m1 = 2, m2 = 6 and v1 = 4, v2 would equal:

1 1
A B C 1 D 2 E 3
3 2

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 29

 7 The line shown has a gradient of: y
−6
A
B −3 6
−2
C
D 2
6
E
3
3 x

8 The gradient of the line shown at right is 3. The value of a must be: y
A −2 B −1 C 5 (6, a)
D 7 E 11
9 The gradient of the line joining (−1, 0) and (4, −10) is: x
−4 −2 C 2
A B
D 4 E 5
(2, −5)
6
10 Which of the graphs below has a gradient of 7
?
y y C y
A B
7 6
6
7 x

−7 x
−6 x

D y E y
x x
−7 6

−6
−7

6
11 The gradient of the line with equation y = 7
x − 1 is:
6 7
A −1 B 7
C 6 D 6 E 7
2
12 The y-intercept of the line with equation y = 12 x + 3
is:
2 3
A 3
B 2
C 2 D 3 E 12

13 The gradient and y-intercept (in that order) of the line with equation 2x − 3y = 7 are:
−2
A 2 and −3 B 2 and 7 C and 7
3
2 −7 −3 7
D 3
and 3
E and 2

14 Which of the following could be the graph of y = 2x + c?

A y B y C y

c
x c x

−c x

30 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 D y E y

c
−c x

y
15 The equation of the line shown at right is:
A 2x − 5y = 1 B 2x − y = 4
2 x
C 15x + 6y = −30 D 10y − x = −2
x y
E − =1
2 5 −5

16 To solve the equations 2x + y = 5 and 3x − 6y = 12 graphically on a calculator, you would enter the
equations in the function entry line as:
A f 1(x) = 2x + y and f 2(x) = 3x − 6y
B f 1(x) = 5 and f 2(x) = 12
C f 1(x) = 5 − 2x and f 2(x) = 12 + 6y
D f 1(x) = 2x + 5 and f 2(x) = 3x + 12
x
E f 1(x) = −2x + 5 and f 2(x) = 2 − 2
17 Which of the following would be the most effective way to solve the following equations
simultaneously?
y = 2x − 13 [1]
y = 7x + 2 [2]
A Multiply [1] by 2 and [2] by 13 and add the newly formed equations.
B Multiply [1] by 7 and put it equal to [2].
C Multiply [2] by 2 and put it equal to [1].
D Multiply [1] by 2 and [2] by 7 and subtract the newly formed equations.
E Put [1] equal to [2].
18 The gradient of a line perpendicular to a line with a gradient of 7 is:
−7
A −1 B −7 C
7 1
7
D 7 E
1
− 7x +5
19 The gradient of a line perpendicular to y = is:
−1 1
16 16
A 7
B 7 C 7
5 −7
D 16 E 16
−2)
20 The equation of the line containing (1, and (2, −3) could be expressed as:
A y−2=x−1 B y+2=1−x C y+3=x−1
D x − 2y = −3 E 3x − 5y = 1
21 A line with equation y − 7 = 5(x − 1) has:
A gradient 5 and contains the point (7, 1) B gradient −7 and contains the point (−1, −7)
C gradient 5 and contains the point (1, 7) D gradient −5 and contains the point (1, −7)
E gradient −1 and contains the point (5, 7)
22 The distance between (4, 3) and (−2, 1) is equal to:

A (−2 − 4)2 + (1 − 3)2 B (4 − 3)2 + ( − 2 − 1)2 C (4 2 + 32 ) − ( − 22 − 12 )

D (4 + 2)2 + (3 − 1)2 E (− 2 − 4)2 − (1 − 3)2

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 31

 23 The midpoint of the segment joining (11, −3) and (−5, 17) is:
1 1
A ( − 5 , −1 ) B (3, 7) C (6, 14)
2 2
1 1
D ( − 2 2 ,8 2 ) E (4, 6)

24 Bote lives 5 kilometres from the nearest post office. At noon one day he begins cycling (from home) at
20 kilometres per hour in a constant direction away from the post office. At t hours after Bote begins
cycling, the distance, D km, that he is from the post office is given by:
A D = 5t B D = 20t C D = 5t + 20
D D = 20t + 5 E D = 20t − 5

25 The linear function f : D → R, f ( x ) = 6 − 2 x has range [−4, 12]. The domain D is:
A [−3, 5] B [−5, 3] C R
D [−14, 18] E [−18, 14]

E X TENDED 1 The graph at right is a rough sketch of three points on a section of y

R E S P ONS E
sheet metal that are to be drilled by a programmed robotic drilling
arm. Any deviation from a straight path, no matter how slight, C
means the arm must be programmed for more than one direction. 16
B
The coordinates marked are correct. Will the robotic arm be able to 12
move in one direction only to drill all three holes?
6 A
2 Points A, B and C have the coordinates (1, 6), (0, 0) and (−2, 2).
Find the coordinates for a point D so that the four points form a
parallelogram. 8 14 20 x
3 Consider the points (−4, −2),
(6, 2), (4, −1)
and (0, −7).

a Find the coordinates of the midpoints of each side of the quadrilateral formed by the points.
b Show that the shape formed by the midpoints is a parallelogram.
c Repeat parts a and b for a different set of starting points.
d What can you conjecture based on your answers?
4 The cost of a parachuting course consists of a charge of $250, which covers equipment hire and tuition,
and a further expense of $55 per jump.
a Express the total cost, C, as a function of j, the number of jumps.
b How many jumps could a person doing the course afford if she was prepared to spend up to
$1000?
5 A physics student conducts an experiment to find out how much a spring stretches when various
weights are hung from it. Her results are shown in the table below.

Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)

4 0
7 10
12 20
16.5 30
20.5 40
25 50

a What is the natural or ‘unstretched’ length of the spring?

b Plot a graph of the student’s results.
c Draw a straight line through the points that best describes the data.
d Select two points on the line and use them to fit a linear equation to the line.

32 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

A second student conducts the same experiment on a similar
spring. His results are shown below.

Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)

5 0
10 10
16 20
21 30
24 40
28 50

e On the same set of axes you used in part b, plot the results of
the second experiment and join the points with a line of best fit.
f Write an equation that describes the relationship between the
force applied and the length of the second spring.
The gradients of graphs such as the ones you have drawn give an
indication of the stiffness of a spring. The greater the gradient, the
harder it is to stretch the spring. The lower the gradient, the easier
it is to stretch the spring.
g Comment on the stiffness of the two springs investigated by the
students.
h Is it likely that these two springs will ever be the same length at
a given force; that is, is it likely that the intersection of the two
graphs could ever really happen? Explain your answer.

DIGITAL DOC
doc-9709
Test Yourself
Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 33

 ICT activities
Chapter opener 1F Finding the equation of a straight line
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HTXDWLRQV(page 17) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

34 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_01.indd 34 8/05/13 2:48 PM

Answers CHAPTER 1
−5
LINEAR FUNCTIONS 3 a 1.192 b 3.078 c 0.176 8 a y = 4x + 2 b y=
2
x−5
− − f 0
Exercise 1ASolving linear equations d 0.577 e 0.577 4 −5
g 1 h 57.290 c y= x−2 d y = 6x + 5
and inequations 3
−7
4 a 0.93 b 2.61 e y = 2x − 1 f y = −5x
1 a 2 b −8 c c −
0.53 d −
3.73 y
3 9 a
d 7 e −1 f 9 5 a D b C
c A d B 18
−1 h 10 −12
g i
−13 6 a B b E
2 a 6 b 5 c 2 − 17
−5 7 8
d 112 e 12 f 17 300
x
9 9 a 4 b 31 −3
−9 76 −
g h 59 i 3 c 5 d 3 y
b
j −4 k −9 l −7 10 a No b Yes c 224 cm
13 − 31 7 x
3 a x≥ 6 b x≤ 3 c x>3 Exercise 1D Sketching linear functions
3 1 a–e y
d x < −3 e x ≥ 11 f x≥2 y = −2x y = 3x −21
y = 2x

Exercise 1B Rearrangement and y = −x y=x

c y
substitution
A − 3–2 x
1 a P=A−L b l= x
w
d C −3
c t= d r=
v 2π
E − αθ kQq d y
e β= f r= 2 The higher the number, the steeper the
θ2 F 10
graph. Positive values make the graph
2 Fd + mu 2 v2 slope up when moving (or tracing) to the
g v= hγ =
m rT right; negative values make the graph
slope down when moving to the right. 2 x
S − 2lh S − 2π r 2
i w= j H= y y=x+2
2(l + h) 2π r 3 a–d e y
y=x+1
2 a 0.267 b 350 c 7
d 13 100 e 2.498 y=x+3
30
3V 1
3 a l= A, 7.746 br=3 , 6.204 x
4π 4
v−u T ⎞2 y=x− 4
c a= , 4.167 d l = g ⎛⎜ , 3.972 x
⎝ 2π ⎟⎠
10
—
t −4 3

(1 − α ) K f y
e c= , 2622
α2 4 a–d y x
8
4 a 42 cm 6 y = 2x + 1
P P − 2l y = 3x − 5
b w = − l or w = c 40 mm
2 2 −16
5 a 240 m2
1 y = 2x − 7
2A 2 A − bh 10 a y
b a= − b or a = c 18 cm −1 01 x
h h
6 a $1123.60
y = −3x + 6 2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A− D⎞ −5
b r = 100 ⎜ − 1 = 100 ⎜
⎝ D ⎟⎠ D ⎟⎠
3 x
⎝
−7
c 41.4% b y
5 The number is where the graph cuts the
uv fv 4
7 a f = b u= y-axis (hence the name ‘y-intercept’).
u+v v− f 6 a y = 2x + 7 b y = −3x + 1
2 1
c 150 cm c y = 5x − 2 d y= 3x+3
−3 1
8 b=2 e y= 4x− 2 f y = −2x + 12 5 x

9 h=
25
cm
7 a 4, 5 b 4, −8 c y
π c −3, 1 d −2, 4
6
Exercise 1C e −7, −9 f 2, 5
Gradient of a straight line −2 −8 2
−6
1 a 2
−1 g 11 , h ,
b 3 3
3
1 1 5 −5 − 7 −3 x
2 a 2 b5 c −4
d i , j , 2
2 6 2 2

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 35

 d y b y Exercise 1F Finding the equation

x y = 20 of a straight line
5 −1 −1
20 ( 25 , 20 ) 1 a 2, 2 , −1 b 3, 3, −1
3
1 2 −5
−7 y = 3x − 5 c 4 , −4, −1 d 5 , 2 , −1
−9 7
11 a y e , , −1
7 9
2 They are perpendicular.
−7 x −5 5 x
3 They are perpendicular.
−5
−1 1
c y 4 a 4
b 9 c −7

−6 9 −2
d 8 e 7
f −1
b y
1 −3
10 5 a 5 b −1 c 2
( 94 , 47
4) 6 1 −4
d 7
e 2 f 3
y = 7x − 4 6 a i 3x − y − 1 = 0 ii y = 3x − 1
b i 5x − y − 19 = 0 ii y = 5x − 19
y = 3x + 5 x
c i x+y−1=0 ii y = −x + 1
−4 x
1 7
y d i x − 2y + 7 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 2
c y d
1 1
4 7 a i x − 2y − 1 = 0 ii y = 2 x − 2
b i x−y=0 ii y = x
5 −1
− 16
— y = 6x + 5 y = −4 + 3x c i x + 2y − 12 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 6
3
x 0 x −3
d i 3x + 2y − 2 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 1
d y
8 y=x−6 9 y = 3x − 23
2 x −1 2 43
(−3, −13) 10 a y = x+5 b y= 5x− 5
3
−1 −7 14
−6 e y c y= x+3 d y= 6x+ 3
2
−3 9
e y = 2x − 3 f y= 4x − 2
12 a y y = 10x + 1 −5 3
11 y = 2 x − 2
5
6 82 −3
x 12 a y = 7 x + 7 b y= 2 x +7
5 x
(1, −1) −5 −x 39
7 , − 29 c y = −x + 8 d y= 8 + 4
(− 12 6 ) y = −6 − 2x
13 94 14 Yes
b y 15 H = 22 + 6t

(1, 1) Exercise 1G Distance between two

f y
y = 17 − 9x points and midpoint of a segment
17
x 1 a 5 b 10
( 38 , 109 )
8 c 1 d 2
14
y = 14 − x
2 a 7.211 b 14.765
c y
c 13.038
17 x
x 9 3 a a2 − 4a + 8 b b 2 − 12b + 61
c 2(c 2 − 6c + 10) d 5d 2 − 22d + 26
(1, −2) 2 a (1, 4) b (−4, −15) 4 21.024 km
5 17
13 D 14 E 15 A c (−7, −5) d( , ) 5 a 216 b 108
9 9
Exercise 1E 23 − 20 −3) 6 a (2, 4) b (5, 1)
Simultaneous equations e (14 , 7 ) f (13,
c (7, 2) d (8, 9)
1 a y
3 a (7, 9) b (6, 5) 7 a (1 , 5 )
1 1 − − 1
2 2 b ( 3, 3 2 )
(−3, 6) −2) 1 19
c (1, d ( 2, 2 ) − 1 1 − 1 1
c ( 9 2 , 9 2) d ( 1 2 , 6 2)
59 21 84 99
y = −4x − 6 1 e (8, 8) f ( 67 , 67 ) 8 a (4a, 3a) b (8, 3c)
−1−1 1 x 4 15 cents and 35 cents 5 22 and 19 c ⎛ 3 f + g , 2⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
6 16 emus, 41 sheep 2
y = −2x
7 Basketballs $9.45, cricket balls $3.05 9 a 5 b 9
8 Limousine $225 (sedan $75) 10 D1 (−1.5, 4.25), D2 (−1.5, 1.5), D3 (8, −7.5)
9 A 10 D 11 y = 5x − 7 12 y = 3x + 6

36 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Exercise 1H Linear modelling 9 Undefined 22 Teacher to check.
1 a C = 25 + 5t −
−5 23 k = 4, h = −3
10 a 3, 7 b 3, 10
b Cost ($) 24 a C = 75 + 65t
1 c $302.50
35 c 2
, −2 b C ($)
30 205
2
25 11 y = 5 x − 3
140

y 75
1 2 Time (h) 12 a
24
c $40 1 2 t (h)
2 a C = 60 + 8m
b Cost ($) MULTIPLE CHOICE
76 1 D 2 A 3 C 4 D
68
60 8 x 5 D 6 A 7 C 8 D
9 B 10 B 11 B 12 A
b y
13 D 14 B 15 E 16 E
17 E 18 A 19 C 20 B
1 2 Time (min) 21 C 22 D 23 B 24 D
5 25 A
c $100
−40 x
3 a P = 32 + 0.1n EXTENDED RESPONSE
b Payment ($) c $197 y 1 No, the points are not collinear. This may
c
34 be shown by calculating gradients or
33 7 x equations for lines joining different pairs
32
of points.
2 (−1, 8)
1 −9
−9 3 a Midpoints: (1, 0), (5, 2 ), (2, −4), (−2, 2 )
10 20 Number d The midpoints of any quadrilateral form
of leaflets d y
a parallelogram.
4 $960 4 a C = 250 + 55j
5 Yes ($410 compared to $450) b 13 jumps
6 After 4 rides x 5 a 4 cm
7 a Opus $24, Elstra $20 b, c, e
b After 14 minutes
60
Force applied to spring (N)
8 a PinkCabs $28.50, NoTop $26
2 50
b After 6.7 km (6 3 km)
(1, −6)
9 6 visits 40
10 Savus would be cheaper for up to 9 days 13 a y b (−5, −5) 30
hire. f(x) = 3x + 10 20 Student 1
5 10 Student 2
CHAPTER REVIEW
SHORT ANSWER −5 x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
−2 (−5, −5) −5 Length of spring (cm)
1
2 6 d Answers will vary. One possible answer
f (x) = −2x − 15
3 x ≥ −14 30 95
is y = 13 x − 13 .
4π 2 R3 R f Answers will vary. One possible answer
4 T= or 2π R
GM GM 5 − 63 − 33 is y = 2x − 10.
14 ( , − 5) 15 ( 10 , 5 )
15 3 g The first spring is stiffer than the second,
5 a b 3.873
−7
16 21 two-dollar and 46 one-dollar coins as the gradient of its graph is greater
3 −3
6 a 4
b 11 17 than that of the second spring.
5 −7 18 y = −x + 4 h The graphs intersect at the point
c 11 d 8 −6 34 (−8.75, −27.5). It is not possible for the
19 y = 7 x + 7
−7 springs to have a negative length, so this
7 3 8 4.331 20 y = −4x − 26 21 6 point is not achievable.

CHAPTER 1 ‡ Linear functions 37

CHAPTER 2
Quadratic functions
CHAPTER CONTENTS DIGITAL DOC
doc-9710
2A Polynomials 10 Quick Questions
2B Expanding quadratic expressions
2C Factorising quadratic expressions
2D Factorising by completing the square
2E Solving quadratic equations — Null Factor Law
2F Solving quadratic equations — completing the square
2G The quadratic formula
2H The discriminant
2I Graphs of quadratic functions as power functions (turning point form)
2J Graphs of quadratic functions (intercepts method)
2K Using technology to solve quadratic equations
2L Simultaneous quadratic and linear equations

2A Polynomials
A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted by P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative whole
number powers of x. The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power of the variable x.
Examples of some polynomials are:
10 is a polynomial of degree 0 as 10 can be written as 10x0
3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, or a linear polynomial
x2 + 4x + 7 is a polynomial of degree 2, or a quadratic polynomial
−5x3 + 0.5x2 is a polynomial of degree 3, or a cubic polynomial
2x4 − x3 + 2x2 + x + 5 is a polynomial of degree 4, or a quartic polynomial.
2 −
Expressions such as 3x2 − 4x + , −5x4 + x3 − 2 x and x 2 + sin (x) + 1 are not polynomials.
x
The general form of a degree n polynomial is given by
P(x) = an x n + an − 1xn − 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where n is a positive whole number and an, an − 1, . . . a2, a1, a0 are called coefficients (or constants)
provided the leading coefficient an ≠ 0.
This chapter will deal with polynomials of degree 2, or quadratics. The general form of a quadratic
polynomial is P(x) = a2x2 + a1x + a0. It is also commonly written as y = ax2 + bx + c when graphing
applications are involved.
In the polynomial equation P(x) = 13x2 − x + 1:
x is the variable.
13 is the coefficient of x2 and 13x2 is the quadratic term.
−1 is the coefficient of x and −x is the linear term.

The constant term is 1.

The degree of the polynomial is 2.
The leading term is 13x2 as it is the term with the highest power of x.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 39

 An example of where polynomials are useful is shown below.

The surface area, S, of a plant hothouse of length L

and height x can be approximated by the quadratic
polynomial S ( x ) = π x 2 + Lπ x − 4.

Value of a polynomial
A polynomial may be evaluated by substitution of a number for the variable. For example, for the
polynomial P(x) = 13x2 − x + 1, the value of P(x) when x = −3 is given symbolically as P(−3) and is
found by substitution:
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9711 P(− 3) = 13(− 3)2 − (− 3) + 1
History of mathematics = 13 × 9 + 3 + 1
Évariste Galois
= 121
This process can be completed on your CAS calculator. A CAS calculator is particularly useful for
performing multiple substitutions simultaneously.
1. Using a CAS calculator, define the polynomial 1. Define t(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 16.
t(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 16.
2. To evaluate t(x) for x-values of −3, 2 and 5, 2. t({− 3, 2, 5})
complete the entry line as: The result is (49, 24, 26.5279).
t({− 3,2, 5})

Exercise 2A Polynomials
1 State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
a x3 − 9x2 + 19x + 7 b 65 + 2t c 2x − 8 + 3x2
u4 1
d x6 − 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x + 1 e 2u − − 6 + u5
3 2
2 State the variable for each polynomial in question 1.
3 Which polynomial in question 1 is:
a linear? b quadratic? c cubic?
4 For each of the following expressions:
r
JG
JU
JT
B
QPMZOPNJBM
XSJUF
1
r
JG
JU
JT
OPU
B
QPMZOPNJBM
XSJUF
/
BOE
DJSDMF
UIF
UFSN T

UIBU
NBEF
JU
TP
5 x2
a 7x + 6x2 + b +x c 3x 4 − 2 x 3 − 3 x − 4
x 9
−
d k 2
+ k − 3k 3 + 7 e 2x − 8x + 1

40 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 5 Consider the polynomial P( x) = −2x3 − 3x + 4x2 + 5.
a What is the degree of the polynomial? b What is the variable?
c What is the coefficient of the linear term? d What is the value of the constant term?
e Describe the role of the ‘4’ using the terminology of polynomials.
6 For the polynomial T(m) = 5m − 2m2 − 1, evaluate the following.
a T(2) b T(−2) c T(x + 1)
7 A sports scientist determines the following equation for the action of a breaststroke swimmer during
one complete stroke:
v(t) = 63.876t 6 − 247.65t 5 + 360.39t 4 − 219.41t 3 + 53.816t 2 + 0.4746t
where t = time (sec) and v(t) = velocity (m/s).
a What is the degree of the polynomial?
b What is the variable?
c Evaluate v(0.2) and interpret the meaning of your answer.
d How much faster is she swimming at 0.7 seconds than she is at 0.5 seconds?

2B Expanding quadratic expressions

A quadratic expression is a polynomial of degree 2. It must contain a quadratic term; any others (a linear
term and a constant term) are optional. Examples of quadratic expressions include:
−5x
x2 − 3x − 1 − 10x2 3t 2 + 1
Quadratic expressions can be produced when two linear expressions are multiplied.
Consider the expansion (4x + 9)(2x − 3).
When expanding brackets, ‘multiply everything by everything else’ as shown 1
2

on the diagram at right. That is, (4x + 9)(2x − 3)

3 4
first term × everything in the second brackets, then
second term × everything in the second brackets.
The results of each part of the expansion are:
1 4x × 2x = 8x2 2 4x × −3 = −12x 3 9 × 2x = 18x 4 9 × −3 = −27
Parts 2 and 3 may be combined to give 6x, so we have:
(4x + 9)(2x − 3) = 8x2 + 6x − 27
This method can be easily extended to deal with brackets containing more than two terms.
The above method can be used on all types of binomial expansions, though a couple of shortcuts for
special cases are shown in worked examples 1, 2 and 3.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 41

 WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Expand the following.

a (3x + 5)(6x − 7) b (2x − 9)2 c (5x − 3)(5x + 3) d −2(x − 9)(4 − x)
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression and mark the required a

multiplications. (3x + 5)(6x − 7)
2 First term × everything in the second brackets gives
18x2 − 21x.
3 Second term × everything in the second brackets gives = 18x2 − 21x + 30x − 35
30x − 35.
4 Combine the middle (x) terms. = 18x2 + 9x − 35
b 1 Write the expression. Recognise it as a ‘perfect square’. b (2x − 9)2

2 Remember the shortcut: Square the first term, double the

product of the two terms and square the last term.
3 Square the first term to get 4x2.
4 Double the product of the two terms to get
2 × (2x) × (−9) = −36x.
5 Square the last term to get 81. = 4x2 − 36x + 81
c 1 Write the expression. Recognise that the only difference c (5x − 3)(5x + 3)
between the two sets of brackets is the sign in the middle,
so the answer is a ‘difference of two squares’.
2 The shortcut for the expansion of this type is = (5x)2 − 32
(first term)2 − (second term)2. = 25x2 − 9
d 1 Write the expression. d −2(x − 9)(4 − x)

2 Rewrite the question so x is the first term in both = −2(x − 9)(−x + 4)

brackets. This is not essential as long as all combinations
of terms are multiplied in the next step.
3 Expand the brackets first. = −2(−x2 + 13x − 36)
4 Multiply the brackets’ contents by −2. = 2x2 − 26x + 72

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Expand (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4) and simplify.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the expression. (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4)

2 Expand the first pair of brackets. (x − 7)(x + 2) = x2 − 5x − 14
3 Expand the second pair of brackets. (2x − 1)(x + 4) = 2x2 + 7x − 4
4 Subtract the two expanded groups in the order given. (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4)
Use new brackets for clarity as shown. = (x2 − 5x − 14) − (2x2 + 7x − 4)
5 Apply the negative sign to the contents of the second = x2 − 5x − 14 − 2x2 − 7x + 4
brackets.
6 Collect like terms and simplify. = −x2 − 12x − 10

42 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 3

If P(x) = (2x − 3)2 − (2x + 1)(3x + 9):

a evaluate P(1)
b expand and simplify P(x)
c use your result in b to confirm your answer in a.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Substitute x = 1 into the rule for P(x). a P(1) = (2 × 1 − 3)2 − (2 × 1 + 1)(3 × 1 + 9)

2 Simplify each bracketed term. P(1) = (−1)2 − (3)(12)

3 Simplify P(1). P(1) = 1 − 36

= −35

b 1 Expand the first bracketed term. b (2x − 3)2 = 4x2 − 12x + 9

2 Expand the second and third bracketed terms. (2x + 1)(3x + 9) = 6x2 + 21x + 9

3 Subtract the second result from the first result P(x) = 4x2 − 12x + 9 − (6x2 + 21x + 9)
to obtain P(x).

4 Simplify. P(x) = −2x2 − 33x

c 1 Evaluate P(1) using the formula from part b. c P(1) = −2(1)2 − 33 × 1

= −2 − 33
= −35

2 Compare with the result from part a. The answers are the same.

Exercise 2B Expanding quadratic expressions

Simplify your answers to questions in this exercise as fully as possible.
1 WE1a Expand the following.
a (2x + 6)(x + 5) b (3x + 1)(4x − 3)
c (5x − 7)(5x + 2) d (8x − 3)(6x − 1)
e (x + 4)(7x − 9) f (x + 6)(x + 15)
g (6x − 13)(2 − 3x) h (5 − x)(6 − x)
i (x − 9)(9x − 1) j (4x + 21)(x − 3)
2 WE1b Expand using the shortcut for perfect squares.
a (2x + 3)2 b (3x − 5)2 DIGITAL DOCS
c (6x + 1) 2 d (7x − 6)2 doc-9712
SkillSHEET 2.1
e (x − 8)2 f (x + 13)2
− Expanding perfect
g ( 2x + 9) 2 h (2x + 9)2 squares
i (4 − 3x) 2 j (6 − x)2 doc-9713
SkillSHEET 2.2
3 WE1c Expand (remember the shortcut for difference of squares). Expanding differences
a (2x − 6)(2x + 6) b (3x + 5)(3x − 5) of squares
c (6x + 1)(6x − 1) d (2x − 9)(2x + 9)
e (11x + 3)(11x − 3) f (x − 12)(x + 12)
g (x + 6)(x − 6) h (7 − 2x)(7 + 2x)
i (1 − x)(1 + x) j (5x + 1)(5x − 1)
4 WE1d Expand.
a 2(x + 6)(3x + 5) b 3(x − 4)(2x + 7)
c −4(x + 2)(2x − 5) d 3(4x − 9)(2x − 1)
e 8(3x − 1)(4x − 1) f −7(2x + 3)(5x − 10)
g 4(4 − x)(7 − x) h −5(7x − 4)(2 − x)
i a(2x + 9)(x − 6) j −b(8 − 2x)(x + 4)

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 43

 5 Expand the following.
a (6x − 13)(6x + 13) b (5x + 2)(12x − 5)
c −3(7 + 2x)(x − 8) d (3x + 11)2
e (2x − 14)(2x + 14) f (6x − 5)2
−(x − 4)(x + 4)
g (x + 16)(x − 9) h
i −4(5x − 3)2 j 5(2x + 7)(2x − 7)
6 WE2 Expand and simplify.
a (x − 9)(x + 2) + (x + 4)(x − 4) b (3x + 7)(2x − 1) + (4x − 3)(3x − 4)
c 2(x + 5)2 + 5(2x + 7)(x − 3) d (x − 12)(x + 12) − 3(x + 1)(x + 5)
e 4(x − 3)(3x + 5) − 2(2x + 1)2 f 6(2x − 5)(2x + 5) − (x − 6)(x + 6)
g ( x + 3)( x − 3) h (3 x + 2)(4 x − 2)
i 12 (2x + 1)(4x + 7) j (5x + 13)(3x − 5)

7 WE3 Expand. Use a calculator to verify the answers.

a (2a + 4)(2a + b) b (x + 2y)(3x − 5y)
c (6 − 7c)(2 − 7c) d (u + 4v)2
e (6r − s)(2r + 5s) f (3u − 2t)(3u + 2t)
g 2(h − 8k)(h + 8k) h −3(m − 6n)2

2C Factorising quadratic expressions

Factorising is the reverse process to expanding. It involves writing an expression as a product of two or
more factors. Four methods of factorising will be considered.

Highest common factor (HCF)

Always look for a common factor first. Take out the highest common factor from every term in the
expression and place it in front of the expression. This makes the factorisation process simpler if further
factorisation is required. For example, 4x2 + 8x − 12 can be factorised to 4(x2 + 2x − 3). We would then
use inspection (see below) on the bracketed quadratic.

Factorisation by inspection
A quadratic polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c is called a quadratic trinomial. It should first be checked
to see if it is a perfect square:

a2x2 − 2abx + b2 = (ax − b)2 or a2x2 + 2abx + b2 = (ax + b)2

If not, factorisation is carried out by inspection or ‘trial and error’. This method involves finding
factors of a × c that add up to b, i.e. the coefficient of the x term.

Perfect squares
a2x2 + 2abx + b2 = (ax + b)2
A test for a perfect square is as follows: For example:
1. Arrange the expression in order of decreasing powers of x.
4 x 2 + 20 x + 25
2. Does first term coefficient × last term × 2 = middle
term coefficient? Double
(Coefficients are numbers or variables in front of x2 and 10
x terms.) 2 5
3. If yes, you have a perfect square. Multiply
(2 × 5)

Difference of two squares (DOTS)

ax2 − b = ( ax + b )( )
a x − b where a and b may simplify to a rational number.
For example, 49x2 − 9 = (7x + 3)(7x − 3).

44 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Factorise the following.

a −6x2y + 15xy b x2 + 7x + 12 c 6x2 + 28x − 48
d 27x − 75
2 e 9x2 − 30x + 25
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a −6x2y + 15xy

2 Take out a common factor of −3xy. Make the common = −3xy(2x − 5)

factor negative so the leading term inside the brackets
will be positive.
b 1 Write the expression. b x2 + 7x + 12

2 Look for a common factor. (There isn’t one.)

3 Write (x )(x ) and look for factors of +12 that add to = (x + 4)(x + 3)
give +7. +4 and +3 achieve this.
c 1 Write the expression. c 6x2 + 28x − 48

2 Is there a common factor? Yes (2). = 2(3x2 + 14x − 24)

3 Attempt to factorise by inspection. Write 2(3x )(x )
and try factors of −24.
A few possibilities are:
(3x + 12)(x − 2) = 3x2 + 6x − 24 NO
(3x + 1)(x − 24) = 3x2 − 71x − 24 NO
(3x + 4)(x − 6) = 3x2 − 14x − 24 NO
(Nearly, just a wrong sign on the x term.)
(3x − 4)(x + 6) = 3x2 + 14x − 24 YES = 2(3x − 4)(x + 6)
d 1 Write the expression. d 27x2 − 75

2 Look for a common factor. There is one (3). = 3(9x2 − 25)

3 Recognise the difference of squares in the brackets. = 3(3x + 5)(3x − 5)
e 1 Write the expression. e 9x2 − 30x + 25

2 There are no common factors.

3 There seem to be a few square numbers in the = (3x − 5)2
expression, which looks suspiciously like a perfect
square. The square root of the first term is 3x, and the
square root of the last term is 5 or −5. Since we need a
negative middle term, take −5. Double the product of
these is 2 × 3 × −5 = −30, which is the middle term, so
we have a perfect square.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

Factorise: a (x + 3)2 − 24 b (x − 6)2 + 5(x − 6) + 6.

THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression, and recognise a difference of a (x + 3)2 − 24

squares.
2 ( first term + second term × ) = ⎡⎣ ( x + 3) + 24 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ ( x + 3) − 24 ⎤⎦

( first term − second term ) ( )(

= x +3+2 6 x +3−2 6 )

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 45

 b 1 Write the expression, and notice the linear expression b (x − 6)2 + 5(x − 6) + 6
(x − 6), which is in the usual position of the variable.

2 Let X = (x − 6) and rewrite the expression. Let X = (x − 6)

Note: This is often called a substitution method. X2 + 5X + 6

3 Factorise the new version of the expression. = [X + 2][X + 3]

4 Replace X with x − 6. = [(x − 6) + 2][(x − 6) + 3]

5 Simplify. = (x − 4)(x − 3)

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

Factorise the following using an appropriate method.

a −6x2y + 15xy
b 50 − 2(x − 4)2
THINK WRITE

a 1 Remove the common factor of 3xy. a −6x2y + 15xy

= 3xy(−2x + 5)

2 Simplify. =3 xy(5 − 2x)

or −3xy(2x − 5)

b 1 Remove the common factor of 2. b 50 − 2(x − 4)2 = 2(25 − (x − 4)2)

2 Factorise the expression within the brackets = 2(52 − (x − 4)2)

using the difference of two squares method. = 2(5 − (x − 4))(5 + (x − 4))
3 Simplify. = 2(5 − x + 4)(5 + x − 4)
= 2(9 − x)(1 + x)

Exercise 2C Factorising quadratic expressions

1 WE4a Factorise the following.
a 5x2y3 + 20xy2 b −8ax2 + 14ax c 7p2q − 21p + 7
d 22r s + 11r s
4 3 2 e 5x2 + 10x + 75 f −3x2 − 18x + 6
2 WE4b, c Factorise the following.
a x2 + 16x + 63 b x2 − 17x + 66 c 2x2 + 22x + 48
−
d 3x − 6x + 24
2 e −x2 − 4x + 96 f 6x2 − 11x − 35
g 6x − 37x + 45
2 h −40x2 + 46x + 14
3 WE4d Factorise the following.
a 4x − 9
2 b 81x2 − 25 c 2x2 − 32
d 18x2 − 162 e (x + 1)2 − 4 f (3x − 4)2 − 1
g 98 − 2(x + 3)2 h −3(5x − 8)2 + 27
4 WE4e Factorise the following.
a x2 + 14x + 49 b 25x2 − 10x + 1 c 2x2 + 12x + 18
−72x2
d − 12x + 12
3x2 e + 24x − 2 f x2 + 2 3 x + 3
g 4x − 4 5 x + 5
2 h 4x − 12 2x + 18
2

5 WE5a Factorise the following.

a (x + 3)2 − 9 b (x − 3)2 − 16 c 36 − (2x + 7)2
d (3x − 2) − 81
2 e 2(x + 1)2 − 8 f −3(x − 4)2 + 48
g 50(3x + 2) − 98
2 h 1 − (6 − x)2 i 64 − (2 − 3x)2

46 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 6 WE5b Factorise the following.
a (x + 7)2 + 9(x + 7) + 20 b 6(x − 3)2 + 13(x − 3) + 5
c (2x + 7)2 − 9(2x + 7) + 8 d 12(3x − 11)2 − 19(3x − 11) − 18
7 WE6 Factorise the following, using an appropriate method.
a 3x2 − 24x − 27 b 25x2 + 10x + 1
c (x − 13) − 2(x − 13) + 1
2 d x2 − 28x + 196
e 18 x − 6 x
2 f 60x2 + 40x + 5
g 60x − 5x
2
h 9 − 9x2y2
i4(3x − 1)2 − (x + 2)2 j −12x2 + 70x + 98
8 MC a Which of the factors below could be multiplied by (x + 5) to get x2 + 14x + 45?
A (x − 19) B (x + 5) C (x + 9)
D (x + 14) E (x + 31)
b The factorised form of 6x2 − 67x − 60 is:
A 2(3x + 5)(x + 6) B 2(3x − 5)(x − 6) C (3x + 6)(2x + 10)
D (6x − 5)(x + 12) E (6x + 5)(x − 12)
c A factor of 6x2 − 54 is:
A (x − 3) B (x − 6) C (x − 9) D (6x − 9) E 6x
9 Quadratic polynomials are said to be identical if they have the same factorised forms and the same
expanded forms; the relevant coefficients must be equal. Suppose that P(x) = −5(x + 3)2 + 35(x + 3),
Q(x) = 60 − 5x2 + kx and R(x) = −5(x + 3)(x + m). Use written algebra to find the values of k and m, if
it is known that the three polynomials are identical. Use a mental arithmetic substitution technique to
verify your answers.

2D Factorising by completing the square

Factorising by inspection works best when whole numbers are involved — for example (2x + 3)(x − 7).
Sometimes it is clear that it is impossible to find whole numbers to complete a factorisation. For
example, with x2 + 6x − 1, there is no pair of factors of 6 that add to −1. In such cases, completing the
square may be used to factorise a quadratic.
The method of completing the square involves ‘manufacturing’ a perfect square so that an expression
may be factorised as a difference of squares.
Because this method often produces surds, factorising this way is sometimes referred to as ‘factorising
over R’, where R is the set of real numbers that includes surds.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 6x − 1
b x2 − 7x + 8
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a x2 + 6x − 1

2 Halve and square the x-coefficient (6), and then x 2 + 6 x + ( 62 )2 − ( 62 )2 − 1

add and subtract it from the equation. Since the
same value has been added and subtracted, the
expression is equivalent to that in the question.
3 Evaluate the brackets. = x2 + 6x + 9 − 9 − 1
4 Combine the first three terms as a perfect square, = (x + 3)2 − 10
as x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2.
5 Recognise a difference of two squares. = ⎡⎣( x + 3) + 10 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( x + 3) − 10 ⎤⎦

6 Simplify. ( )(
= x + 3 + 10 x + 3 − 10 )

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 47

 b 1 Write the expression. b x2 − 7x + 8

x 2 − 7x + ( ) − ( −27 )2 + 8
−7 2
2 Halve and square the x-coefficient (−7), and then 2
add and subtract it from the equation.
3 Evaluate the brackets. = x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +8
49

= ( x − 72 ) − 49
2
4 +1
8
4 Combine the first three terms as a perfect square,
4 = (x − 2 )
since x 2 − 7 x + 49 7 2.

= ( x − 72 ) − 49
2
4 + 4
32
5 Combine the last two terms.

= ( x − 72 ) − 17
2
4

= ⎡( x − 72 ) + ⎤ ⎡ ( x − 7 )2 − ⎤
2 17 17
6 Recognise a difference of squares.
⎣ 4 ⎦⎣ 2 4 ⎦

7 Simplify the surd part if possible. (

= x − 72 +
17
2 )( x − 7
2 −
17
2 )
8 Use a common denominator for the last two terms
if desired.
( )(
or x − 7 −2 17 x − 7 +2 17 )

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

Consider the quadratic polynomials represented by P(x) = x2 + bx + 4, where b can be any real
number. Answer the following questions.
a Factorise P(x).
b Find the linear factors of P(x), if they exist for b = 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Discuss the differences in the formats of your answers.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a x2 + bx + 4

b⎞2 ⎛ b⎞2
2 Complete the square: halve and square the = x 2 + bx + ⎛⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 4
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
x-coefficient (b), and then add and subtract
it in the expression.
Recognise the first three terms as a perfect b ⎞ 2 b2
= ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − + 4
3
square. ⎝ 2⎠ 4

b ⎞ 2 ⎛ b 2 − 16 ⎞
4 Simplify. = ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞
5 Recognise a difference of two squares. =⎜x+ + ⎟⎜x+ − ⎟
⎝ 2 4 ⎠⎝ 2 4 ⎠

⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞
6 Simplify the surds. =⎜x+ + ⎟⎜x+ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠

⎛ 2 x + b + b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ 2 x + b − b 2 − 16 ⎞
7 Put all the terms over a common =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
denominator (2). ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠

2 x + b ± b 2 − 16
8 State the factors. The factors of P(x) are or
2
± b 2 − 16 + b
x+ .
2

48 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 ± 32 − 16 + 3
b 1 Evaluate the factors for b = 3. b x+
2
−7
2 Evaluate the surd. 32 − 16 =

3 Since the surd is the square root of a There are no linear factors for b = 3.
negative number, there are no possible
linear factors.

± 4 2 − 16 + 4
4 Evaluate the factors for b = 4. x+
2
± 0 +4
5 Simplify. = x+
2
=x+2
6 State the factors. When b = 4, x + 2 is a repeated factor, so P(x) is
a perfect square.

± 52 − 16 + 5
7 Evaluate the factors for b = 5. x+
2

± 25 − 16 + 5
8 Simplify. = x+
2
± 9 +5
= x+
2
±3 + 5
= x+
2
8 2
= x + or x +
2 2
= x + 4 or x + 1
9 State the factors. The factors are x + 4 and x + 1.

± 62 − 16 + 6
10 Evaluate the factors for b = 6. x+
2
± 36 − 16 + 6
11 Simplify. = x+
2
± 20 + 6
= x+
2
±2 5 + 6
= x+
2
= x ± 5+3

12 State the factors. The factors are x + 5 + 3 and x − 5 + 3.

13 Note the differences in the number and b = 3: There are no linear factors.
format of the linear factors; when b = 3, b = 4: x + 2 is a repeated linear factor so P(x) is a
there were no linear factors. Write your perfect square.
observations. b = 5: The linear factors are x + 1 and x + 4.
b = 6: The linear factors are x + 5 + 3 and
x − 5 + 3; they are found by completing
the square.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 49

 Exercise 2D Factorising by completing the square
1 WE7a Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 4x − 3 b x2 + 10x + 20
c x + 6x + 7
2 d x2 + 2x − 7
e x2 + 8x + 13 f x2 − 4x − 1
g x2 − 12x + 19 h x2 − 2x − 5
i x − 8x + 10
2 j x2 − 6x − 4
2 WE7b Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 3x + 1 b x2 + 5x − 3
c x − 7x + 2
2 d x2 − x − 1
e x + 9x + 4
2 f x2 + 11x − 6
g x − 3x + 5
2 h x2 + 5x + 2
i x − 13x − 1
2 j x2 + x − 3
3 MC Which of the following could be added to and subtracted from x2 + 36x + 1 to assist factorising
using completing the square?
A 6 B 18 C 72 D 144 E 324
4 MC Which of the following could be added to and subtracted from x2 − 17x − 8 to assist factorising
using completing the square?
A 4 B 17 C 16 D 17 E 289
4 2 4

5 MC The expression x2 + 6x − 2 factorises to:

A ( x − 3 + 2 )( x − 3 − 2 ) B (x + 3 + )(
11 x + 3 − 11 )
C ( x + 3 + 7 )( x + 3 − 7 ) D (x − 3 + 10 )( x − 3 − 10 )
E ( x + 3 + 6 )( x + 3 − 6 )
6 MC The expression x2 + 4x + 12:
A can be factorised using whole numbers
B can be factorised using the method of completing the square
C cannot be factorised using the methods covered in this topic so far
D is a linear expression, and so cannot be factorised
E is already factorised
7 Challenge: Factorise the following.
a 3x2 − 18x − 3 b 2x2 + 10x + 4
c −5x2 − 10x + 15 d −12x2 + 4x − 8

2E Solving quadratic equations —

Null Factor Law
As a quadratic equation is a degree 2 polynomial (highest x power of 2), it will have at most two
solutions.
To solve the quadratic equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0, factorise by inspection.
x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
or A × B = 0
where A = (x − 1) and B = (x − 3).
For A × B to equal zero, either A or B or both must be zero.
This is known as the ‘Null Factor Law’.
That is, A=0 or B=0
So (x − 1) = 0 or (x − 3) = 0
Solving these two equations gives:
x−1=0 or x−3=0
x=1 or x=3

50 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 9

Solve the following.

a (x + 5)(7x − 11) = 0 b 12x2 − 11x − 15 = 0
c 4x2 + 25 = 20x d 6x2 = 54
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. a (x + 5)(7x − 11) = 0

2 Note that the equation is already factorised.

3 Apply the Null Factor Law and solve two x+5=0 or 7x − 11 = 0
equations. x = −5 or 7x = 11
x = 11
7

b 1 Write the equation. b 12x2 − 11x − 15 = 0

2 Factorise by inspection. This may take (4x + 3)(3x − 5) = 0

several attempts.
3 Solve two equations. 4x + 3 = 0 or 3x − 5 = 0
4x = −3 or 3x = 5
−
x = 43 or x = 53
c 1 Write the equation. c 4x2 + 25 = 20x
2 Rearrange (transpose) so all terms are on the 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 0
side on which the x2 term is positive. Write
terms in order of decreasing powers of x.
3 Factorise (in this case by recognising a (2x − 5)2 = 0
perfect square).
4 Solve (one equation here, or two identical 2x − 5 = 0
equations if you like). 2x = 5
x = 52
d 1 Write the equation. d 6x2 = 54
2 Rearrange. 6x2 − 54 = 0
3 Take out the common factor, 6. 6(x2 − 9) = 0
4 Notice a difference of squares. 6(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
5 Solve. x+3=0 or x−3=0
x = −3 or x=3

WORKED EXAMPLE 10

The height of a triangle is 5 cm more than its base length. If the area of the
triangle is 18 cm2, find the base length and height. TUTORIAL
eles-1407
THINK WRITE
Worked example 10
1 Define the length and height in terms of a Let base length = x
variable. Here, x is used. Then height = x + 5
2 Draw a diagram. x+5

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 51

 3 Use the given information about area to form Area = 12 bh
an equation involving the variable.
18 = 12 (x)(x + 5)
4 Rearrange and form a quadratic equation. 36 = x(x + 5)
36 = x2 + 5x
x2 + 5x − 36 = 0
5 Factorise. (x + 9)(x − 4) = 0
6 Solve. x = −9 or x = 4
7 Discard the negative answer, as length in this x=4 (as x > 0)
context must be positive.
8 Calculate the height (x + 5). h=x+5
=9
9 Write the answer in words. Base length = 4 cm, height = 9 cm.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11

Consider the quadratic equations below.

Equation 1: (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x Equation 2: (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x2
Use a calculator to determine which equation(s) has rational solutions.
THINK WRITE
Equation 1
1 Expand the brackets. (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x
2x2 − 5x − 3 = −4x
2 Put all the terms on the left-hand side 2x2 − x − 3 = 0
(add −4x to both sides).
3 Factorise. (2x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
4 Apply the Null Factor Law. 2x − 3 = 0 or x+1=0
3
x=2 or x = −1
5 Evaluate the solutions. Both solutions are rational.
Equation 2
1 Expand the brackets. (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x2
2x2 − 5x − 3 = −4x2
2 Put all the terms on the left-hand side 6x2 − 5x − 3 = 0
(add −4x2 to both sides).

3 Divide all the terms by 6. x2 − 56 x − 12 = 0

4 Complete the square. x2 − 5 x + 25 25

− 144 − 12 = 0
6 144

( x − ) − 25144
5 2
12
+ 72
=0

(x − ) − ( ) = 0
5 2 2
97
12 12

5 97 5 97
5 Apply the Null Factor Law. x − 12 + 12
= 0 or x − 12 − 12
=0
6 Evaluate the solutions. Both solutions are irrational.
Only equation 1 has rational solutions.

52 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Fixed point iteration
Fixed point (or simple) iteration is a way of solving equations numerically rather than algebraically. To
use this method, the equation to be solved must be manipulated into the form x = g(x).
For example, if the equation to be solved is f (x) = x2 − 7x + 1 = 0, a possible manipulation is
x2 − 7x + 1 = 0
x2 + 1 = 7x
x2 + 1
=x
7
x2 + 1
In this case, we have x = g(x), where g( x ) = .
7
Fixed point iteration works as follows:
1. Make an initial guess, say x = 1.
x 2 + 1 12 + 1 2
2. Substitute the guess into g(x). g( x ) = = = 7 = 0.2857
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.28572 + 1
3. Substitute the improved guess, 0.2857. g( x ) = = = 0.1545
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.15452 + 1
4. Substitute the improved guess, 0.1545. g( x ) = = = 0.1463
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.14632 + 1
5. Substitute the improved guess, 0.1463. g(x) = = = 0.1459
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.14592 + 1
6. Repeat the process until successive values for g( x ) = = = 0.14589
g(x) are equal (within a tolerance of, say, 0.0001). 7 7
7. In this example, the equal successive values x = 0.1459 is a solution to x2 − 7x + 1 = 0.
of g(x) are 0.1459 and 0.14589, within the
tolerance of 0.0001.

Solving quadratic equations —

Exercise 2E
Null Factor Law
1 WE9a Solve the following.
a (x + 6)(2x + 3) = 0 b (x + 1)(6x − 1) = 0 c (x − 5)(x + 2) = 0
d (7x + 12)(9x + 2) = 0 e (16x + 8)(2x − 6) = 0 f (7 + x)(23 − x) = 0 DIGITAL DOC
−3x(x
g (6 − 7x)(x + 6) = 0 h − 1) = 0 doc-9714
Quadratic
2 WE9b Factorise and solve the following. expressions
a x2 + 6x − 72 = 0 b 2x2 − 7x − 4 = 0 c 4x2 + 13x + 10 = 0
d 2x2 + 12x − 110 = 0 e 3x2 − 27 = 0 f 32x2 − 16x + 2 = 0
g 12 − 75x2 =0 h 15x − 3x2 =0
3 WE9c, d Rearrange and solve the following.
a x2 + 45 = 14x b 6x2 + 7x = 49 c 1 + 8x = −16x2
−32x
d 36x2 =1 e = 6x2 + 10 f 27 + 12x2 = 36x
10 − x
g 32x2 = 162 h 5x2 = 8x i x2 =
2
6x 2+5
j =x
13
4 MC The solutions to the equation (x − 3)(x + 7) = 0 are:
A x = and x = −7
−3

B x = −3 and x = 7
C x = 3 and x = 7
D x = 3 and x = −7
E x = 4 and x = −21

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 53

 5 MC Which of the following is a solution of 2x2 − 11x = 13?
−2 − 13
A 13 B 2
2
C 13 D 1 E 13
2

6 MC The solutions to a quadratic equation are x = −9 and x = 25 . The equation could be:
A (x − 9)(x − 25 ) = 0 B 5(x − 9)(x − 2) = 0
C 2(x + 9)(x − 5) = 0 D (x + 9)(5x − 2) = 0
E (x + 9)(2x − 5) = 0
7 WE10 The width of a rectangle is 3 cm less than its x
2
length. If the area of the rectangle is 40 cm , find the
length and width.
8 WE11 A rectangular piece of metal with length 6 cm and
width 4 cm is to be enlarged by increasing both of these 4 cm
dimensions by x cm as shown at right.
a If the value of x is 2, describe the change in area that
occurs.
b Find the exact dimensions of the enlarged rectangle if its
6 cm x
area is (20 2 + 32) cm2.
9 The temperature, T (°C), in an office follows the equation T = 85 t 2 − 5t + 30, where t is the time (in
hours) the office’s climate control system has been operating. How long does it take the temperature to
reach 20 °C?
10 A number pattern follows the rule n2 + 3n + 2; that is, the number pattern is 6, 12, 20, . . . (found by
substituting n = 1, n = 2, n = 3 into the rule).
a Find the next value by substituting n = 4 into the rule.
b What positive n value gives the number 210 when substituted into the rule?
11 The diagram at right demonstrates the idea
of ‘rectangular’ numbers.
The formula N = w(w + 1) gives the value
of a rectangular number based on a shape
with a width of w dots. w=1 w=2 w=3
a Which rectangular number has a
N=1 N=6 N = 12
width of 6?
b What is the width of the rectangular number 272?
12 The amount of bending, B mm, of a particular wooden beam under a load is given by
B = 0.2m2 + 0.5m + 2.5, where m kg is the mass (or load) on the end of the beam. What mass will
produce a bend of 8.8 mm?
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9715 13 A window washer drops a squeegee from a scaffold 100 m off the ground. The relationship between the
WorkSHEET 2.1 height of the squeegee (h), in metres, and the length of time it has been falling (t), in seconds, is given
by h = 100 − 5t 2.
a When does the squeegee pass a window 30 m off the ground?
b Exactly how long does it take for the squeegee to hit the ground?
14 The following equations are already in the form x = g(x). Find a solution using fixed point iteration with
an initial guess of x = 1.
x2 + 6 x2 − 2
a x= b x=
5 3
15 Find a solution to each of the following (correct to 3 decimal places) using fixed point iteration. First
manipulate each equation into the form x = g(x) in a similar way to that shown on page 53.
a x2 − 9x + 2 = 0 b x2 + 5x − 7 = 0
c x − 4x + 1 = 0
2 d 2x2 − 11x + 8 = 0
16 Show that an alternative manipulation of x2 − 7x + 1 = 0 into the form x = g(x) is x = 7 x − 1. Does this
form converge using fixed point iteration? If so, state the solution found.
17 Find a manipulation of 4x2 + x − 3 = 0 that converges using fixed point iteration. State the solution.
18 Investigate when equations of the form x2 − bx + 1 are likely to converge to a solution using
x2 + 1
fixed point iteration with a manipulation of the form x = .
b

54 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 Solving quadratic equations —
2F
completing the square
Recall that when you cannot factorise quadratics by the method of sensibly guessing whole numbers,
the method of completing the square may be used. Completing the square may also be used to solve
quadratic equations that don’t appear to easily factorise.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

Solve the following, giving answers in exact (surd) form.

a x2 + 10x + 2 = 0 b x2 − 7x + 1 = 0 c x2 − 8 = 0 TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE eles-1408
Worked example 12
a 1 Write the equation. Notice that there are no a x2 + 10x + 2 = 0
factors of 2 that add to 10, so this equation is a
candidate for completing the square.
2 Halve and square the x-coefficient and then x 2 + 10 x + ( 102 )2 − ( 102 )2 + 2 = 0
add and subtract it.
3 Evaluate the terms in brackets. x2 + 10x + 25 − 25 + 2 = 0
4 Partially simplify (the last two values) as (x2 + 10x + 25) − 23 = 0
shown.
5 Form a perfect square with the first three (x + 5)2 − 23 = 0
terms.
6 Take the constant term (in this case the −23) to (x + 5)2 = 23
the other side of the equation, remembering to
change the sign.
7 Take the square root of both sides. x + 5 = ± 23
8 Solve for x. x = −5 ± 23
b 1 Write the equation. b x2 − 7x + 1 = 0

2 Decide that completing the square is

appropriate.
3 Halve and square the x-coefficient. Add and x 2 − 7 x + ( 72 )2 − ( 72 )2 + 1 = 0
subtract this term.
4 Evaluate the terms in the brackets. x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +1 = 0
49

5 Partially simplify. x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +4 =0
49 4

( x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 )− 4 = 0
45

6 Form a perfect square. ( x − 72 )2 − 45

4 =0

7 Solve for x. Note that the surd part has been ( x − 72 )2 = 45

4
simplified where possible.
x − 72 = ± 45
4
9×5
=± 4

= ± 3 25
x = 72 ± 3 2 5
7±3 5
= 2

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 55

 c 1 The equation may be solved for x immediately, c x2 − 8 = 0
without completing the square.

2 Rearrange the equation. x2 = 8

3 Take the square root of both sides and simplify. x=± 8

= ± 4×2
= ±2 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 13

Use the method of completing the square to solve the following equations, or to explain why there
are no solutions.
a 2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0
b 3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0.

THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. Notice the repeated appearance a 2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0
of the linear expression (2x − 3), suggesting a Let a = 2x − 3
substitution technique. Let a = 2x − 3. ∴ 2a2 − 2a − 2 = 0

2 Divide all terms (i.e. both sides) of the equation by a2 − a − 1 = 0

2, the coefficient of a2.

( ) − ( ) −1 = 0
2 2
1 1
3 Halve and square the coefficient of a and then add a2 − a +
2 2
and subtract it.

4 Solve for a by completing the square. (a 2 1

)
− a + 4 − 4 −1 = 0
1

(a − ) 1 2
2
5
−4=0

(a − ) 1 2
2
=
5
4

1 5
a− 2 = ±
4

1 5
a= 2± 2

1 5
5 Replace a with 2x − 3, and solve for x. 2x − 3 = 2 ± 2

1 5
2x = 3 + 2 ± 2

1 5
x = 32 + 4 ± 4

5
x = 47 ± 4

6 Write the answer. The solution to

2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0 is
7± 5
x= .
4

56 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

b 1 Write the equation. b 3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0

2 Divide all terms of the equation by 3, the coefficient x 2 + 2x + 4 = 0

3
of x2.

3 Apply the process of completing the square. x 2 + 2 x + ( 22 )2 − ( 22 )2 + 43 = 0

Notice here that the next step, finding the square x 2 + 2 x + 1 − 1 + 43 = 0

root of both sides of the equation, is not possible as
negative does not exist. Note: You will soon learn ( x + 1)2 + 13 = 0
−1
a way to predict when this will happen. ( x + 1)2 =   3
4 Write the answer. There are no solutions to
3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0.

Solving quadratic equations —

Exercise 2F
completing the square DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9716
1 WE12a Solve, giving the solution in exact (surd) form. SkillSHEET 2.3
a x2 + 8x + 1 = 0 b x2 + 12x + 3 = 0 Solving equations
c x + 4x − 2 = 0
2 d x2 − 6x + 4 = 0 in the complete
square form
e x2 − 10x + 18 = 0 f x2 − 6x + 6 = 0
doc-9717
2 WE12b Solve, giving the solution in surd form. SkillSHEET 2.4
Simplifying surds
a x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 b x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
c x − 7x + 5 = 0
2 d x2 − 9x − 2 = 0
e x + 11x + 4 = 0
2 f x2 − x − 6 = 0
3 Rearrange and solve, giving the solution in exact form.
a x2 = 4x + 1 b x2 + 2 = 6x
c 9x − 2 = x2 d 4 − x2 = 7x
e 2(3x + 5) = x2 f x2 − 3(5x − 2) = 0
x 2 + 3x −
g 14x − x2 = −1 h = 2
4
4 WE12c Solve.
a x − 14 = 0
2 b 6 − x2 = 0
c 3x2 = 36 d −2x2 + 18 = 0
5 MC When completing the square to solve x2 + 16x + 1 = 0, the perfect square part of the
expression will be:
A 8 B 16 C 64
D (x + 8) E (x + 8)2
6 MC When completing the square to solve x2 − 20 x − 4 = 0, the value to be simultaneously
added and subtracted is:
A 4 B 10 C 5
D 100 E 20
7 MC An equation that is being solved using completing the square is at the stage shown below.
(x − 9)2 − 15 = 0
The solution is:
A (x − 9)2 = 15 B x = ± 24 C x = − 9 ± 15

D x = 9 ± 15 E x = 3 ± 15
8 WE13 For each of the following, find exact solutions (if they exist) or prove there are no solutions.
a 5x2 − 2x + 3 = 0
b 3(2x − 5)2 + 6(2x − 5) − 4 = 0
c 4x2 − 2x = 6
d 5(4x + 3) = (4x + 3)2 + 9

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 57

 2G The quadratic formula
An alternative to the methods of factorising by inspection or completing the square is to use the
quadratic formula. The derivation of the formula follows, and is based on the method of completing the
square, but all you have to remember is the formula in the last step.
Consider the general quadratic equation. ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a ≠ 0)
b c
Divide every term by a. x2 + x + = 0
a a
Use the completing-the-square method.
b 2 2 b b2 b2 c
Halve and square to get ⎛⎜ b ⎞⎟ = b x2 + x + 2 − 2 + = 0
a ⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a2 a 4a 4a a
and add and subtract it to the equation.
b b2 b2 c
Rearrange. x2 + x + 2 = 2 −
a 4a 4a a
The left side is now a perfect square. Get 2 2−
⎛ x + b ⎞ = b 4 ac
a common denominator on the right side. ⎜⎝ ⎟
2a ⎠ 4a2
Take the square root of both sides. Remember
b b 2 − 4 ac
to take both positive and negative square roots. x+ =±
2a 4a2
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Simplify the RHS denominator. x+ =
2a 2a
−b
b b 2 − 4 ac
Subtract from both sides. x= ±
2a 2a 2a
−
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Write using the one denominator (2a). x=
2a

The following examples show how the quadratic formula may be used.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14

Use the quadratic formula to solve the following without a calculator.

a 3x2 − 8x − 9 = 0 b x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
Give answers in exact (surd) form and comment on the usefulness of this formula for each example.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. aa b c

3x2 − 8x − 9 = 0
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
− ( − 8) ± (− 8)2 − (4 × 3 × − 9)
3 Substitute the matched values for a, b and c. x=
2×3
+8 ± 64 + 108
4 Simplify. x=
6
8 ± 172
5 At this stage, it is tempting to cancel 2 out of x=
the 8 and 6, but both terms of the numerator 6
must possess this factor, and initially they 8 ± 4 × 43
x=
don’t. However, in simplifying 172 into 6
4 × 43 , the factor of 2 emerges; then the 8 ± 2 43
cancelling is possible in step 6. x=
6
4 ± 43
6 Cancel down a common factor of 2 from x=
the numerator and denominator. 3

58 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 4 + 43 4 − 43
7 Write the two solutions separately. x= or x =
3 3
8 In the original equation, the coefficient of Using the quadratic formula was the most
x2 was 3; also, there are surds in the answer. appropriate method for solving this equation.
These facts suggest that neither completing the
square nor standard factorisation would have
been straightforward methods.

b 1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. ba b c

1x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
−5 ± 52 − (4 × 1 × 6)
3 Substitute the matched values for a, b and c. x=
2 ×1
−
5 ± 25 − 24
4 Simplify. x=
2
−5± 1
x=
2
−5±1
x=
2
−5+1 −5−1
x= or x =
2 2
− −
4 6
x =  or x =  
2 2
x = − 2 or x = − 3

5 In the original equation, the coefficient of x2 Using the quadratic formula is not the most
was 1; also, there are no surds in the answer. suitable method for solving this equation.
This suggests that an easier factorisation Factorisation of the left side in the format
method (i.e. inspection) would be more (x + a)(x + b) would be more efficient.
suitable. Note: This applies only if the
question does not specify a particular method.

WORKED EXAMPLE 15

Use the quadratic formula to solve 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0, and use your solution to
solve 2x2 + 6x − 12 = 0.
THINK WRITE

1 Recognise a common factor of 2 (divide each 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0

term by 2). x2 − kx + 2k = 0

2 Identify a, b and c for the quadratic formula. a = 1, b = −k, c = 2k

k ± ( − k )2 − 4 × 1 × 2 k
3 Substitute the values for a, b and c into the x=
quadratic formula. 2 ×1

k ± k 2 − 8k
4 Simplify. x=
2

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 59

 −2k
5 Compare 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0 to = 7 and 4k = −12, so k = −3.
2x2 + 6x − 12 = 0.
−3 ±
( − 3)2 − 8 × − 3
6 Substitute k = −3 into the solution found in x=
step 4 and simplify. 2
−3
± 9 + 24
x=
2
−3
± 33
x=
2

WORKED EXAMPLE 16

Consider the set of quadratic equations in the form 4x2 + bx + 9 = 0, where b is 11, 12 or 13. Use
the quadratic formula to explain the solutions that occur with each b-value.
THINK WRITE

1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. a b c

4x2 + bx + 9 = 0
−b ± b2 − 4 × 4 × 9
2 Substitute the values for a, b and c into the x=
quadratic formula. 2×4
−b ± b 2 − 144
3 Simplify. x=
8
− 11 ± 112 − 144
4 Substitute b = 11 and simplify. x=
8
− 11 ± 121 − 144
x=
8
− 11 − 23
±
x=
8
Evaluate the result. − 23
5 There is no solution, as we cannot evaluate .
− 12 ± 122 − 144
6 Substitute b = 12 and simplify. x=
8
− 12 ±
144 − 144
x=
8
− 12
± 0
x=
8
−3
x=
2
−3
7 Evaluate the result. There is one solution, x = 2
.

− 13 ± 132 − 144
8 Substitute b = 13 and simplify. x=
8
− 13 ± 169 − 144
x=
8
− 13
± 25
x=
8
− 13 ± 5
x=
8

60 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 −9
9 Evaluate the result. There are two solutions, x = 4
and x = −1.

10 The b2 values have had a clear impact on the The structure of the quadratic formula means the
solutions; recall that ± 0 = 0 and ± 25 = ±5. changing value of the expression under the square
root sign, b2 − 144, is critical.
b = 11: There was no solution (as negative cannot
be resolved).
b = 12: There was one solution (as ± 0 = 0).
b = 13: There are 2 solutions (as ± 25 = ±5).

Exercise 2G The quadratic formula

1 Identify a, b and c (the coefficients of x2, x and the constant respectively) in each of the following
quadratic equations.
a x2 + 4x − 3 = 0 b x2 − 7x + 9 = 0
c 9 − 4x + x = 0
2 d 7 − 3x − 6x2 = 0
e 2 x − 7x + 5 = 0
1 2 f (x + 1)2 = 0
g (2x − 3)2 = 0 h 5 − 2(x2 + 2) = 0
− 6x 2 + 4
i 3x2 − 10x + 4 + 4x2 − 11x = 0 j =0
2
2 WE14 Use the quadratic formula to solve the following (even though the equations may be
factorised by inspection).
a x2 + 9x + 20 = 0
b x2 − 10x + 16 = 0
c 2x2 − 13x − 24 = 0
d −4x2 + 13x − 3 = 0
3 WE15 Find exact (surd) solutions to each of the following.
a x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 b x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
c x + 3x + 1 = 0
2 d x2 + 10x + 12 = 0
e x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 f x2 − 7x + 6 = 0
g x2 − 4x − 2 = 0 h x2 − 9x − 8 = 0
−
i 2x + 3x + 1 = 0
2 j −4x2 + 12x − 1 = 0
−
k 2kx + 4x + 6k = 0
2 l 2kx2 − (k + 1)x + 4 = 0
4 a Use a CAS calculator and your answer for question 3k above to solve x2 + 4x − 3 = 0, and write the
value of k you used to do this.
b Use a CAS calculator and your answer for question 3l above to solve 62x2 − 32x + 4 = 0, and write
the value of k you used to do this.
5 Use a CAS calculator to find approximate solutions (3 decimal places) to each of the following.
a x2 − 6x − 2 = 0 b x2 + 3x − 9 = 0
c −2x2 + 7x + 1 = 0 d −9x2 − 2x − 2 = 0
e −x2 − 8x + 1 = 0 f 3x2 + x + 9 = 0
6 Use a CAS calculator to find approximate solutions to the following.
a x2 + 6x = 11 b 2x2 = 7 − 4x
−
c 10x + 2 = 5x 2 d x2 = 8x − 6
e 5 = 9x − 2x 2 f x2 − 2 = 7x + 4
g 5x + 6x + 2 = 0
2 h −x2 + 4x = 8
7 The population of a colony of rare African ants is given by the equation N = x2 + 2x + 300, where N is
the number of ants, and x is the height of the anthill in centimetres. How high could the anthill be when
there are 850 ants in the colony?
8 The profit, $P, made when a particular make of car is manufactured in t hours is given by the equation
P = 40t2 − 7t − 5000. In order to just ‘break even’, how long must the manufacturing process take?
9 The position of an item x metres from the start of an assembly line is given by x = −4t2 + 20t + 5 where t
is the time in minutes elapsed since the item started on the line. When is the item at position
x = 0 metres on the assembly line?

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 61

 10 A golf ball is hit from the bottom of a bunker as shown
at right. The height, h metres, of the ball above the ground
is given by h = 5.2t − 1.5t2 − 1, where t seconds is the
time the ball has been in flight.
a How deep is the bunker? h
b When is the ball first level with the top of the bunker?
c At which times is the ball at a height of 3 metres?
11 Debbi plans to pave sections of her backyard, as shown xm
at right. She has a total of 12 square metres of pavers.
a Find the value of x if she wishes to use her entire
supply of 5 pavers.
She then finds that the value of x (found above) will 4m
need to be rounded either up or down to a multiple of
0.5 m. Calculate the effect this will have on her existing
supply of pavers if she rounds: xm
b up
c down.
12 The surface area (in m2) of cement transport
containers made by a certain company is given Sloppo r
by 4π r2 + 24π r, where r is the radius of the Cement Co.
container. If the surface area of a particular
container is 60 m2, determine its radius.
13 The Gateway Arch in St Louis, Missouri, was
designed by Eero Saarinen in 1948 but not
completed until 1964. The line of the arch can
be represented by the quadratic function
y = − 95
2 (x − 95)2 + 190 where y is the height

of the arch at a horizontal distance x along the

base (ground level) from one side of the arch.
Both x and y are in metres.
a Re-express this function in an expanded form.
b How wide is the arch at its base?
c This is the tallest arch in the world. How high
is the Gateway Arch?

2H The discriminant
You may have found on occasions that no solutions (or ‘roots’) can be found for a quadratic equation.
If you were using the quadratic formula at the time, you would have found the trouble started when you
tried to evaluate the square root part of the formula. The expression under the square root sign is called
‘the discriminant’.
The discriminant is used to determine how many roots of an equation exist and is denoted by the
upper case Greek letter ‘delta’ (Δ).
−
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x= Δ = b2 − 4ac
2a
The quadratic formula The discriminant
If Δ < 0 (that is, negative), then no real solutions exist, as we cannot yet evaluate the square root of
a negative value. The word ‘real’ is used to describe numbers we can deal with at present. The set of
real numbers includes positives, negatives, fractions, decimals, surds, rationals (numbers that may be
expressed as a ratio — for example 49 ) and irrationals.
(In further studies of maths, you will learn about a way of dealing with square roots of negative
numbers using what are known as ‘imaginary numbers’.)
If Δ > 0, then the discriminant can be evaluated, and its square root can be added and subtracted in the
quadratic formula (see above) to produce two real solutions.
If Δ = 0, then there is nothing to add or subtract in the quadratic formula, and so there is only one real
solution to evaluate.

62 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 17

Find the value of the discriminant for the equation 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the expression. 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

Note the value of a, b and c. a = 3, b = −5, c = 2

2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac

3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (−5)2 − 4(3)(2)

4 Evaluate. Δ = 25 − 24
Δ=1

WORKED EXAMPLE 18

How many real solutions are there to the equation −7x2 + 3x − 1 = 0?

THINK WRITE
−7x2
1 Write the expression. + 3x − 1 = 0
Note the value of a, b and c. a = −7, b = 3, c = −1

2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac

3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (3)2 − 4(−7)(−1)

4 Simplify. Δ = 9 − 28
= −19

5 Comment on the number of solutions. Since Δ < 0, there are no real solutions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 19

For what values of k does −x2 + 2kx − 9 = 0 have:

i two distinct solutions? TUTORIAL
ii one solution? eles-1409
iii no solutions? Worked example 19

THINK WRITE
−x2
1 Write the expression. + 2kx − 9 = 0
Note the value of a, b and c. a = −1, b = 2k, c = −9

2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac

3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k)2 − 4(−1)(−9)

4 Simplify. Δ = 4k2 − 36

5 Consider case i, two distinct solutions. iii Two distinct solutions, require Δ > 0.
Note: |k| means the ‘size’ or ‘absolute value’ So 4k2 − 36 > 0
of k without regard to + or −. Since k2 is 4k2 > 36
always positive, we require k > 3 (values k2 > 9
such as 3.1, 4, 5 etc.) or k < −3 (values such |k| > 3
as −3.1, −4, −5 etc.) if k2 is to be > 9. k > 3 or k < −3

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 63

 6 Consider case ii, one solution. iii One solution, require Δ = 0.
The ‘size’ of k must be = 3. So 4k2 − 36 = 0
(That is, 3 or −3 are our only choices.) 4k2 = 36
k2 = 9
|k| = 3
k = 3 or k = −3
k = ±3

7 Consider case iii, no solutions. iii No solutions, require Δ < 0.

The ‘size’ of k must be < 3 (values such as So 4k2 − 36 < 0
−2.9, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 2.9 etc.).
4k2 < 36
An alternative method is shown in the next k2 < 9
example. |k| < 3
−3 < k < 3

WORKED EXAMPLE 20

For which values of k does 2x2 + 2kx + (k + 4) = 0 have:

i two solutions?
ii one solution?
iii no solutions?
THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Write the expression. 2x2 + 2kx + (k + 4) = 0

Note the value of a, b and c. a = 2, b = 2k, c = k + 4

2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac

3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k)2 − 4(2)(k + 4)

4 Simplify and factorise. Δ = 4k2 − 8(k + 4)

= 4k2 − 8k − 32
= 4(k2 − 2k − 8)
= 4(k + 2)(k − 4)

5 Since Δ is a more complicated expression Δ

Δ> 0 Δ>0
than those in the previous example, a graph
Δ=0
of Δ versus k (Δ on the vertical axis, k on the
horizontal axis) is useful. (Recall how you −2 4 k
sketched quadratic graphs in previous work, or
see the next section.)
−32 Δ< 0

6 For case i, we require Δ > 0 (quadrants iii Two solutions, Δ > 0.

1 and 2) From the graph, Δ > 0 when k < −2 or So k < −2 or k > 4.
k > 4.

7 For case ii, we require Δ = 0 (k-intercepts) iii One solution, Δ = 0.

From the graph, Δ > 0 when k = −2 or k = 4. So k = −2 or k = 4.

8 For case iii, we require Δ < 0 (quadrants 3 and 4) iii No solutions, Δ < 0.
From the graph, Δ < 0 when −2 < k < 4. So −2 < k < 4.
Note: This method involving sketching a
graph of Δ may be used as an alternative
to the method shown in the previous example.

64 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 21

Find an expression for the discriminant of the equation x2 + (2k +1)x + 4k = 0. Use this
result to:
a find exact and approximate values of k for which the equation has no solution
b explain the result obtained in part a through substitution of appropriate k-values into the
equation.
THINK WRITE

1 Identify the coefficients required. x2 + (2k + 1)x + 4k = 0

a = 1, b = 2k + 1, c = 4k
2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k + 1)2 − 4 × 1 × 4k
4 Simplify. Δ = 4k2 + 4k + 1 − 16k
= 4k2 − 12k + 1

a 1 For the original equation to have no solution, a 4k2 − 12k + 1 < 0

we require Δ < 0.

12 ± ( − 12)2 − 4 × 4 × 1
2 Solve the left-hand side using the quadratic k=
formula. 2×4
12 ± 144 − 16
=
8
12 ± 128
=
8

12 ± 8 2
3 Simplify. k=
8
k = 32 ± 2

4 Interpret the result for k. If 32 − 2 < k < 32 + 2 , then Δ < 0 and the
equation has no solutions.
5 Evaluate approximate values for k. If 0.086 < k < 2.914, then Δ < 0 and the
equation has no solutions.

b 1 A selection of values for k will produce Δ < 0, b Δ = 4k2 − 12k + 1

Δ = 0 and Δ > 0. Find a k-value that gives Let k = −2
Δ > 0. Δ = 4(−2)2 − 12 × −2 + 1
Δ = 16 + 24 + 1
Δ = 41
Δ > 0, so there are two solutions.
2 Find a k-value that gives Δ < 0. (Pick a value Let k = 1
in the range from step 4 of part a.) Δ = 4(1)2 − 12 × 1 + 1
Δ = 16 + 24 + 1
Δ = −7
Δ < 0, so there are no solutions.
3
3 From step 3 of part a, we know the k-values If k = 2 ± 2 , Δ = 0, so there is one solution.
for which Δ = 0.
4 Evaluate the result. If 3 − 2 < k < 3 + 2 , there are no solutions
2 2
to the original equation.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 65

 Exercise 2H The discriminant
1 WE17 Find the value of the discriminant in each case.
a x2 + 9x + 2 = 0 b x2 − 4x − 1 = 0 c 5x2 + 6x − 7 = 0
d 2x − 3x + 10 = 0
2 e −3x2 + x + 3 = 0 f −x2 − 2x − 6 = 0
g x + 15x = 1
2 h 9 − 7x = 4x2 i −3x2 = 5
2 WE18 How many real solutions are there to the following equations?
Do not actually work out any solutions.
DIGITAL DOC a 5x2 + x + 2 = 0 b −x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 c 3x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
doc-9718 d 3x2 + 6x + 3 = 0 e −2x2 − 8x − 8 = 0 f 9 − x2 + x = 0
Calculating the g 5x2 = 2 − x h 6 − 6x = x2 i 12x = 9x2 + 4
discriminant
3 WE19 Find an expression for the discriminant of each of the following.
a x2 + ax + 1 = 0 b ax2 + 2x + 3 = 0 c x2 + 6x + a = 0
d ax2 + bx + 1 = 0 e mx2 + 2mx + 1 = 0 f x2 + (m + 1)x + 3 = 0
g x − mx − (m + 4) = 0
2 h (k − 1)x − kx + 2 = 0
2

4 MC Which values of m below both result in the expression x2 − mx + 5 = 0 having two

distinct solutions?
A −20 and 3 B 0 and 20 C 4 and 5 D −6 and −5 E 0 and 5
5 WE19, 20 For what values of k does each equation have:
i two distinct solutions? ii one solution? iii no solutions?
a x2 + kx + 4 = 0 b x2 − 4x + k = 0 c x2 + 4kx + 4 = 0
d kx − 18x + 20 = 0
2 e x2 − 4x + (k + 1) = 0 f 6x2 + 4kx + (k + 3) = 0
g 4kx + 12kx + 9k = 0
2 h (k + 4)x2 + 10x + 5 = 0 i (k − 1)x2 − (k + 1)x + 2 = 0
6 WE21 Assume k = −1 in each of questions 5 a–i. Use substitution and your previous answers to
question 5 to complete the following table. (There is no need to actually solve the equations.)

Equation after
Question substitution k = −1 Number of solutions Reasoning
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i

Graphs of quadratic functions as

2I
power functions (turning point form)
Quadratic functions are also power functions. Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n ∈ R.
The value of the power, n, determines the type of function. When n = 1, f (x) = x, the function is linear.
When n = 2, f (x) = x2, the function is quadratic.
Other power functions will be discussed later.
Under a sequence of transformations of f (x) = xn, n ∈ R, the general form of a power function is
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c (where a, b, c, and n ∈R).
All linear and quadratic polynomials are also linear and quadratic power functions, because all linear
and quadratic functions are transformations of f (x) = x and f (x) = x2 respectively.
When a quadratic function is written in turning point form, it is written in power form. For example,
the quadratic function y = x2 + 4x + 6 can also be represented as the power function y = (x + 2)2 + 2.

66 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 In previous years’ work, you will have discovered the following connections between a quadratic
function in turning point (TP) form, and its graph.
Summary of the sequence of
transformations
y = a(x − b)2 + c

a is the dilation factor from the x-axis. x-coordinate of turning y-coordinate of turning
If a > 1, the graph gets thinner or point (horizontal shift) point (vertical shift)
narrower. Minimum value of y
If 0 < a < 1, the graph gets wider. for ∪ shape graphs
If a < 0, the graph is turned upside down Maximum value of y
(or, reflected in the x-axis). for ∩ shape graphs

y a positive, increasing
y

Turning point (b, c)

a negative, increasingly negative
x

WORKED EXAMPLE 22

For the graph of y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1:

i state the turning point coordinates
ii describe the width of the graph as ‘same’, ‘thinner’ or ‘wider’ compared to the width of y = x2
iii state whether the graph is a minimum (∪) or maximum (∩) type, and state the maximum or
minimum value of y
iv find the y-intercept
v sketch the graph (x-intercepts are not required).
THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Write the equation. Compare y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1

y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1 with y = a(x − b)2 + c
a = −3, b = −2, c = −1.
2 TP x-coordinate: b = −2. TP y-coordinate: c = −1 i TP (−2, −1)

3 y dilation factor = −3 (magnitude greater than ii Thinner

1 means it is thinner than y = x2)
4 a is negative, so the graph is ‘upside down’ or a iii The graph is a maximum (∩) type.
maximum shape.
5 Maximum y-value is c, which equals −1. The maximum value of y is −1.
6 The y-intercept can be found by substituting iv y-intercept: y = −3(0 + 2)2 − 1
x = 0 into the original expression and = −3(2)2 − 1
simplifying. = −13
7 Use the information above to sketch the graph. v y
(−2, −1) x

−13

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 67

 If a quadratic function is not in power form or turning point form, it must be manipulated in order to
answer questions like those posed in the previous example. To do this, we use the method of completing
the square as demonstrated in the following example.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23

Convert the function y = x2 − 6x + 1 to power form. State the coordinates of the turning point and
the maximum or minimum value of y.
THINK WRITE

1 Write the equation. Ensure the x2 coefficient is 1. It is. y = x2 − 6x + 1

(If not, divide the equation by whatever will change the
x2 coefficient to 1.)
2 Halve the x-coefficient and square it. Add and subtract y = x2 − 6x + 9 − 9 + 1
this value after the x term.
3 Group terms to make a perfect square. y = (x2 − 6x + 9) − 8
4 Factorise the perfect square part. y = (x − 3)2 − 8
5 Compare with y = a(x − b)2 + c. a = 1, b = 3, c = −8
6 The turning point is (b, c). The turning point is (3, −8).
7 a is positive, so there is a minimum The minimum value of y is −8.
value of y = −8 when x = 3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24

Identify the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = 2x2 + x − 4 using
algebraic methods.
THINK WRITE

1 Write the rule for the function. Begin the process y = 2x2 + x − 4
of completing the square by first taking out 2 as the 1
= 2[ x 2 + 2 x − 2]
common factor.
2 Half of 1
2
is 14 , and ( 14 )2 = 16
1 , so add and subtract this as = 2[( x 2 + 12 x + 16
1
) − 2 − 16
1
]
shown.
3 Continue on with completing the square, within the = 2[( x + 14 )2 − 16
32
− 16
1
]
square [ ] brackets.
= 2[( x + 14 )2 − 16
33
]
4 Multiply the 2 through the square brackets, leaving it = 2( x + 14 )2 − 33
8
as a factor of the curved brackets.
5 Read the coordinates of the turning point from this The turning point has coordinates
− −
form. Write your answer. ( 14 , 33
8 ).

Graphs of quadratic functions as power

Exercise 2I
functions (turning point form)
1 WE22 State the turning point coordinates for each of the following.
a y = (x − 5)2 b y = (x + 7)2 + 3
c y = (x − 2) − 7
2 d y = (x − 1)2 + 8
e y = 2(x + 3)2 − 4 f y = −6(x − 2)2 + 2

68 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

2 WE22 For each of the following:
i state the turning point coordinates
ii describe the width of the graph as same width, thinner or wider than y = x2
iii state whether the graph is a minimum (∪) or maximum (∩) type, and state the maximum or
minimum value of y
iv find the y-intercept
v sketch the graph (x-intercepts are not required).
a y = (x − 4)2 + 2 b y = (x − 2)2 − 3
c y = (x + 5)2 − 8 d y = (x − 1)2 − 1
e y = 2(x + 5)2 − 9 f y = 13 (x − 4)2 + 4
g y = 65 (x + 1)2 − 12 h y = −7(x − 3)2 + 3
i y = −(x − 8)2 − 9 j y = (1 − x)2 + 20
3 Sketch graphs having the following properties, but do not show intercepts.
a Turning point (2, 5), dilation factor of 3 from the x-axis
b Turning point (−1, 3), dilation factor of 1 from the x-axis
c Turning point (0, −4), dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis
d Turning point (6, 0), dilation factor of −1 from the x-axis
e Turning point (7, −7), dilation factor of −4 from the x-axis
f Turning point (0, 2), dilation factor of 12 from the x-axis
4 Determine the function rules of the following graphs, given that they are all of the power function form
y = (x − b)2 + c (that is, dilation factors all equal to 1).
a y b (−1, 5) y c y

4
8
(2, 4)
x x
x −1
(2, −5)

d y e y f y
(−3, 1) (6, 6)
7
x
x

−8 x
−30
(−3, −2)

5 Find the y-intercepts of graphs with the following properties.

a Turning point (1, 4), dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis
b Turning point (−2, −3), dilation factor of −1 from the x-axis
6 WE23 Convert each of the following to power form, and state the coordinates of the turning point and
the maximum or minimum value of y.
a y = x2 − 4x + 9 b y = x2 − 6x + 17
c y = x2 − 12x + 37 d y = x2 + 8x + 13
e y = x2 − 4x − 5 f y = x2 + 7
g y = x2 + 18x + 0 h y = 2x2 − 12x + 22
i y = 3x2 + 12x + 15

7 WE24 For each of the following quadratic functions:

i use by-hand algebraic methods to find the exact coordinates of the turning point
ii use a CAS calculator to verify this algebra and find decimal equivalents for these coordinates.
a y = 3x2 − 2x + 1
b y = −2x2 − 5x − 4
c y = 6x2 − 3x − 4

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 69

 8 A section of perspex for a parabolic window is drawn on a
coordinate grid as shown at right. What equation should be 8
programmed into the automatic glass cutting machine, using 6
the grid system on the diagram?
4
2

0 2 4 6 8

9 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = k(x − 2)2 + 1?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
E translated left F translated right
10 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = (x + k)2?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
E translated left F translated right
11 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = (x + 1)2 − k?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
E translated left F translated right
12 For the graph y = M(x + h)2 + n, state:
a the x-coordinate of the turning point
b the y-coordinate of the turning point
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9719 c the dilation factor from the x-axis
WorkSHEET 2.2 d the coefficient of x2 in the expanded version
e the coefficient of x in the expanded version
f the constant term in the expanded version.

2J Graphs of quadratic functions

(intercepts method)
In this section we will consider graphs of quadratic functions of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
When we talk about sketching a graph, we mean drawing a diagram showing the main features — not
a true scale graph showing every point plotted accurately using a computer package or other means.
To sketch a quadratic graph, the following features should generally be apparent or labelled.

1 The y-intercept y
The y-intercept is found by substituting x = 0 into the rule and
solving the equation for the corresponding y-value. That is, it
is the c in the general form y = ax2 + bx + c. y-intercept c
All quadratics have a y-intercept. x

2 Any x-intercepts if they exist

Any x-intercepts are found by substituting y = 0 into the rule y
and solving the equation for the corresponding x-value. Let’s x-intercepts
say the rule factorises to y = (x − d)(x − e). Then substituting
y = 0 into the rule gives the equation 0 = (x − d)(x − e). c
For this to be true, we must have x = d or x = e. x
d e

70 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 The turning point coordinates
Consider the general quadratic function, and complete y
Axis of symmetry
the square as follows:
y = ax 2 + bx + c x-intercepts
y-intercept
b c
= a ⎡⎢ x 2 + x + ⎤⎥ x Turning point
⎣ a a⎦ b b2
(− 2a
— , c − 4a
— )
⎡⎛ b b ⎞ 2⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ 2 c ⎤
= a ⎢⎜ x 2 + x + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ a ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠ a ⎥⎦
⎡ b ⎞ 2 b2 c ⎤
= a ⎢⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − 2 + ⎥
⎣⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a a⎦
b ⎞ 2 b2
= a ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − +c
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a
b ⎞2 ⎛ b2 ⎞
= a ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ + ⎜ c − ⎟
⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎝ 4a ⎠

You may recognise this form as turning point form. In this case, the coordinates of the turning
point are
⎛ −b b2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2a ,  c − 4 a ⎟⎠

Using xt and yt for the coordinates of the turning point, we have

−
b b2
xt =   and yt = c −
2a 4a
If a quadratic function has two x-intercepts, the x-coordinate of the turning point may be found by
averaging them.
y

d+e
——
2
d e
x

If there is only one x-intercept, then it is the x-coordinate of the turning point.
y

d x

The y-coordinate of the turning point may be found using the general turning point form above, by
completing the square from scratch or by substituting the x-coordinate into the original equation.
Recall also the two main types of parabolas:
y y

x x
Minimum parabola Maximum parabola
y = ax2 . . . (a > 0) y = ax2 . . . (a < 0)

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 71

 WORKED EXAMPLE 25

Sketch the graphs of the following, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
a y = x2 − 4x − 32 b y = x2 + 10x + 25 c y = −2x2 + 11x − 15
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the rule. a y = x2 − 4x − 32

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −32

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = (x + 4)(x − 8)
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 4)(x − 8)
x = −4 or x = 8
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning TP xt = , b = −4, a = 1
2a
point (TP). − ( − 4)

= 2(1)
=2
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 22 − 4(2) − 32
y-coordinate of the TP. Alternatively, use = 4 − 8 − 32
b2 = −36
yt = c − .
4a
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (2, −36)
8 Combine the above information and sketch y
the graph.

−4 8 x

(2, −36)

b 1 Write the rule. b y = x2 + 10x + 25

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = 25

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = (x + 5)(x + 5)
= (x + 5)2
4 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 5)2
x = −5
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. TP xt = , b = 10, a = 1
Alternatively, since there is only one 2a
−
x-intercept (−5), it must be the turning point 10
x-coordinate. =
2(1)
= −5
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = (−5)2 + 10(−5) + 25
y-coordinate of the turning point. = 25 − 50 + 25
=0
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (−5, 0)
8 Combine the information and sketch the y
graph. 25

(−5, 0)
x

72 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

c 1 Write the rule. c y = −2x2 + 11x − 15

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −15

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = −(2x2 − 11x + 15)

= −(2x − 5)(x − 3)
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = −(2x − 5)(x − 3)
2x − 5 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
2x = 5 or x = 3
5
x = 2 or x = 3
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. TP xt = , b = 11, a = −2
2a
− 11
=
2(− 2)
11
= 4
(or 2.75)

( ) + 11( ) − 15
2
11 11
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = − 2
4 4
y-coordinate of the turning point. − 242 121
=  16
+ 4
− 15
− 242 484 240
=   16 + 16
− 16
2
= 16
1
= 8 (or 0.125)
11 1
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP ( 4 ,  8 )
8 Sketch the graph, showing all important y (11
—, 1– )
4 8
features. 5–
2 3
x

−15

Don’t be put off if asked to sketch a quadratic graph whose equation doesn’t have 3 terms. Such cases
are easier to sketch, as the following example shows.

WORKED EXAMPLE 26

Sketch the graphs of the following equations.

a y = x2 − 16 b y = −2x2 + 14x
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the rule. a y = x2 − 16

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = 02 − 16

= −16
3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. In this y = (x + 4)(x − 4)
case, recognise a difference of squares.
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 4)(x − 4)
So x = −4 or x = 4

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 73

 −b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt = , b = 0, a = 1
2a
0
xt =
2(1)
=0

6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 02 − 16

y-coordinate of the turning point. = −16

7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (0, −16)

8 Sketch the graph, showing all important y

features.

−4 4 x

(0, −16)

b 1 Write the rule. b y = −2x2 + 14x

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −2(0)2 + 14(0)

=0

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. In this y = −2x(x − 7)

case, use a common factor of −2x.

4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = −2x(x − 7)

So x = 0 or x = 7
−
b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt =   , b = 14, a = − 2
2a
− 14
xt =   −
2( 2)
14
= 4
7
= 2
(or 3.5)

( ) + 14 ( )
2
7 7
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = − 2
2 2
y-coordinate of the turning point.
b2 = −
2 ( ) + 49
49
4
We could also use yt = c − .
4a − 49 98
= 2
+ 2
49
= 2
(or 24.5)

7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP ( 7 49

,
2 2 )
8 Sketch the graph. y
7– 49
,—
2 2

0 7 x

74 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 27

Sketch the graphs of the following equations.

a y = 3x2 + 6x − 1
b y = −2x2 + x − 7
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the rule. a y = 3x2 + 6x − 1

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −1

3 Factorising before finding x-intercepts (when If y = 0, 0 = 3x2 + 6x − 1

y = 0) is not easily done, so use the quadratic −b ± b 2 − 4 ac
formula. x=
2a
a = 3, b = 6, c = −1
−6 ± 62 − 4(3)(− 1)
x=
2(3)
−6 ± 36 + 12
=
6
−
6 ± 48
=
6
−
6 ± 16 × 3
=
6
−
6±4 3
=
6
−
3±2 3
=
3
x = 0.155 or x = −2.155
−b
4 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt = , b = 6, a = 3
2a
−
6
xt =
2(3)
= −1

5 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 3(−1)2 + 6(−1) − 1

y-coordinate of the turning point. =3−6−1
= −4

6 Sketch the graph, showing all important TP (−1, −4)

features. y

−2.155 0.155 x

−1
(−1, −4)

b 1 Write the rule. b y = −2x2 + x − 7

2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −2(0) + (0) − 7

= −7

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 75

 3 Factorising before finding x-intercepts (when If y = 0, 0 = −2x2 + x − 7
y = 0) is not easily done, so try the quadratic −b ±
b 2 − 4 ac
formula. x=
2a
a = −2, b = 1, c = −7
−1 ± 12 − 4(− 2)(− 7)
x=
2(− 2)
−1 ± 12 − 56
= −4

−1 ± − 55
= −4

− 55 No x-intercepts
4 cannot be evaluated so there are no
x-intercepts.
−
b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt =  
2a
−
1
=  −
2( 2)
−1
= −4

= 1
4 (or 0.25)

yt = − 2 ( 14 ) + 14 − 7
2
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the
y-coordinate of the turning point.
= − 2 ( 16
1
) + 14 − 7
−1
=  8+
1
4 −7
−1
=  8 + 2
8 − 56
8
− 55
=  8 (or − 6.875)

7 Sketch the graph, showing all important y

features.
( 1–4 , − 55
—)
x
8

−7

WORKED EXAMPLE 28

Consider the graph of y = x2 − 5x + 9. Use written algebra to:

a show that the parabola has no x-intercepts
b find how many units the parabola needs to be translated down, or ‘lowered’, so that
it has exactly one x-intercept
c find how many units the original parabola needs to be lowered so that its x-intercepts are
13 units apart.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the rule for the function. Any potential a y = x2 − 5x + 9

x-intercepts depend on the solutions of the
equation 0 = x2 − 5x + 9.

76 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 2 Calculate the discriminant, given a = 1, b = −5 and c = 9
a = 1, b = −5 and c = 9. Δ = (−5)2 − 4 × 1 × 9
= 25 − 36
= −11

3 The discriminant is negative. Interpret the The discriminant is negative, so there

meaning of this. are no solutions to the quadratic equation
0 = x2 − 5x + 9; that is, the parabola has no
x-intercepts.

b 1 Replace the original equation with a ‘lowered’ b y = x2 − 5x + c

one. Change 9 to a variable, c.

2 For this equation to have one x-intercept, the a = 1, b = −5

discriminant, Δ, must equal 0. Calculate Δ. Δ = (−5)2 − 4 × 1 × c
= 25 − 4c

3 Set Δ = 0 and solve for c. 25 − 4c = 0

c = 6.25

4 Write the new equation. y = x2 − 5x + 6.25

5 Compare the new equation with the original The graph is lowered by 9 − 6.25 = 2.75 units.
equation.
−b
c 1 Calculate the axis of symmetry of c Axis of symmetry =
y = x2 − 5x + 9. 2a
b = −5, a = 1
− ( − 5)
Axis of symmetry =
2 ×1
5
=
2
= 2.5
The turning point is at x = 2.5.

2 The x-coordinate of the turning point 13 ÷ 2 = 6.5

(here, 2.5) is always halfway between any 2.5 + 6.5 = 9 and 2.5 − 6.5 = −4
x-intercepts; the required distance between the The x-intercepts must be 9 and −4.
intercepts is 13 units.

3 The x-intercepts of a function y = (x − d)(x − e) The rule of the function is y = (x + 4)(x − 9).
are d and e given a dilation factor parallel to
the x-axis of 1.

4 Expand to find the y-intercept. y = (x + 4)(x − 9)

y = x2 − 5x − 36
The y-intercept is −36; the answer is correct
as the first two terms are identical to those in
the previous functions.

5 The amount of vertical translation will be 9 − (−36) = 45

the difference between the original and final
y-intercepts. The original parabola must be lowered by
Answer the question. 45 units.

Using the discriminant

Since finding x-intercepts for a quadratic graph involves solving a quadratic equation, we can use the
discriminant to decide the number of x-intercepts such a graph has.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 77

 y y y

x
Δ>0 Δ=0 Δ<0
2 x-intercepts 1 x-intercept No x-intercepts

Graphs of quadratic functions

Exercise 2J

DIGITAL DOCS (intercepts method)

doc-9720
Quadratic graphs —
1 Find the y-intercepts for each of the following.
general form a y = x2 + 9x + 2 b y = −3x2 + 6x − 4 c y = 4x2 + 2x
doc-9721 d y = 6 − x2 e y = 5x + 2 − 4x2 f y = 1 − x − x2
Quadratic graphs —
turning point form 2 State the x-intercepts for each of the following.
a y = (x − 1)(x − 6) b y = (x − 3)(x + 2) c y = (x + 5)(x + 1)
d y = (x − 4)(x − 5) e y = x(x − 2) f y = (3 − x)(4 − x)
g y = (x + 5)(5 − x) h y = −x(x + 8) i y = −(x + 9)2
−
j y = 3(2 − x)(x + 10)
3 State the x-intercepts for each of the following.
a y = (2x − 5)(x + 1) b y = (−3x + 1)(x + 2)
c y = (x − 9)(4x − 9) d y = −(x + 1)(6 − 5x)
e y = (2x + 3)(4x + 1) f y = 3x(x + 4)
g y = (Ax + a)(Bx + b)
4 Use the quadratic formula to find exact values (if possible) for the x-intercepts of:
a y = 4x2 − 2x + 3 b y = −x2 + 7x − 7
c y = −2x2 − 9x − 1 d y = 10 − 3x + 3x2.
5 WE25a, b Sketch graphs of the following, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
(Hint : Factorise first.)
a y = x2 − 4x + 3 b y = x2 + 2x + 1
c y = x2 + 6x + 8 d y = x2 + 12x + 35
e y = x2 − 8x + 12 f y = x2 + 2x − 63
g y = x2 + 3x + 2 h y = x2 − 5x + 6
i y = x2 − 11x − 12 j y = x2 + 14x + 49
k y = x2 − 16x + 64 l y = x2 + 8x − 153
6 Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
a y = 3x2 + 2x − 8 b y = 5x2 + 18x − 8 c y = 3x2 − 4x − 15
d y = 4x2 − 8x + 3 e y = 8x2 − 10x + 3 f y = 7x2 + 18x − 9
g y = 15x + 48x + 9
2 h y = 9x − 2x − 7
2 i y = 2x2 + x − 28
j y = 3x + 5x + 2
2 k y = 2x − 3x − 9
2

7 WE25c Sketch the graphs of the following.

a y = −x2 − 8x + 33 b y = −x2 + 2x + 3 c y = −x2 − 18x − 45
−
d y = x + 18x − 81
2 e y = −4x2 + 12x − 5 f y = −8x2 − 6x + 5
8 WE26 Sketch the graphs of the following.
a y = x2 − 25 b y = x2 − 121 c y = −x2 + 1
d y=3−x 2 e y = 2x2 − 18 f y = −3x2 + 12
g y = x + 5x
2 h y = x2 − 8x i y = 5x2 − 10x
j y = −4x2 − 24x k y = 21x − 3x2
9 WE27 Sketch the graphs of the following.
a y = x2 + 2x − 7 b y = x2 + 4x + 1 c y = x2 + 8x + 3
d y = −4x2 + 2x + 3 e y = −x2 − 18x − 1 f y = x2 − 3x + 1
g y = x − 7x − 2
2 h y = 2x2 + 7x + 4 i y = 3x2 − 9x − 5
−
j y = 3x + 17
2 k y = 4x2 − 5x

78 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

10 MC If a and b are positive numbers, which of the following graphs could be that of
y = (ax + 1)(x + b)?
A y B y C y
x

x
x

D y E y

x
x

11 MC If k and p are positive numbers, which of the following could be the graph of
y = x2 − 2kx + p?
A y B y C y

x x
x

D y E y
x x

12 Without sketching, determine how many x-intercepts each of the following graphs have.
a y = x2 + 37x + 208 b y = −3x2 − 4x + 8
c y = −9x2 + 78x − 169 d y = 4x2 + x + 9
e y = −x2 − 12x − 35 f y = 4x2 + 72x + 324
13 Consider the value of the discriminant in deciding which graph matches which equation below.
a y = 5x2 + x + 1
b y = 6x2 − 2x − 1
c y = −7x2 − x + 2
d y = −4x2 + 8x − 4
A y B y
x

C y D y

14 WE28b Use a CAS calculator and written algebra to find how many units and in which direction the
graph of y = 2x2 − 3x − 2 should be translated vertically so that it has exactly one x-intercept. Also, state
the function rule for this new parabola in both expanded and turning point forms.
15 WE28c Use a CAS calculator and written algebra to find how many units and in which direction the
graph of y = −3 (x + 2)2 − 4 should be translated vertically so that its x-intercepts are exactly 4 units
apart. Also, state the function rule for this new parabola in both expanded and turning point forms.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 79

 2KUsing technology to solve
quadratic equations
Quadratic expressions, equations and functions are linked closely, as you have previously seen. Study
the following table carefully.

Classification Characteristics Examples

Quadratic expression Degree 2 polynomial, no equals sign 4x2 − 3.4x + 2
Can be written in expanded and/or factorised form (x − 7)(x + 3)
x2 + 5x − 6
Quadratic equation One variable, one equals sign 4x2 − 3.4x + 2 = 19
0, 1 or 2 solutions exist (x − 7)(x + 3) = 0
x2 + 5x − 6 = −4
Quadratic function Two variables, one equals sign in the rule y = 4x2 − 3.4x + 2
Can be sketched, as it is a set of ordered pairs y = (x − 7)(x + 3)
Sketch is a parabola, with 0, 1 or 2 x-intercepts y = x2 + 5x − 6

Note: The solutions (also known as the roots) of a quadratic equation (say, 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68 = 0) are
identical to the x-intercepts of its related parabola (here, the sketch of y = 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68). They are
also known as the zeros of the related expression (here, 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68).
Can you see why the solutions of x2 + 5x − 6 = −4 become the x-intercepts of the parabola given by
y = x2 + 5x − 2?

WORKED EXAMPLE 29

Consider the expressions x2 − 8x + 12, x2 − 10x + 21, and x2 − 12x + 32. Use written algebra
and/or a CAS calculator to:
a find the zeros and factors of the expressions
b find the turning points of their related parabolas
c use the patterns seen in these answers to predict the next three and previous two quadratic
expressions, along with the features of their related parabolas.
Now consider a general quadratic function (variable x) whose graph is an upright parabola with a
dilation factor from the x-axis of 1. Its x-intercepts are j and k.
d Find the rule for this quadratic function.
e Find the function rule for a second parabola that has been translated 3 units to the left
of the original parabola.
f Verify your results for d and e (algebraically and graphically) by letting j = −5 and k = 2.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Factorise x2 − 8x + 12. a x2 − 8x + 12 = (x − 2)(x − 6)

2 Set the factorised expression equal to 0 and (x − 2)(x − 6) = 0

solve. x−2=0 or x−6=0
x=2 or x=6
3 Factorise x2 − 10x + 21. x2 − 10x + 21 = (x − 3)(x − 6)
4 Set the factorised expression equal to 0 and (x − 3)(x − 7) = 0
solve. x−3=0 or x−7=0
x=3 or x=7
5 Factorise x2 − 12x + 32. x2 − 12x + 32 = (x − 4)(x − 8)
6 Set the factorised expression equal to 0 and (x − 4)(x − 8) = 0
solve. x−4=0 or x−8=0
x=4 or x=8

80 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

b 1 The x-value of the turning point is halfway b For x2 − 8x + 12,
between the roots (zeros) of the associated 2+6
parabola. TP x-value = =4
2
For x2 − 10x + 21,
3+ 7
TP x-value = =5
2
For x2 − 12x + 32,
4+8
TP x-value = =6
2
2 Find the y-values of each turning point For x2 − 8x + 12,
by substituting the x-values in the 42 − 8 × 4 + 12 = −4
corresponding functions. For x2 − 10x + 21,
52 − 10 × 5 + 21 = −4
For x2 − 12x + 32,
62 − 12 × 6 + 32 = −4
3 State the turning points of each parabola. The turning points of these three parabolas are
(4, −4), (5, −4) and (6, −4).
c 1 Predict the next three expressions based c (x − 5)(x − 9)
upon the patterns from parts a and b. (x − 6)(x − 10)
(x − 7)(x − 11)
2 Predict the previous two expressions. (x − 1)(x − 5)
(x − 0)(x − 4)
3 The intercepts and turning points are
Expression Zeros TP Factors
moving to the right (horizontally) by 1 unit
for each step in the progression. This means x2 − 4x 0, 4 (2, −4) (x)(x − 4)
that only the x-coordinates change. Also,
the coefficient of the x term in the expanded x2 − 6x + 5 1, 5 (3, −4) (x − 1)(x − 5)
expression is the negative sum of the zeros, x − 8x + 12
2 2, 6 (4, −4) (x − 2)(x − 6)
and the constant term is the product of the
zeros. x2 − 10x + 21 3, 7 (5, −4) (x − 3)(x − 7)
x2 − 12x + 32 4, 8 (6, −4) (x − 4)(x − 8)
x2 − 14x + 45 5, 9 (7, −4) (x − 5)(x − 9)
x2 − 16x + 60 6, 10 (8, −4) (x − 6)(x − 10)
x2 − 18x + 77 7, 11 (9, −4) (x − 7)(x − 11)

d 1 Assign variables to the x-values of the zeros d Let j and k be the x-values of the zeros
of each quadratic function. (x-intercepts) of the quadratic function.
2 State the general function. y = (x − j)(x − k)
3 Expand. y = x2 − ( j + k)x + jk
e 1 When the parabola moves 3 units to the left, e The zeros are now j − 3 and k − 3.
3 is subtracted from both zeros (j and k).
2 State the new function. y = (x − ( j − 3))(x − (k − 3))
3 Expand. y = x2 − ( j + k − 6)x + ( j − 3)(k − 3)
f 1 Given j = −5 and k = 2, state the quadratic f y = (x + 5)(x − 2)
function. y = x2 + 3x − 10
2 Translate this function 3 units to the left by j − 3 = −5 − 3 = −8
subtracting 3 from j and k. k − 3 = 2 − 3 = −1

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 81

 3 State the new function. y = (x + 8)(x + 1)
y = x2 + 9x + 8

4 Sketch the graphs of y = x2 + 3x − 10 and y y = x2 + 9x + 8

y = x2 + 9x + 8 on the same set of axes. y = x2 + 3x − 10

−8 −5 −1 2
x

(TP) (TP)

5 Observe the features of the two parabolas. The turning points and zeros have been translated
3 units to the left. The second parabola has
been translated 3 units to the left from the first
parabola. The answers are verified.

Using technology to solve

Exercise 2K
quadratic equations
1 Use a CAS calculator to find all solutions of each of the following.
a x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 b x2 = 11x + 2
−
c x + 4x = 2
2 d x2 = 8x − 8
e x + 12x + 9 = 0
2 f −3x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
2 Find all roots of the quadratics below using a CAS calculator.
a 2.3x2 + 0.7x − 0.59 = 0
DIGITAL DOC b −0.811x2 − 5.2x − 3.1 = 0
doc-9722 c −3.97x2 + 17x + 8.05 = 0
Simultaneous,
quadratic and linear
d 5.18x2 = 2.66x + 9
equations e 0.006x2 + 0.923x + 0.361 = 0
f x2 + 500x = 47
3 The distance, d, of a comet from one of the moons of Jupiter is given by the equation
d = 47.9t2 + 0.03t − 908.7, where t is the number of hours since the comet was first discovered
on 28 June 2001. At what value of t will the comet reach this moon?

4 The number of marine organisms, N, in a marine research organisation’s testing tank is found to follow
the equation (or model) N = −0.0751h2 + 0.69h + 200, where h is the number of hours since the tank
was supplied with nutrient and stocked with 200 organisms. How long after being fed could the colony
survive without further food before none were left?

82 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 5 A diver follows a parabolic path from the diving board to the water, given by the function below. What
is the horizontal distance travelled by the diver from leaving the diving board to entering the water?
(h represents the height of the diver above the water for a distance, d, from the diving board in the
equation shown. Both h and d are in metres.)

h = −0.5d2 + 2d + 5

6 WE29 As part of a Year 11 Maths extension activity, Harry and Christine were each asked by their
teacher to come up with a quadratic expression whose zeros had a sum of 10.25 (or as close to that
as possible). The coefficient of the linear term had to be −5. When they returned to class the next day,
Harry announced his expression was 0.48x2 − 5x − 2.3, and Christine said hers was 0.49x2 − 5x + 1.9.
Who was closest, and by how much?
7 One of the solutions of the equation 10x2 + 11x = k (where k is a constant) is −1.6.
a Find the value of k.
b Find the other solution to the original quadratic equation.

2L Simultaneous quadratic and

linear equations
In previous studies you have dealt with pairs of simultaneous linear equations and solved these using
algebra. The solution could also be represented graphically. The same is true when we have one linear
and one quadratic equation as a pair of simultaneous equations.
INTERACTIVITY
Consider the following pair of simultaneous equations: int-0261
y = x2 + x − 2 and y = 3x + 1 Simultaneous
quadratic and
If x = 3 is substituted into the first equation, y = 32 + 3 − 2 = 10 is obtained. linear equations
If x = 3 is substituted into the second equation, y = 3 × 3 + 1 = 10 is obtained. That is, the coordinate
pair (3, 10) ‘fits’ both equations, so it is a solution.
If x = −1 is substituted into the first equation, y = (−1)2 + (−1) − 2 = −2 is obtained.
If x = −1 is substituted into the second equation, y = 3(−1) + 1 = −2 is obtained. That is, the coordinate
pair (−1, −2) is also a solution.
To illustrate the situation graphically, the related linear and quadratic functions must be sketched on
the same set of axes. As shown below, there are three possible relationships:
r
no points in common (hence, no solutions)
r
one point in common (hence, one solution)
r
two points in common (hence, two solutions).

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 83

 y y y

One
solution
x x
No solution
x
Two
solutions

When a linear equation and a quadratic equation are solved simultaneously, a new quadratic equation
is formed, as you will see in the following examples.
The number of solutions relates to the discriminant (positive = 2 solutions; negative = no solutions;
zero = one solution) of the ‘new’ quadratic.

WORKED EXAMPLE 30

a Solve the system of equations y = x2 + x − 2 and y = 3x + 1.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph is not
required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = x2 + x − 2 [1]

y = 3x + 1 [2]
2 Equate [1] and [2]. Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. x2 + x − 2 = 3x + 1
3 Collect terms on the side that makes the x2 + x − 2 − 3x − 1 = 0
x2 term positive.
4 Combine like terms. x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
5 Factorise if possible. (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
6 Solve for x. x = 3 or x = −1
7 Substitute x-values into the linear equation [2] If x = 3, y = 3(3) + 1 = 10
to find the corresponding y-values. If x = −1, y = 3(−1) + 1 = −2
8 Write the solution coordinates. Solutions: (3, 10) and (−1, −2)
b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = 3x + 1,
if x = 0, y=1
if y = 0, 0 = 3x + 1
−1 = 3x
−1
x= 3

2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = x2 + x − 2,

graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = −2
if y = 0, 0 = x2 + x − 2
so 0 = (x + 2)(x − 1)
and x = −2 or x = 1
3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y (3, 10)
the same axes, and include the points of
intersection found in part a.
− 1–3
1
−2 1 x
(−1, −2) −2

84 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 31

Solve the equations y = −0.5x2 − 4x + 2 and 11x + 2y = 6.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the two equations and label them. y = −0.5x2 − 4x + 2 [1]

11x + 2y = 6 [2]
2 Solve [2] for y. 2y = −11x + 6
y = −5.5x + 3 [3]
−0.5x2
3 Set [1] = [3]. − 4x + 2 = −5.5x + 3
−0.5x2
4 Simplify. + 1.5x − 1 = 0
5 Multiply by −2. x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
6 Factorise and state the solutions. (x − 2)(x − 1) = 0
x = 2 or x = 1
7 Find the corresponding y-values and substitute in [3]. When x = 2,
y = −5.5(2) + 3
= −8
When x = 1,
y = −5.5 + 3
= −2.5
8 Write the coordinates of the two points of intersection. The solutions are (2, −8) and (1, −2.5).

WORKED EXAMPLE 32

a Solve the system of equations y = x2 − 8x + 12 and y = −6x + 11.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph
is not required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = x2 − 8x + 12 [1]

y = −6x + 11 [2]
2 Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. x2 − 8x + 12 = −6x + 11
3 Collect terms on the side that makes the x2 − 8x + 12 + 6x − 11 = 0
x2 term positive.
4 Combine like terms. x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
5 Factorise if possible. (x − 1)(x − 1) = 0
6 Solve for x. x = 1 only
7 Substitute x-values into the linear equation [2] If x = 1, y = −6x + 11
to find the corresponding y-value. y = −6(1) + 11
y = −6 + 11
y=5
8 Write the solution coordinates. Solution: (1, 5) only
b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = −6x + 11,
if x = 0, y = 11
if y = 0, 0 = −6x + 11
6x = 11
x = 11 5
6 or 1 6

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 85

 2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = x2 − 8x + 12,
graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = 12
if y = 0, 0 = x2 − 8x + 12
so 0 = (x − 6)(x − 2)
and x = 6 or x = 2

3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y

the same axes, and include the points of
12
intersection found in part a. 11 Tangent
point

(1, 5)

11
— 2 6 x
6

WORKED EXAMPLE 33

a Solve the system of equations y = −x2 + 3x + 18 and y = 4x + 22.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph is not
required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = −x2 + 3x + 18 [1]

y = 4x + 22 [2]
−x2
2 Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. + 3x + 18 = 4x + 22

3 Collect terms on the side that makes the 0 = x2 − 3x − 18 + 4x + 22

x2 term positive.

4 Combine like terms. x2 + x + 4 = 0

5 Try to factorise. No solution using the Null (x )(x ) = 0?

Factor Law is apparent. Check the value of the Δ = b2 − 4ac
discriminant Δ of the quadratic in step 4. = (1)2 − 4(1)(4)
= 1 − 16
= −15

6 Since Δ < 0, there is no solution. Δ < 0, ∴ no solution; the graphs don’t meet.

b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = 4x + 22,

if x = 0, y = 22
if y = 0, 0 = 4x + 22
−22 = 4x

− 22
x= 4
− 11 1
x= 2
or −5 2

2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = −x2 + 3x + 18,

graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = 18
if y = 0, 0 = −x2 + 3x + 18
x2 − 3x − 18 = 0
so (x − 6)(x + 3) = 0
and x = 6 or x = −3

86 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y
the same axes. Note that the graphs do not 22
intersect, indicating no solution.
18

− 11
—
2
−3 6 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 34

The graphs with equations y = x2 + 4 x + 33 and y = mx + 24 intersect once only. Find the possible
values of m.
THINK WRITE

1 Write and label the equations. y = x2 + 4x + 33 [1]

y = mx + 24 [2]
2 Put equation [1] = equation [2] and form a x2 + 4x + 33 = mx + 24
new quadratic equation [3]. x2+ 4x − mx + 9 = 0
x2 + (4 − m)x + 9 = 0 [3]
3 For one solution only, we require Δ = 0. Δ = (4 − m)2 − 4(1)(9)
= 16 − 8m + m2 − 36
= m2 − 8m − 20
= 0 for one solution only.
4 Factorise and solve for m. (m − 10)(m + 2) = 0
m = 10 or m = −2
5 State the rules for the two straight lines. The two lines are y = 10x + 24 and y = −2x + 24.

Simultaneous quadratic and

Exercise 2L
linear equations
1 WE30, 31, 32, 33 For each of the following systems of equations:
i solve to find any solution coordinates
ii illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic
graph is not required.
You may use a CAS calculator to verify solutions.
a y = x2 + 6x + 5 and y = 11x − 1 b y = x2 + 5x − 6 and y = 8x − 8
c y = x2 + 9x + 14 and y = 3x + 5 d y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −11x + 6
e y = x2 − 2x − 3 and y = x − 6 f y = x2 + 11x + 28 and y = 10x + 40
g y = x2 + 5x − 36 and y = 15x − 61 h y = x2 − 6x − 16 and y = −4x − 17
i y = x2 − 2x − 24 and y = 4x + 3 j y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −4x + 6
k y = −x2 + 4x + 21 and y = x + 11 l y = −x2 + 14x − 48 and y = 13x − 54
m y = −x2 + 4x + 12 and y = 9x + 16 n y = x2 + 7x + 12 and y = 20
o y = −x2 − 4x + 5 and y = −4x + 9 p y = x2 − 4x + 4 and y = 8x − 32
2 State how many points of intersection exist with each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y = x2 + x − 6 and y = −9x − 31
b y = x2 − 16 and y = 6x + 11
c y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = −7x + 25
d y = x2 − 6x + 5 and y = 2x − 12

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 87

 3 WE34 The graphs of equations y = x2 − 14x + 49 and y = mx + 48 intersect once only, at x = 1. Find
the value of m.
4 The system of equations y = x2 − 4x + c and y = −7x + 8 has two solutions, one at x = 1 and another at
x = −4. Find the value of c.
5 The graphs of y = x2 + bx − 14 and y = −9x + c intersect at (−1, −8) and (−3, 10). Find the values
of b and c.
6 Using a CAS calculator, find the points of intersection, in exact form, for each of the following systems
of equations.
a y = x2 + 5x − 3 and y = 2x − 2
b y = 2x2 + 7x − 8 and y = 3x + 4
c y = −3x2 − 2x + 12 and y = −4x + 8
d y = −5x2 − 2x − 5 and y = 43 x − 5

7 An engineer’s plans for a proposed road through a y

mountain are shown at right. At what heights above y=− x–2
+5
2
sea level will the entrance and exit to the tunnel be, y = x–4 +2
given the equations of the mountain profile and road
path as shown on the plan? Entrance Proposed road
of tunnel
Sea level
x

8 A graphic designer draws a logo involving a parabola ‘sitting’ in a y

y = kx 2
V shape on a set of axes as shown at right.
Find the equation of the parabola, given it is of the form y = kx2,
and find the points of intersection of the V with the parabola.
−1 1 x
−2
ax
9 Use a CAS calculator to find the values of a in exact form such that the linear equation y = +a
−3 2
and the quadratic equation y =   8
x 2 + 3 x − 5 do not intersect.

88 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

10 Use a CAS calculator to help answer the following questions.
A pole 11 metres high is firmly secured to the ground. A parabolic arch is to be attached to the
pole 3 metres above the ground as shown in the diagram below. A metal rod will run directly from
the top of the pole straight to the ground so that it just touches the arch in one position only. Let
y be the height above the ground in metres and x be the distance along the ground from the foot of
the pole in metres.
y

(0, 11)

(0, 3)

0 x
A B

Give all answers in exact form unless told otherwise. −1 a

a The arch is to be modelled by the quadratic equation y =   8 x 2 + 4 x + 3, where a is a non-zero
positive constant. Find where the arch meets the ground in terms of a, that is, find the x-intercept.
b If it is decided that the distance from the foot of the pole to the point A is 12 metres, find the value
of the constant a.
c If the equation of the metal rod is modelled by the linear function y = 11 + bx, find the value of b.
(Hint: Consider the discriminant.)
d Find the coordinates of the point where the arch touches the metal rod.
e Find the maximum height of the arch correct to 2 decimal places.
f Find the distance from point A to point B both in exact form and correct to 2  decimal places.

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 89

Summary
Polynomials 1. A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted by P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative
whole powers of x.
2. The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power of the variable x.
3. The general form of a degree n polynomial is:
P(x) = an x n + an − 1xn − 1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1x + a0
where n is a positive whole number and an, an − 1, . . ., a2, a1 and a0 are coefficients.

Expanding quadratic r
To expand:

expressions 1. First term × everything in the second brackets, then 1
2
2. Second term × everything in the second brackets. (4x + 9)(2x − 3)
r
Perfect squares (ax + b)2 = a2x2 + 2abx + b2 3 4
r
Difference of squares (ax + b)(ax − b) = a2x2 − b2
r
Expand brackets first, then multiply if there is an ‘external’ factor in expressions like
k(ax + b)(cx + d).

Factorising quadratic r
Look for a common factor first.

expressions r
General quadratics: Write down (_x )(_x ) and try factors of the constant term.
r
Perfect squares: (ax + b)2 = a2x2 + 2abx + b2
r
Difference of squares: ( a x + b )( a x − b ) = ax 2 − b

Factorising by r
Use when whole number factors are not apparent.

completing the square r
Halve and square the x-coefficient, then add and subtract this new term.
r
Form a perfect square from three of the terms.
r
Continue to factorise using a difference of squares.

Solving quadratic r
Factorise.

equations — Null Factor r
Set each factor equal to zero.
Law r
Solve two mini-equations.

Solving quadratic r
Halve and square the x-coefficient.

equations — completing r
Add and subtract the new term.
the square r
Form a perfect square and solve for x.

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
The quadratic formula r
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then solutions may be found using x = .
2a

The discriminant r
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.

r
If Δ < 0, no real solutions exist.
r
If Δ > 0, there are two real solutions.
r
If Δ = 0, there is only one real solution.

Graphs of quadratic r
Turning point form: y = a(x − b)2 + c. y

functions as power r
The turning point is at (b, c) and the dilation factor is a.
functions (turning point r
If a > 0, the graph is a positive (∪) shape.
form) r
If a < 0, the graph is a negative (∩) shape.
(b, c)
r
To convert to turning point form, complete the square.
x

90 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Graphs of quadratic r
To sketch a quadratic graph of the form y = ax2 + bx + c:
functions (intercepts 1. Find the y-intercept (when x = 0)
method) 2. Factorise if possible, and find the x-intercepts (when y = 0)
It may be easier to use the quadratic y
formula in some cases. Axis of symmetry
If Δ < 0, there are no x-intercepts.
If Δ = 0, one intercept only. y-intercept x-intercepts
If Δ > 0, two intercepts.
x Turning point
3. Find the x-coordinate of the turning point b b2
−b (− 2a
— , c − 4a
— )
using xt = or by completing the
square. 2a

4. Find the y-coordinate of the turning point by substituting xt into the equation for y, or by
using
b2
yt = c − or by completing the square.
4a
5. Combine all the information and sketch it. Functions with a positive x2 coefficient are
∪ shaped, and those with negative x2 coefficients are ∩ shaped. If the information you have
gathered doesn’t seem to fit, check for calculation errors.

Simultaneous quadratic r
If given equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c and y = mx + k:

and linear equations 1. Set ax2 + bx + c = mx + k.
2. Rearrange to form a new quadratic equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0.
3. Solve to find any x-coordinates of intersection.
4. Substitute any x-coordinates into the linear equation to find the corresponding y-coordinates.
5. State the solutions (or state that there are none).

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 91

Chapter review
1 Expand:
SHORT
ANS WER a (7x + 8)(7x − 8) b (2x − 9)2 c (5 x − 3)(5 x + 3) d (4x − 9)(2x − 13)
2 Factorise:
a 25x2 + 110x + 121 b 6x2 + 37x + 6 c 12x2 − 37x + 21 d 36x2 − 49
3 Factorise x2 − 6x − 14.
4 Solve the following.
a (4x + 1)(3x − 9) = 0 b 3x2 − 40x − 75 = 0
5 Solve:
a 4x2 − 5 = 0 b x2 − 14x + 42 = 0
6 Solve x2 + 6x − 2 = 0.
7 Use the quadratic formula to solve 5x2 − 7x + 1 = 0.
8 Evaluate the discriminant for 4x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
9 Find the value(s) of k for which the equation 2x2 + 3kx + 6 = 0 has:
a no solution b one solution c two solutions.
10 Sketch the following, showing the turning point and y-intercept in each case (x-intercepts not required).
a y = −4(x + 1)2 + 2
b y = 6x2 − 1
11 Convert y = x2 + 8x + 3 to turning point form.
12 Sketch the following.
a y = (x − 6)(x − 14) b y = x2 + 2x − 80 c y = 3x2 − 26x + 48 d y = −2x2 − 5x − 3
13 Find any points of intersection of the line y = −2x − 6 and the parabola y = x2 + 7x + 12.
14 Solve 4kx2 − 5x + 3k = 0 for x.

M U LT IP L E 1 Which of the following is the expansion of (3x − 7)(x + 5)?

C H OICE A 3x2 + 8x − 35 B 3x2 − 7x − 35 C 3x2 − 2x − 35
D 4x2 − 2x − 2 E 4x − 2
2 Which of the following is a perfect square quadratic expression?
A x2 + 10x + 16 B x2 − 8x + 16 C x2 − 25
D (x + 6)(x − 6) E (x2 + 7)2
3 The expression 9x2 − 64 is an example of:
A a perfect square B a difference of squares C a negative quadratic
D a quadratic term E a factorised expression
4 Which of the following is equivalent to 36x2 − 49?
A (6x + 7)2 B (6x − 7)2 C (6x + 7)(6x − 7)
D (36x + 1)(x − 49) E (9x + 7)(4x − 7)
5 The expression (x − 2)2 + 8 can be factorised to:
A (x + 6)2 B (x + 6)(x − 10) C (x − 2 + 4)(x − 2 − 4)
D ( x − 2 + 2 2)( x − 2 + 2 2) E The expression cannot be factorised using real numbers.
6 Which of the following gives all solutions of the equation (2x − 7)(x + 4) = 0?
A x = 7, −4 B x = −2, −1 C x = 2, 1
−7 7 −
D x= ,4 E x= , 4
2 2

7 Which of the following represent the full solution to x2 − 6x + 9 = 0?

A x = −3 B x = −3, +3 C x=3
D x = −3, −6 E No real solution
8 A solution to (x − 5)2 − 7 = 0 is:
A x = −5− 7 B x = 5+ 7 C x = 7+ 5
−7+ −5+
D x= 5 E x= 7

92 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 9 If the equation 3x2 = 9 + x is to be solved using the quadratic formula, which set of values should be
substituted into the formula?
A a = 3, b = −1 and c = 0 B a = 3, b = −1 and c = −9 C a = 3, b = 9 and c = 1
1 −3
D a = 1, b = 3 and c = E a = 9, b = 1 and c =
9
10 The quadratic formula, which can be used to solve equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0, is given by:
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac b ± b 2 − 4 ac b 2 − 4 ac
A x= B x= C x = −b ±
2a 2a 2a
− b2 −b
± b − 4 ac ± b − 4 ac
D x= E x=
2a 2a
11 The value of the discriminant in 2x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 is:
A −23 B −7 C 25
D 32 E 41
12 For a quadratic equation to have at least one real solution, the discriminant could be:
A negative B zero C positive
D either positive or negative E a perfect square
13 The turning point of the graph of y = 5(x + 2)2 − 1 is at:
A (1, 2) B (1, −2) C (2, −1)
D (−2, 1) E (−2, −1)
14 If y = −3(x − 2)2 + 8, the maximum value of y is:
A −3 B −4
C 2 D 8
E 20
15 The graph shown could be for the rule: y
A y = + 5x − 30
x2
B y = x2 − 11x + 30 30
C y = x2 + 11x + 30
D y = −x2 + 11x + 30 −6 −5
E y = −x2 + 11x − 30 x
16 The turning point of y = x2 + bx + 40 is at x = −7. The value of b is:
A −14 B −7
7
C D 7
2
E 14
17 Using a CAS calculator, the approximate solutions to y = −x2 + x + 4 are:
A x = 0.5 and y = 4.25
B x = 0 and y = 4
C x = 2.56 and x = 0
D x = −1.56 and x = 2.56
E x = 1.56 and x = 0
18 The system of 2 simultaneous equations represented by the graphs y
at right has:
A no solutions for x
B one solution for x x
C one positive and one negative solution for x
D two negative solutions for x
E insufficient information for us to find a solution
19 A solution to the system of equations y = 2x − 1 and y = x2 + 8x + 8 is:
A (−3, −7) B (0, −1)
C (0, 8) D (3, 5)
E (2, 28)

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 93

 1 A 100 m length of steel cable is threaded through a series of posts in order to construct w
E X TENDED
R E SP ONS E a fence around a paddock with four straight sides as shown at right.
a Write an equation that links l and w.
b Rearrange the equation in part a to write an expression for l in terms of w.
l
c Write an expression for the area of the paddock in terms of w.
d Plot a graph of area against w. Plot area on the vertical axis and w on the
horizontal axis. On the graph, label all intercepts and the turning point.
e What is the maximum area of the paddock?
f What values of l and w give the maximum area of the paddock?
g Comment on the relationship between l and w, and state what type of shape the paddock is.
2 MacBurger’s restaurants have employed a mathematician to y
design a new logo based on an ‘M’ made up of two parabolas
as shown in the sketch at right. Parabola 1 Parabola 2
The parabolas both have the form y = −2x2 + bx + c.
a Give the coordinates of two points on each parabola. h
b Find the equation of each parabola.
c Find the height, h, of the sign. (−2, 0) (2, 0) x
d Which domain of x-values should each graph be restricted
to so that the parabolas form the logo shown above?
e Determine the equations of two parabolas that may be used to form the ‘W’ shape below, given
they are both of the form y = x2 + bx + c.
y

(−3, 0) (3, 0) x

3 Find the equation of a parabola that goes through the points listed in each case.
(Hint: Assume equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c and form simultaneous equations by substituting
coordinate values.)
a (0, 1), (1, 0) and (2, 3)
b (0, −1), (1, 4) and (2, 15)
c (0, 5), (−1, 11) and (1, −3)
d Find the equations of two parabolas that form a path similar to the one below depicting a proposed
water slide, given the x2 coefficient of each curve is 1 or −1.
y
(8, 8)

(4, 4)

4 a Using written algebra, sketch the graphs of the quadratic equations y = x2 − 6x + 8 and
y = 3x2 + 5x − 28, showing intercepts and turning points.
DIGITAL DOC b Why was one equation easier to sketch than the other?
doc-9723
Test Yourself c Determine another quadratic function whose graph has integer intercepts and turning point
Chapter 2 coordinates. How can this be ensured?

94 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

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CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 95

Answers CHAPTER 2
QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS e 12r2 + 28rs − 5s2 ⎛ 9 65 ⎞ ⎛ 9 65 ⎞
Exercise 2A Polynomials
f 9u2 − 4t2 e ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
g 2h2 − 128k2
1 a 3 b1 c 2 −3m2 + 36mn − 108n2
h ⎛ 11 145 ⎞ ⎛ 11 145 ⎞
d 6 e5
2 a x bt c x Exercise 2C Factorising quadratic
f ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
d x eu expressions
g No real factors
3 a Polynomial 1b 1 a 5xy2(xy + 4) b −2ax(4x − 7) ⎛ 5 17 ⎞ ⎛ 5 17 ⎞
b Polynomial 1c c 7(p q − 3p + 1)
2 d 11r2s(2r2s2 + 1) h ⎜x+ + x+ −
c Polynomial 1a e 5(x2 + 2x + 15) f −3(x2 + 6x − 2) ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
5 2 a (x + 9)(x + 7) b (x − 11)(x − 6)
4 a N; bP c N; −3 x ⎛ 13 173 ⎞ ⎛ 13 173 ⎞
c 2(x + 3)(x + 8) d −3(x − 2)(x + 4)
x i ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
− e (8 − x)(x + 12) f (3x + 5)(2x − 7)
d N; k 2 e N; 2x g (2x − 9)(3x − 5) h −2(4x + 1)(5x − 7)
5 a 3 bx ⎛ 1 13 ⎞ ⎛ 1 13 ⎞
3 a (2x + 3)(2x − 3) b (9x + 5)(9x − 5)
c −3 d5 ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
j
c 2(x + 4)(x − 4) d 18(x + 3)(x − 3)
e Coefficient of the quadratic term e (x + 3)(x − 1) f 3(x − 1)(3x − 5) 3 E 4 E 5 B 6 C
6 a 1 g 2(x + 10)(4 − x)
− 7 a 3( x − 3 + 10)( x − 3 − 10)
b 19 h −15(x − 1)(5x − 11)
c −2x2 + x + 2
4 a (x + 7)2 b (5x − 1)2 ⎛ 5 17 ⎞ ⎛ 5 17 ⎞
b 2⎜ x + + x+ −
7 a 6 c 2(x + 3)2 d 3(x − 2)2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
b t e −2(6x − 1)2 f (x + 3)2 −5(x
c − 1)(x + 3) or 5(1 − x)(x + 3)
c 0.9937; she is swimming 0.9937 m/s g (2x − 5) 2 h (2x − 3 2)2 −4(3x2
d − x + 2)
at 0.2 s. 5 a x(x + 6) b (x + 1)(x − 7)
d 1.818 m/s c −(2x + 1)(2x + 13) d (3x + 7)(3x − 11) Exercise 2E Solving quadratic

Exercise 2B Expanding quadratic e 2(x − 1)(x + 3) f 3x(8 − x) equations — Null Factor Law
−3
g 6(5x + 1)(15x + 17) −6,
b −1,
1
c 5, −2
expressions 1 a
h −(x − 5)(x − 7) i 3(x + 2)(10 − 3x) 2 6
1 a 2x2 + 16x + 30 b 12x2 − 5x − 3 −12 − 2 −1
6 a (x + 11)(x + 12) b (3x − 4)(2x − 5) d , e ,3 f −7, 23
c 25x − 25x − 14
2 d 48x2 − 26x + 3
c 2(2x − 1)(x + 3) d (9x − 31)(12x − 53) 7 9 2
e 7x2 + 19x − 36 f x2 + 21x + 90 7 a 3(x − 9)(x + 1) b (5x + 1)2 6 −
g , 6 h 0, 1
g −18x2 + 51x − 26 h x2 − 11x + 30 c (x − 14)2 d (x − 14)2 7
−1 −5
i 9x2 − 82x + 9 j 4x2 + 9x − 63 6, −12 c −2,
e 3 x ( 2 x − 2) f 5(2x + 1)(6x + 1) 2 a b 4,
2 a 4x2 + 12x + 9 b 9x2 − 30x + 25 2 4
g 5x(12x − 1) h 9(1 − xy)(1 + xy) 1
c 36x2 + 12x + 1 d 49x2 − 84x + 36 d 5, −11 e 3, −3 f
i 7x(5x − 4) j −2(6x + 7)(x − 7) 4
e x − 16x + 64
2
f x2 + 26x + 169
8 a C b E 2 −2
g 4x2 − 36x + 81 h 4x2 + 36x + 81 g , h 0, 5
c A 5 5
i 16 − 24x + 9x 2
j 36 − 12x + x2
9 k = 5, m = −4 −7 7 −1
3 a 4x − 36
2
b 9x2 − 25 3 a 5, 9 b , c
Exercise 2D 2 3 4
c 36x2 − 1 d 4x2 − 81 Factorising by completing −
1 −1 −5, 1 3
e 121x − 9 2
f x2 − 144 the square d
6
, 6 e
3
f
2
1 a ( x + 2 + 7)( x + 2 − 7)
g x2 − 36 h 49 − 4x2 9 −9 8 −5
g , h 0, i 2,
i 1 − x2 j 25x2 − 1 b ( x + 5 + 5)( x + 5 − 5) 4 4 5 2
4 a 6x + 46x + 60
2
b 6x2 − 3x − 84 c ( x + 3 + 2)( x + 3 − 2) j
5 1
,
3 2
c −8x2 + 4x + 40 d 24x2 − 66x + 27
e 96x2 − 56x + 8 f −70x2 + 35x + 210
d ( x + 1 + 2 2)( x + 1 − 2 2) 4 D 5 E 6 D
( x + 4 + 3)( x + 4 − 3) 7 Length = 8 cm, width = 5 cm
g 4x − 44x + 112
2
h 35x2 − 90x + 40 e
8 a The area is doubled.
i 2ax2 − 3ax − 54a j 2bx2 − 32b f ( x − 2 + 5)( x − 2 − 5)
5 a 36x2 − 169 b 60x2 − x − 10 b Length = 20 2 + 33 + 1 cm
c −6x2 + 27x + 168 d 9x2 + 66x + 121
g ( x − 6 + 17)( x − 6 − 17)
Width = 20 2 + 33 − 1 cm
e 4x2 − 196 f 36x2 − 60x + 25 h ( x − 1 + 6)( x − 1 − 6) 9 4 hours
g x + 7x − 144
2
h −x2 + 16 i ( x − 4 + 6)( x − 4 − 6) 10 a 30 b 13
i −100x2 + 120x − 36 11 a 42
j ( x − 3 + 13)( x − 3 − 13)
j 20x2 − 245 b 16
⎛ 3 5⎞⎛ 3 5⎞ 9
or 4.5 kg
2x2 − 7x − 34 18x2 − 14x + 5 ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
6 a b 2 a 12
2
−2x2 − 18x − 159
c 12x2 + 25x − 55 d 13 a 3.7 s b 2 5
e 4x2 − 24x − 62 f 23x2 − 114 ⎛ 5 37 ⎞ ⎛ 5 37 ⎞ 14 a x = 1.998 using fixed point iteration.
g x2 − 3 h 12x2 + 2 x − 2
b ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ (The correct answer is x = 2.)
7 5 b x = −0.562
i 4x2 + 9x + j 15x2 − 24x −
2 3 ⎛ 7 41 ⎞ ⎛ 7 41 ⎞ 15 a 0.228 b 1.140
7 a 4a2 + 8a + 2ab + 4b c ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ c 0.268 d 0.863
b 3x2 − 10y2 + xy 16 Answers will vary.
c 49c2 − 56c + 12 ⎛ 1 5⎞⎛ 1 5⎞ 17 Answers will vary.
d u2 + 8uv + 16v2 d ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ 18 Answers will vary.

96 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Exercise 2F Solving quadratic equations 5 a 6.317, −0.317 b 1.854, −4.854 d ik < 4.05 ii k = 4.05
— completing the square c 3.637, −0.137 d No real solutions iiik > 4.05
1 a −4
± 15 b −6 ± 33 e 0.123, −8.123 f No real solutions e ik<3 ii k=3
6 a 1.472, −7.472 b 1.121, −3.121 iiik>3
−2 ±
c 6 d 3± 5 c −
0.225, −1.775 d 7.162, 0.838
f ik > 3 or ii k = −1.5 or k = 3
e 5± 7 f 3± 3 e 3.851, 0.649 f 7.772, −0.772 k < −1.5
g No real solutions h No real solutions
−3 ± 13 −5 ± 17 iii −1.5 < k < 3
2 a b 7 22.5 cm g i No values of k ii All values of k
2 2 8 11.3 hours iii No values of k
7 ± 29 9 ± 89 9 5.2 minutes h i k<1 ii k=1
c d 10 a 1 metre
2 2 iii k > 1
b At t = 0.2 seconds
− 11 ± i i k < 3 or k > 3 ii k=3
105 c At t = 1.2 and 2.3 seconds
e f −2, 3 iii No values of k
2 11 a 1.2 m
6 (See table bottom of page)
b She will need to buy an extra 5.25 m2
3 a 2± 5 b 3± 7 Exercise 2I Graphs of quadratic
of pavers.
9 ± 73 −7 ± 65 c She will have 3 m2 of pavers left over. functions as power functions (turning
c d point form)
2 2 12 0.711 m
15 ± 201 −2 2 1 a (5, 0) b (−7, 3)
e 3 ± 19 f 13 a y= x + 4x
95 − d (1, 8)
2 c (2, 7)
b 190 m
g 7±5 2 h No solutions
c 190 m e (−3, −4) f (2, 2)
4 a ± 14 b± 6 2 a i (4, 2)
Exercise 2H The discriminant ii Same
c ±2 3 d ±3 1 a 73 b 20 c 176 iii Minimum y = 2
5 E d −71 e 37 f −20 iv 18
6 C v y
g 229 h 193 i −
60
7 D
2 a 0 b 2 c 0
8 a Solutions do not exist.
d 1 e 1 f 2 (0, 18)
21 g 2 h 2 i 1
b x =2±
6 3 a a2 − 4
3 −
c , 1
2
b 4 − 12a
d Solutions do not exist. c 36 − 4a
(4, 2)
Exercise 2G
d b2 − 4a
The quadratic formula x
e 4m2 − 4m
1 a 1, 4, −3 b 1, −7, 9 f m2 + 2m − 11 b i (2, −3) ii Same
−
c 1, 4, 9 d −6, −3, 7 iii Minimum y = −3
g m2 + 4m + 16 iv 1
1 −
e , 7, 5 f 1, 2, 1 h k2 − 8k + 8 v y
2
g 4, −12, 9 h −2,
0, 1 4 D
i 7, −21, 4 j −
3, 0, 2 5 a i k > 4 or k < −4 ii k = ±4
− 1
2 a −4, −5 b 2, 8 iii 4<k<4
c 8,
−3
d 3,
1 b i k<4 ii k=4 x
2 4 iii k>4
−5 13
b − 4 ± 11
c i k > 1 or k < −1 ii k = ±1
3 a ± −1 < k < 1 (2, −3)
2 2 iii
−3 5
c ± d − 5 ± 13 6
Equation after
2 2 substitution Number of
e 3± 7 f 6, 1 Question k = −1 solutions Reasoning
9 113 a x2 −x+4=0 0 Δ = k2 − 16 = −15
g 2± 6 h ±
2 2 b x2 − 4x − 1 = 0 2 Δ = 16 − 4k = 20
3 17 3 c x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 1 Δ = 16k2 − 16 = 0
i ± j ± 2
4 4 2 −x2
d − 18x + 20 = 0 2 Δ = 324 − 80k = 404
± 3k 2 +1 +1 e x2 − 4x = 0 2 Δ = 12 − 4k = 16
k x=
k f 6x2 − 4x + 2 = 0 0 Δ = 16k2 − 24k − 72
k + 1 ± k 2 − 30 k + 1 = −32
l x=
4k −4x2
g − 12x − 9 = 0 1 Δ = 144k2 − 144k2
4 a −2 ±
7; k =
−1 =0
2
h 3x2 + 10x + 5 = 0 2 Δ = 20 − 20k = 40
8± 2
b ; k = 31 i −2x2
+2=0 2 Δ = k2 − 6k + 9 = 16
31

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 97

 c i (−5, −8) h i (3, 3) ii Thinner 4 a y = (x − 2)2 + 4
ii Same iii Maximum y = 3 iv −60 b y = −(x + 1)2 + 5
iii Minimum y = −8 v y c y = (x − 2)2 − 5
(3, 3)
iv 17 d y = −(x + 3)2 + 1
v y x e y = −(x − 6)2 + 6
f y = (x + 3)2 − 2
17 5 a 6
b −7
−60 6 a (2, 5) minimum y = 5
b (3, 8) minimum y = 8
c (6, 1) minimum y = 1
i i (8, −9) ii Same d (−4, −3) minimum y = −3
x
iii Maximum y = −9 iv −73 e (2, −9) minimum y = −9
v y f (0, 7) minimum y = 7
(−5, −8)
g (−9, −81) minimum y = −81
d i (1, −1) (8, −9) x
h (3, 4) minimum y = 4
ii Same i (−2, 3) minimum y = 3
iii Minimum y = −1 1 2
7 a i( , ) ii (0.33, 0.67)
iv 0 3 3
v y −73 − −
b i ( 5 , 7) ii (−1.25, −0.875)
4 8
−
c i ( 1 , 35 ) ii (0.25, −4.375)
4 8
8 y = −(x − 5)2 + 9
x j i (1, 20) 9 C
ii Same 10 E
(1, −1) iii Minimum y = 20 11 B
e i (−5, −9) iv 21 12 a −h b n c M
ii Thinner v y d M e 2Mh f Mh2 + n
iii Minimum y = −9 Exercise 2J Graphs of quadratic
iv 41
y
functions (intercepts method)
v 21 1 a 2 b −4 c 0
(1, 20)
d 6 e 2 f 1
2 a 1, 6 b 3, −2 c −5, −1
41 x d 4, 5 e 0, 2 f 3, 4
g −5, 5 h 0, −8 i −9
3 a y b y j 2, −10
5 − 1 9
3 a , 1 b , −2 c 9,
2 3 4
− 3 −1
d −1, 6 e , f 0, −4
5 2 4
x −a −b
(−5, −9) g ,
(2, 5) A B
f i (4, 4) ii Wider (−1, 3) 4 a No x-intercepts
28
iii Minimum y = 4 iv x x
b
7
± 21
3
v y 2 2
c y d y −9 73
c ±
(6, 0) 4 4
28 x d No x-intercepts
—
3
5 a y

(4, 4)
x
x 3
(0, −4)
g i (−1, −12) ii Thinner
− 54
iii Minimum y = −12 iv e y f y 1 3 x
5 (2, −1)
v y
x b y

(7, −7)
x

− 54
— 1
5
(0, 2) x
(−1, 0)
(−1, −12) x

98 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

c y i y d y

8 3
−1 12 x
−12

1– 3– x
−4 −2 x 2 2
(1, −1)
(−3, −1) (11
— , − 169
—– )
2 4

j y e y
d y

35 49

1– 3– x
2 4
(−7, 0) x ( 5– , − 1– )
8 8

k y

−7 −5 f y
x 3–
(−6, −1) 7
64 −3 x
−9

e y

(8, 0) x
12 (− 9– , − 144
–— )
l y 7 7

−17 9 x y
g
2 6 x
(4, −4)
9

f y
(−4, −169) −153

−9 7 x y
6 a − 1–
5
−3 x
(− 8– , − 147
–— )
5 5

−63 −2 4– x
(−1, −64) 3 y
h
(− 1– , − 25
—)
3 3 −8
− 7– 1 x
y y 9
g b

−4 2– x −7
2 5 ( 1– , − 64
—)
9 9

−2 −1 x −8
(− 3– , − 1– ) i y
2 4
(− 9– , − 121
—– )
5 5

c y −4 7– x
y
h 2

6 − 5– 3 x
3

−15
−28
2 3 x
( 5– , − 1– ) (− 1– , − 225
–—)
2 4 ( 2– , − 49
—) 4 8
3 3

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 99

 j y e y f y
( 3– , 4) 12
2

2
1– 5– x
2 2
−5

− 2–
3
−1 x −2 2 x
(− 5– , − —1 ) f y
6 12 (− 3– , 49
—)
8 8 y
g
5
k y

− 5– 1– x −5 0 x
− 3– 3 x 4 2
2
(− 5– , − 25
—)
2 4
8 a y

−5 5 x h y

−9
( 3– , − 81
—)
4 8
0 8 x

y
7 a (−4, 49)
(4, −16)
−25
33 y
y i
b
−11 11 x

−11 3 x 0 2 x

(1, −5)
y
b
(1, 4) y
−121 j (−3, 36)
3

c y
−1 3 x
1

−6 0 x
−1 1 x

y
c
(−9, 36) k y
( 7– , 147
–—)
2 4
d y
−15 −3 x
3

−45
− 3 3 x

0 7 x

y y
d (9, 0) e y 9 a
x
−3 3 x
−3.828 1.828 x

−81 −7
−18 (−1, −8)

100 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

b y i y Exercise 2L Simultaneous quadratic
and linear equations
1 −0.479 3.479 x 1 a y
−0.268 −5 (3, 32)
−3.732 x

(2, 21)

(−2, −3) ( 3– , − 47
—)
2 4
y 5 1
c —
11
j y
−3 −2 −1 x
3 (0, 17)

−0.395
−7.606 x b y

(2, 8)
−2.380 2.380 x

−6 (1, 0) x
k y
(−4, −13)
−6
d y −8
( 1– , 13
—)
4 4 5–
4
0 x
3
( 5– , − 25
—) c y
8 16

10 D 11 B
14
−0.651 1.151 x 12 a 2
b 2 −2 5
y c 1 −7 x
e (−9, 80)
d 0
(−3, −4)
e 2
f 1
13 a C d y
b A
−0.056 c D
−17.944 −1 x d B
(−2, 28)
25 3
14 units; up; y = 2x2 − 3x + 9 ; y = 2( x − 4 )2
8 8
15 16 units; up; y = −3x2 − 12x;
f y y = −3(x + 2)2 + 12 10
Exercise 2K Using technology to solve 6 6
—
11
quadratic equations
2 5 x
1 1 a −3.732, −0.268
0.382 2.618 b −0.179, 11.179
x c 3.414, 0.586 e y
( 3– , − 5– )
2 4 d −8.899, 0.899
y e −11.196, −0.804
g 3
f 0.232, 1.434 x
−1 6
2 a 0.377, −0.681 −6
−0.275 7.275 x
b −5.747, −0.665
−2 c 4.712, −0.430
d −1.086, 1.600 f y
( 7– , −57
—) e −153.441, −0.392 (3, 70)
2 4
f 0.094, −500.094
y
h 3 4.355 h
4 56.4 h
5 5.7 m 40
4
6 Christine; her sum was 0.046 less than 28
−0.719 10.25, whereas Harry’s was 0.167 more
−2.781 x than 10.25.
(−4, 0)
7 a k=8
(− 7– , − 17
—) −7 −4 x
4 8 b x = 0.5

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 101

 g y m y
9 3 − 3 < a <3 3 + 9
16
10 a x = a + a 2 + 24 b a=5
(5, 14) (−1, 7) −3
c b= d (8, 5)
−2 4
6 x e 6.13 metres
− 16
—
9
−9 4 x
f |AB| = 2.67 metres (approx)
−36 = 2 2 m (exact)
(−4, −20) 3

CHAPTER REVIEW
−61 n y
SHORT ANSWER
1 a 49x2 − 64 b 4x2 − 36x + 81
(−8, 20) (1, 20)
c 25x2 − 3 d 8x2 − 70x + 117
h y 2 a (5x + 11)2 b (x + 6)(6x + 1)
12 c (3x − 7)(4x − 3) d (6x + 7)(6x − 7)
−2 3 (x − 3 + 23)(x − 3 − 23)
−17
– 8 x −1 −5
4 4 a 3, b 15,
−4 −3 x 4 3
−16
−17 y 5 a ± 5
b 7± 7
(1, −21) o 2

6 − 3 ± 11
9
7 29
7
10
± 10
y −135
i 8
(9, 39) 9– −4 3 4 3
4
x
9 a
3
<k< 3
−5 1
4 3
b k=±
p y 3

−4 3
− 3–4 3 c k>
4 3
or k <
−4 3 3
6 x (6, 16)
(−3, −9) 10 a y
(−1, 2)
−24
x
4
2 4 x −2
j y (2, 0)

2 a 1 b 2 c 2 d 0 b y
10 3 −12

6 4 4
x
2 5 5 b = −5, c = −17
3– x
2
⎛ − 3 − 13 − ⎞
6 a
⎜⎝ , 5 − 13 ⎟ and (0, −1)
2 ⎠
⎛ − 3 + 13 − ⎞ 11 y = (x + 4)2 − 13
k
y
⎜⎝ , 5 + 13 ⎟ 12 a y
2 ⎠
21
b (− 1 − 7, 1 − 3 7) and 84
11 (5, 16)
(−2, 9) (− 1 + 7, 1 + 3 7)
⎛ 1 − 13 4(5 + 13) ⎞
c
−3 7 x ⎜⎝ 3 , 3 ⎟⎠ and 6 14 x
(10, −16)
⎛ 1 + 13 4(5 − 13) ⎞
l
y 54 ⎜⎝ 3 , 3 ⎟⎠ b y
—
13
6 8 x − 11 − 433
d ⎛ , ⎞ and (0, −5)
(3, −15) ⎜⎝ ⎟
20 80 ⎠ −10 8 x
−48
−54 7 1.322 km and 2.553 km
x2 −80
(−2, −80) 8 y= , (2, 2) and (−2, 2) (−1, −81)
2

102 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 c y d −2 ≤ x ≤ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
7 C 8 B 9 B
10 A 11 A 12 C e y = x2 + 6x + 9, y = x2 − 6x + 9
48 13 E 14 D 15 C 3 a y = 2x2 − 3x + 1
16 E 17 D 18 D b y = 3x2 + 2x − 1
19 A c y = −x2 − 7x + 5
8–
3 d y = −x2 + 5x, y = x2 − 11x + 32
x EXTENDED RESPONSE y
6 4 a
( 13
—,
3 − 25
—)
3
1 a 100 = 2l + 2w
b l = 50 − w
d y
( − 5– , 1– ) c A = −w2 + 50w 8
4 8
d Area
− 3–2 (25, 625)

−1 x
2 4 x
(3, −1)
−3

(0, 0) (50, 0) w b The turning point of the first graph has

whole number (integer) coordinates.
13 (−3, 0) and (−6, 6) e Area = 625 m2 c The x-coordinate of the turning point
5± 25 − 48 k 2 f l = 25 m, w = 25 m −
b
14 x = g l = w: the paddock is a square. is , so is a whole number if b is a
8k 2a
2 a Parabola 1: (−2, 0) and (0, 0), multiple of 2a.
MULTIPLE CHOICE parabola 2: (2, 0) and (0, 0)
1 A 2B 3 B b y = −2x2 − 4x, y = −2x2 + 4x
4 C 5E 6 E c h = 2 units

CHAPTER 2 ‡ Quadratic functions 103

CHAPTER 3
Cubic and quartic functions
CHAPTER CONTENTS DIGITAL DOC
doc-9724
3A Expanding 10 Quick Questions
3B Long division of polynomials
3C Polynomial values
3D The remainder and factor theorems
3E Factorising polynomials
3F Sum and difference of two cubes
3G Solving polynomial equations
3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method
3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method
3J Graphs of cubic functions in power function form
3K Domain, range, maximums and minimums
3L Modelling using technology
3M Finite differences

Polynomials of degree 3 and 4

This chapter will deal mainly with polynomials of degree 3 (cubics). The general equation of a cubic
polynomial is P(x) = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0, more commonly written as y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
Degree 4 polynomials (quartics) will also be considered. The general equation of a quartic polynomial
is P(x) = a4 x4 + a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0, more commonly written as y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.

3A Expanding
If we expand three linear factors, for example, (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 7), we get a cubic polynomial
(a polynomial of degree 3) as the following worked example shows.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Expand:
a x(x + 2)(x − 3) b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2).
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a x(x + 2)(x − 3)

= x(x2 − 3x + 2x − 6)
2 Expand two linear factors and simplify.
= x(x2 − x − 6)
3 Multiply by the remaining factor. = x3 − x2 − 6x
b 1 Write the expression. b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
= (x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 5x + 10)
2 Expand two linear factors and simplify.
= (x − 1)(x2 + 7x + 10)
3 Multiply by the remaining factor and simplify. = x3 + 7x2 + 10x − x2 − 7x − 10
= x3 + 6x2 + 3x − 10

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 105

 Note: Just as there is a shortcut for expanding perfect squares, there is also a shortcut for expanding
cubes. We can find the shortcut by expanding (a + b)3 as usual.
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) = (a + b)(a2 + 2ab + b2)
= a3 + 2a2b + ab2 + a2b + 2ab2 + b3 (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3
Similarly, (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Expand the perfect cube (x − 4)3 using the appropriate rule.

THINK WRITE

1 Use the rule (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3. (x − 4)3

In this case a is x and b is 4. = x3 − 3 × x2 × 4 + 3 × x × 42 − 43
2 Simplify. (x − 4)3
= x3 − 12x2 + 48x − 64

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

Expand −2x(x + 5)(x − 12).

THINK WRITE
−2x(x
1 Write the expression. + 5)(x – 12)
2 Expand the two linear factors and simplify. = −2x(x2 − 12x + 5x − 60)
= −2x(x2 − 7x − 60)
3 Multiply the remaining factor. No = −2x3 + 14x2 + 120
simplification is needed.

Exercise 3A Expanding
1 WE1a Expand each of the following.
a x(x + 6)(x + 1) b x(x − 9)(x + 2) c x(x − 3)(x + 11) d 2x(x + 2)(x + 3)
e −3x(x − 4)(x + 4) f 5x(x + 8)(x + 2) g x2(x + 4) h −2x2(7 − x)
i (5x)(−6x)(x + 9) j −7x(x + 4)2

2 WE1b Expand each of the following.

a (x + 7)(x + 2)(x + 3) b (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5) c (x − 1)(x − 4)(x + 8)
d (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) e (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 1) f (x − 7)(x + 7)(x + 5)
g (x + 11)(x + 5)(x − 12) h (x + 5)(x − 1)2 i (x + 2)(x − 7)2
j (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
3 Expand each of the following.
a (x − 2)(x + 7)(x + 8) b (x + 5)(3x − 1)(x + 4) c (4x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)
d (5x + 3)(2x − 3)(x − 4) e (1 − 6x)(x + 7)(x + 5) f 3x(7x − 4)(x − 4)
g −9x(1 − 2x)(3x + 8) h (6x + 5)(2x − 7)2 i (3 − 4x)(2 − x)(5x + 9)
j 2(7 + 2x)(x + 3)(x + 4)
4 WE2 Expand the following using the appropriate rule for expanding cubes.
a (x + 2)3 b (x + 5)3 c (x − 1)3
d (x − 3)3 e (2x − 6) 3 f (3x + 4)3
5 WE3 Expand each of the following.
a (x + 5)(x − 11)(x + 2) b 3x(x + 6)(x − 1) c 6(x − 5)(−x + 15)(x + 8)
d (−x + 5)(x − 12)2 e −x(x + 10)2 f −(x+ 13)3

106 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3B Long division of polynomials
The reverse of expanding is factorising (expressing a polynomial as a product of its linear factors).
Before learning how to factorise cubics, you must be familiar with long division of polynomials. You
may remember in earlier levels doing long division questions.
Consider 745 ÷ 3, or 3 745
The process used is as follows.

3 into 7 goes 2 times. Write 2 at the top. 2

2 × 3 = 6. Write down the 6. 3 745
Subtract to get 1. −6
Bring down the 4 to form 14. 14

3 into 14 goes 4 times. Write 4 at the top. 248 Quotient

4 × 3 = 12. Write down the 12. Divisor 3 745 Dividend
Subtract to get 2. −6
Bring down the 5 to form 25. 14
− 12
25
3 into 25 goes 8 times. Write 8 at the top. − 24
8 × 3 = 24. Write down the 24. 1 Remainder
Subtract to get 1.
Answer: 745 ÷ 3 = 248 remainder 1

The same process can be used to divide polynomials by polynomial factors.

Consider (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) or x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10

x into x3 goes x2 times x2

(consider only the leading terms). x−3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
Write x2 at the top. − (x3 − 3x2)
x2 × (x − 3) = x3 − 3x2 5x2 − 13x
Write down the x3 − 3x2.

Subtract.
(x3 − x3 = 0, 2x2 − −3x2 = 5x2)
Bring down the −13x.

x into 5x2 goes 5x times. Write + 5x at the top. x2 + 5x + 2 Quotient

5x × (x − 3) = 5x2 − 15x Divisor x−3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10 Dividend
Write down the 5x2 − 15x. − (x3 − 3x2)
5x2 − 13x
Subtract.
− (5x2 − 15x)
Note: 5x2 − 5x2 = 0, −13x − −15x = +2x
2x + 10
Bring down the 10. − (2x − 6)
16 Remainder
x into 2x goes 2 times. Write + 2 at the top.
2 × (x − 3) = 2x − 6
Write down the 2x − 6.
Subtract to get 16.
Answer: (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) = x2 + 5x + 2 remainder 16

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 107

 WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a (2x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 2) ÷ (x − 6) b (x3 − 7x + 1) ÷ (x + 5)
TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE eles-1412
Worked example 4
a 1 Write the question in long division format. a 2 2 + 18xx + 105 Q
2x
2 Perform the long division process. x −6 2 3
2x + 6x2 − 3x + 2
− (2
(2x − 12x
3 12 2)
18x2 − 3x
− (18x2 − 108x)
105x + 2
− (105x − 630)
632 R
3 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is 2x2 + 18x + 105; the remainder is 632.
b 1 Write the question in long division b x2 − 5x + 18 Q
x2
format. Note that there is no term in x + 5 + 0x2 − 7x + 1
x3
this equation. Include 0x2 as a ‘place − (x3 + 5x2)
holder’. −5x2 − 7x
−
2 Perform the long division process. − ( 5x2 − 25x)
18x + 1
− (18x + 90)
−89
R
3 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is x2 − 5x + 18; the remainder is −89.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

Find the quotient and remainder when x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 8 is divided by x + 2.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the question in long division format. Include x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24

0x as a ‘place holder’. x + 2 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x4
2 Divide x into x4 and write the result above. − (x4 + 2x3)
−5x3 + 2x2

Multiply x3 by x + 2 and write the result underneath. −

3 − ( 5x3 − 10x2)
12x2 + 0x
4 Subtract and then bring down the next term.
− (12x2 + 24x)
−24x − 8
5 Continue to perform the long division process
(as you did for cubic polynomials). − (−24x − 48)
40
6 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24.
The remainder is 40.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

Calculate the quotient and remainder when x3 − 4x2 − 7x − 5 is divided by x − 1.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the question in long division format. x2 − 3x − 10

x − 1 − 4x2 − 7x − 5
x3
2 Perform the long division process.
− (x3 − x2)
−3x2 − 7x

− (−3x2 + 3x)
−10x − 5

− (−10x + 10)
−15

108 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 Write the quotient and the remainder. The quotient is x2 – 3x – 10.
The remainder is –15.

Exercise 3B Long division of polynomials

1 WE4a Perform the following long divisions, and state the quotient and remainder.
a (x + 6x + 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 3)
3 2 b (x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 4) ÷ (x + 2) c (x3 + x2 + x + 3) ÷ (x + 1)
d (x + x + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 2)
3 2 e (x + 2x − 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 2)
3 2 f (x3 + x2 − 9x − 5) ÷ (x − 2)
g (x − 5x + 3x − 8) ÷ (x − 3)
3 2 h (x − 9x + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 5)
3 2 i 3x3 − x2 + 6x + 5, x + 2
j 4x − 4x + 10x − 4, x + 1
3 2 k 2x − 7x + 9x + 1, x − 2
3 2 l 2x3 + 8x2 − 9x − 1, x + 4
2 Divide the first polynomial by the second, and state the quotient and remainder.
a 6x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 4, 2x − 1 b 6x3 + 23x2 + 2x − 31, 3x + 4 c 8x3 + 6x2 − 39x − 13, 2x + 5
d 2x3 − 15x2 + 34x − 13, 2x − 7 e 3x + 5x − 16x − 23, 3x + 2
3 2 f 9x3 − 6x2 − 5x + 9, 3x − 4
3 State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
− x3 − 3x 3
− 6 x 2 − 7 x − 16 + 7 x 2 + 10 x − 15
a b
x +1 x−3
− 2x3 + 9 x 2 + 17 x + 15 d
4 x 3 − 20 x 2 + 23 x − 2
c
−2
2x + 1 x+3
4 WE4b State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 − 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 1) b (x3 + 2x2 − 7) ÷ (x + 2) c (x3 − 5x2 + 2x) ÷ (x − 4)
−
d ( x − 7x + 8) ÷ (x − 1)
3 e (5x2 + 13x + 1) ÷ (x + 3) f (2x3 + 8x2 − 4) ÷ (x + 5)
−
g ( 2x − x + 2) ÷ (x − 2)
3 h (−4x3 + 6x2 + 2x) ÷ (2x + 1)
5 WE5 Find the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x4 + x3 + 3x2 – 7x) ÷ (x – 1) b (x4 – 13x2 + 36) ÷ (x – 2)
c (6x4 – x3 + 2x2 – 4x) ÷ (x – 3)
6 WE6 Calculate the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 + 9x2 + 11x + 25) ÷ (x + 15) b (2x3 − 18x2 + 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 31)
c (12x + 32x − 9) ÷ (3x + 4)
3 d (18x4 + 3x3 + 45) ÷ (2x + 7)

3C Polynomial values
Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 − 5x2 + x + 1.
The value of the polynomial when x = 3 is denoted by P(3) and is found by substituting x = 3 into the
equation in place of x. That is,
P(3) = (3)3 − 5(3)2 + (3) + 1
= 27 − 5(9) + 3 + 1
= 27 − 45 + 4
= −14.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

If P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4, determine:

a P(1) b P(−2) c P(a) d P(x + 1).

THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4

2 Replace x with 1. P(1) = 2(1)3 + (1)2 − 3(1) − 4

=2+1−3−4
3 Simplify. = −4

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 109

 b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with −2. P(−2) = 2(−2)3 + (−2)2 − 3(−2) − 4
3 Simplify. = 2(−8) + (4) + 6 − 4
= −16 + 4 + 6 − 4
= −10
c 1 Write the expression. c P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4

2 Replace x with a. P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4

No further simplification is possible.
d 1 Write the expression. d P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with (x + 1). P(x + 1) = 2(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 − 3(x + 1) − 4
3 Expand the right-hand side and = 2(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + x2 + 2x + 1 − 3x − 3 − 4
collect like terms. Use the rules for = 2x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 2 + x2 − x − 6
expanding cubics and quadratics. = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

Determine the following, considering P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 − 22x + 17.

a P(−14)
b P(y + 7)
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 – 22x + 17

2 Replace x with −14. P(−14) = 16(–14)4 + 3(−14)3 – 22(−14) + 17
3 Simplify. P(−14) = 614 656 – 8232 + 308 + 17
= 606 749
b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 – 22x + 17
2 Replace x with y + 7. P(y + 7) = 16(y + 7)4 + 3(y + 7)3 − 22(y + 7) + 17
3 Expand each term. 16(y + 7)4 = 16y4 + 448y3 + 4704y2 + 21 952y + 38 416
3(y + 7)3 = 3y3 + 63y2 + 441y + 1029
−22(y + 7) = −22y − 154
17 = 17
4 Collect like terms. P(y + 7) = 16y4 + 451y3 + 4767y2 + 22 371y + 3 9 308

Exercise 3C Polynomial values

1 WE7 If P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 10, determine the following.
a P(0) b P(1) c P(2)
d P(3) e P(−1) f P(−2)
− h P(a) i P(2b)
g P( 3)
j P(x + 2) k P(x − 3) l P(−4y)
2 WE8 Determine the following considering P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 − 22x + 17.
a P(−11) b P(102)
c P(2x + 9) d P(x3 + 2)

110 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 Copy the following table.
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Rem. Rem. Rem. Rem.
when when when when
divided divided divided divided
by by by by
P(x) P(1) P(2) P(−1) P(−2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
a
b
c
d
Complete columns 2 to 5 of the table for each of the following polynomials.
a P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 b P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 2
c P(x) = x − x + 4x − 1
3 2 d P(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 3
4 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 1) and complete column 6 of DIGITAL DOC
the table. doc-9725
Cubic valuer
5 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 2) and complete column 7 of
the table.
6 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 1) and complete column 8 of
the table.
7 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 2) and complete column 9 of
the table.
8 Copy and complete the following sentences, using your answers to questions 3 to 7 to find the
pattern.
a A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 8) is to calculate .
DIGITAL DOC
b A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 7) is to calculate . doc-9726
c A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is to calculate . WorkSHEET 3.1

3D The remainder and factor theorems

The remainder theorem
In the previous exercise, you may have noticed that:
The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is equal to P(a).
That is, R = P(a).
This is called the remainder theorem.
We could have derived this result as follows.
If 13 is divided by 4, the quotient is 3, and the remainder is 1. That is,
13 ÷ 4 = 3 + 1 and
4
13 = 4 × 3 + 1.
Similarly, if P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 is divided by (x − 2), the quotient is x2 + 3x + 7 and the remainder
is 15. That is,
15
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) ÷ (x − 2) = x2 + 3x + 7 + and
x−2
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) = (x2 + 3x + 7)(x − 2) + 15.
In general, if P(x) is divided by (x − a), the quotient is Q(x), and the remainder is R, we can write
R
P(x) ÷ (x − a) = Q(x) + and
( x − a)
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x) + R.

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 111

 Substituting x = a into this last expression yields
P(a) = (a − a)Q(x) + R
= 0 × Q(x) + R
=R as before.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9

Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4 is divided by:
a x−3 b x + 6.
THINK WRITE

a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P(3)

(x − 3) is equal to P(3). = 33 − 7(3)2 − 2(3) + 4
= 27 − 7(9) − 6 + 4
= 27 − 63 − 6 + 4
= −38
b The remainder when P(x) is divided by b R = P(−6)
(x + 6) is equal to P(−6). = (−6)3 − 7(−6)2 − 2(−6) + 4
= −216 − 7(36) + 12 + 4
= −216 − 252 + 12 + 4
= −452

WORKED EXAMPLE 10

The remainder when x3 + kx2 + x − 2 is divided by (x − 2) is equal to 20. Find the value of k.
THINK WRITE

1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 + kx2 + x − 2.

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P(2)
(x − 2) is equal to P(2). = 23 + k(2)2 + 2 − 2
= 8 + 4k
3 We are given R = 20. Since R = 20.
Put 8 + 4k = 20. 8 + 4k = 20
4k = 12
4 Solve for k.
k=3

The factor theorem

The remainder when 12 is divided by 4 is zero, since 4 is a factor of 12.
Similarly, if the remainder (R) when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is zero, then (x − a) must be a factor
of P(x).
Since R = P(a), all we need to do is to find a value of a that makes P(a) = 0, and we can say that
(x − a) is a factor.
If P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
This is called the factor theorem.
Imagine P(x) could be factorised as follows:
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x), where Q(x) is ‘the other’ factor of P(x).
Then we have P(a) = (a − a)Q(a)
= 0 × Q(a)
= 0.
So if P(a) = 0, (x − a) is a factor.

112 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 11

Apply the factor theorem to determine which of the following is a factor of x4 − 4x3 − 43x2 + 58x + 240.
a (x + 2) b (x − 1)
THINK WRITE

a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x4 − 4x3 − 43x2 + 58x + 240

2 To find the remainder when P(x) is P(−2) = (−2)4 − 4(−2)3 − 43(−2)2 + 58(−2) + 240
divided by (x − a), find P(a). = 16 − 4(−8) − 43(4) − 116 + 240
= 16 + 32 − 172 − 116 + 240
=0
3 State the answer. As P(−2) = 0, the remainder when P(x) is divided by
(x + 2) is zero; therefore, (x + 2) is a factor.
b 1 To find the remainder when P(x) is b P(1) = (1)4 − 4(1)3 − 43(1)2 + 58(1) + 240
divided by (x − a), find P(a). = 1 − 4 − 43 + 58 + 240
= 252
2 State the answer. As P(1) = 252, the remainder when P(x) is divided by
(x − 1) is 252; therefore, (x − 1) is not a factor.

Exercise 3D The remainder and factor theorems

1 WE9 Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 24 is divided by: DIGITAL DOC
a x−1 b x+2 c x−3 d x+5 doc-9725
e x−0 f x−k g x+n h x + 3c. Cubic valuer

2 Find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second without performing
long division.
a x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4, x − 3 b x3 − 4x2 + 2x − 1, x + 1
c x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 1, x + 2 d x3 − x2 − 4x − 5, x − 1
−3x3 − 2x2 + x + 6, x + 1
e 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 3, x + 5 f
g x3 + x2 + 8, x − 5 h x3 − 3x2 − 2, x − 2
i −x3 + 8, x + 3 j x3 + 2x2, x − 7
3a WE10The remainder when x3 + kx + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is −19. Find the value of k.
b The remainder when x3 + 2x2 + mx + 5 is divided by (x − 2) is 27. Find the value of m.
c The remainder when x3 − 3x2 + 2x + n is divided by (x − 1) is 1. Find the value of n.
d The remainder when ax3 + 4x2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x − 3) is −23. Find the value of a.
e The remainder when x3 − bx2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x + 1) is 0. Find the value of b.
f The remainder when −4x2 + 2x + 7 is divided by (x − c) is −5. Find a possible whole number
value of c.
g The remainder when x2 − 3x + 1 is divided by (x + d) is 11. Find the possible values of d.
h The remainder when x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by (x − 5) is −14. When the cubic polynomial is
divided by (x + 1), the remainder is −2. Find a and b.
4 WE11 Apply the factor theorem to determine which of the following are factors of x3 + 2x2 − 11x − 12.
a (x − 1) b (x − 3) c (x + 1) d (x + 2)

5 Prove that each of the following are linear factors of x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 by substituting values
into the cubic function: (x + 2), (x − 3), (x + 5).
6 Use the factor theorem to show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second (that is, the
second polynomial is a factor of the first).
a x3 + 5x2 + 2x − 8, x − 1 b x3 − 7x2 − x + 7, x − 7
c x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12, x − 2 d x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 18, x + 2
e x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 27, x + 3 f −x3 + x2 + 9x − 9, x − 1
g −2x3 + 9x2 − x − 12, x − 4 h 3x3 + 22x2 + 37x + 10, x + 5

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 113

 7 MC a When x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 5 is divided by (x + 2), the remainder is:
A −5 B −2 C 0 D 2 E 5
b Which of the following is a factor of 2x3 + 15x2 + 22x − 15?
A (x − 1) B (x − 2) C (x + 3) D (x − 5) E (x + 4)
c When x3 − 13x2 + 48x − 36 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is:
A −3 B −2 C −1 D 0 E 1
d Which of the following is a factor of x3 − 5x2 − 22x + 56?
A (x − 2) B (x + 2) C (x − 5) D (x + 5) E (x + 7)
8 Find one factor of each of the following cubic polynomials.
a x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 b x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 12
DIGITAL DOC
c x + x − 8x − 12
3 2 d x3 + 3x2 − 34x − 120
doc-9727 9 Consider the polynomial P(x) = 6x3 + 7x2 − x − 2.
SkillSHEET 3.1
Reviewing the
discriminant
a Determine: i P(−1) ii P ( 12 ) iii P ( )
−2
3
b i Factorise P(x) as the product of (x + 1) and a quadratic factor.
ii Further factorise so P(x) is written as the product of three linear factors.
c Explain how the other two linear factors relate to what you found in parts b and c.
d Copy and complete the following: In general if (ax + b) is a factor, then P(…) = 0.

3E Factorising polynomials
Using long division
Once one factor of a polynomial has been found (using the factor theorem as in the previous section),
long division may be used to find other factors.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

Use long division to factorise x3 − 19 x + 30.

THINK WRITE TUTORIAL
eles-1413
1 Name the polynomial. P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30 Worked example 12
Note: There is no x2 term, so include 0x2. P(x) = x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
2 Look at the last term in P(x), which is 30. This P(−5) = (−5)3 − 19 × (−5) + 30
suggests it is worth trying P(5) or P(−5). Try = −125 + 95 + 30
P(−5). P(−5) = 0, so (x + 5) is a factor. =0
Therefore (x + 5) is a factor.
3 Divide (x + 5) into P(x) using long division to x2 − 5x + 6
find a quadratic factor. x +5 x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
− (x + 5x2)
3
−5x2 − 19x

−(−5x2 − 25x)
6x + 30
−(6x + 30)
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 5)(x2 − 5x + 6)
found so far.
5 Factorise the second bracket if possible. P(x) = (x + 5)(x − 2)(x − 3)

Note: In this example, P(x) may have been factorised without long division by finding all three values of
x that make P(x) = 0, and hence three factors, then checking that the three factors multiply to give P(x).

Using short division

The process of long division can take a lot of time (and space). One short division method is shown here;
it may take a little longer to understand, but it is quicker than long division once mastered.

114 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 Consider P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10. Using the factor theorem, we can find that (x − 1) is a factor of P(x).
So, P(x) = (x − 1)(ax2 + bx + c).
Actually, we know more than this: as P(x) begins with x3 and ends with +10, we could write:
P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + bx − 10)
Imagine expanding this version of P(x). Our x2 terms give −1x2 + bx2.
Since P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10, we need +2x2. That is, we need −1x2 + 3x2. To get this, the bx must
be 3x, as when x in the first bracket is multiplied by 3x in the second bracket, +3x2 results. That is, we
have deduced
P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + 3x − 10).
Factorising the second bracket gives
P(x) = (x − 1)(x + 5)(x − 2)

WORKED EXAMPLE 13

Factorise the following, using short division where possible.

a x3 − 5x2 − 2 x + 24
b x4 + x3 − 13 x2 − 25 x − 12
THINK WRITE

a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24

2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(−2) = (−2)3 − 5 × (−2)2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
=0
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. So (x + 2) is a factor.
3 Write the original polynomial as the found P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
factor multiplied by ax2 + bx + c. P(x) = (x + 2)(ax2 + bx + c)
The first term in the brackets must be x2, = (x + 2)(x2 + bx + 12)
and the last term must be 12.
4 Imagine the expansion of the expression in 2x2 + bx2 = −5x2
step 3. We have 2x2, and require −5x2. We b = −7
need an extra −7x2. So b = −7. P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 − 7x + 12)
5 Factorise the second bracket if possible. P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)

b 1 Name the polynomial. b Let P(x) = x4 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12

2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(−1) = 0

Try P(−1). So (x + 1) is a factor.
3 It is difficult to factorise a quartic using x3 + 0x2 − 13x − 12
short division, so we will use long division x + 1 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12
x4
here. − (x4 + x3)
0 − 13x2 − 25x
− (−13x2 − 13x)
−12x − 12
−
− ( 12x − 12)
0
4 Name the cubic factor and try to find Let Q(x) = x3 − 13x − 12.
another factor using the factor theorem. Q(−3) = 0
So (x + 3) is a factor.
5 Factorise the cubic using short division. Q(x) = x3 − 13x − 12
= (x + 3)(x2 − 3x − 4)

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 115

 6 Factorise the quadratic if possible. Q(x) = (x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)

7 Write the original polynomial in factorised P(x) = x4 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12

form. = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)
= (x + 1)2(x + 3)(x − 4)

WORKED EXAMPLE 14

Factorise the expression 2 x3 − 9 x2 − 2 x + 24.

THINK WRITE

1 Name the polynomial. P(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 – 2x + 24

2 Look for values of x such that P(x) = 0. x = 1: P(1) = 2 – 9 – 2 + 24 ≠ 0

x = 2: P(2) = 16 – 36 – 8 + 24 = 0
So x – 2 is a factor.

3 Write P(x) as the product of x – 2 and an P(x) = (x – 2)(ax2 + bx + c)

unknown quadratic.

4 Consider the x3 term (2x3). This must (x)ax2 = ax3

equal ax3. = 2x3
Therefore a = 2.

5 Consider the constant term (24). This must (–2)c = –2c

equal –2c. = 2c
Therefore c = –12.

6 Rewrite P(x). P(x) = (x – 2)(2x2 + bx – 12)

7 Consider the x2 term from step 6. This must –4x2+ bx2 = –9x2
equal –9x2 from the original cubic. bx2 = –5x2
Therefore b = –5.

8 Consider the x term from step 6. This must –2bx – 12x = –22
equal –2x from the original cubic. This –2bx = 10x

confirms step 7. b = –5

9 Write P(x). P(x) = (x – 2)(2x2 – 5x – 12)

10 Factorise the quadratic term. P(x) = (x – 2)(2x + 3)(x – 4)

Exercise 3E Factorising polynomials

1 WE12 Use long division to factorise each dividend.

a x + 1 x3 + 10x2 + 27x + 18 b x + 2 x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 c x + 9 x3 + 12x2 + 29x + 18

d x + 1 x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12 e x + 3 x3 + 14x2 + 61x + 84 f x + 7 x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42

g x + 2 x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 h x + 3 x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12 i x + 5 x3 + 14x2 + 65x + 100

j x x3 + 13x2 + 40x k x x3 + 7x2 + 12x l x + 5 x3 + 10x2 + 25x

m x + 1 x3 + 6x2 + 5x n x + 6 x3 + 6x2

116 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 2 WE12,13 Factorise the following as fully as possible.
a x3 + x2 − x − 1 b x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 c x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 5
d x + x − 8x − 12
3 2 e x3 + 9x2 + 24x + 16 f x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 20 DIGITAL DOC
g x + 2x − x − 2
3 2 h x3 − 7x − 6 i x3 + 3x2 − 4 doc-9728
j x +x +x+6
3 2 k x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 l x3 + x2 − 9x − 9 Polynomials zero
search
m x − x − 8x + 12
3 2 n x3 + 9x2 − 12x − 160 o x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 4
p x + 3x − 6x − 28x − 24
4 3 2 q x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 − 6x − 9 r x4 − 5x3 − 17x2 + 21x
3 WE14 Use a CAS calculator to factorise the following as fully as possible.
a 3x3 − x2 − 10x b 4x3 + 2x2 − 2x c 3x3 − 6x2 − 24x
−
d 2x − 12x − 18x
3 2 e 6x − 6x
3 2 f −x3 − 7x2 − 12x
− −
g x − 3x + x + 3
3 2 h 2x + 10x − 12x
3 2 i −6x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 4
− −
j 5x + 24x − 36x + 16 k x − x + 21x + 49x − 8x − 60
3 2 5 4 3 2 l 24x4 − 53x3 − 71x2 + 152x + 20
4 Factorise the following as fully as possible.
a 2x3 + 5x2 − x − 6 b 3x3 + 14x2 + 7x − 4 c 3x3 + 2x2 − 12x − 8
d 4x + 35x + 84x + 45
3 2 e 5x3 + 9x2 + 3x − 1 f x3 + x2 + 4
g 4x + 16x + 21x + 9
3 2 h 6x3 − 23x2 + 26x − 8 i 10x3 + 19x2 − 94x − 40
j 7x + 12x − 60x + 16
3 2 k 2x4 − x3 − 11x2 − 11x − 3 l 6x4 + 11x3 − 22x2 − x + 6

3F Sum and difference of two cubes

Two special cases of cubic polynomials, called ‘sum of cubes’and ‘difference of cubes’, are discussed in
this section. There are shortcuts for factorising such cubic expressions. Examples of each are shown in
the table below.
Sum of cubes Difference of cubes
x + 3 23 x3 − 27
x3
125 + 64b3 − 81y3
1000
x3y3 + 1 w6 − 1
(2x + 1)3 + 8 216 − (uv)3

Consider the following expansions.

(a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) and (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2)
= a − a b + ab + ba − ab + b
3 2 2 2 2 3 = a3 + a2b + ab2 − ba2 − ab2 − b3
= a − a b + ab + a b − ab + b
3 2 2 2 2 3 = a3 + a2b + ab2 − a2b − ab2 − b3
=a +b
3 3 = a3 − b3
These expansions show that:
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) and a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2).
That is, we have two formulas that may be used to factorise sums and differences of cubes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 15

Factorise the following using the sum or difference of cubes formula.

a x3 − 1000y3 b 2(x + 6)3 + 16 TUTORIAL
eles-1414
THINK WRITE Worked example 15

a 1 Write the expression. a x3 − 1000y3

2 Recognise a difference of cubes. = x3 − (10y)3

3 Identify a and b for use with the formula a = x, b = 10y
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2).
4 Use the formula to factorise. = (x − 10y)[x2 + x(10y) + (10y)2]
5 Simplify. = (x − 10y)(x2 + 10xy + 100y2)

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 117

 b 1 Write the expression. b 2(x + 6)3 + 16

2 Take out a common factor of 2 to produce a sum = 2[(x + 6)3 + 8]

of cubes. = 2[(x + 6)3 + 23]

3 Identify a and b for use with the formula a = (x + 6), b = 2

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2).
4 Apply the sum of cubes formula. = 2[(x + 6) + 2][(x + 6)2 − (x + 6)(2) + 22]
5 Simplify. = 2(x + 8)(x2 + 12x + 36 − 2x − 12 + 4)
= 2(x + 8)(x2 + 10x + 28)

Exercise 3F Sum and difference of two cubes

1 Identify a and b (as used in the above sum and difference of cubes expressions) in each of the following
(do not factorise).
a x3 + 63 b 8y3 + z3 c (x + 5)3 + 27
1 3 u3
d 1 − 64h3 e 8c − e3g3 f t3 −
216
2 WE15a Factorise the following using the sum or difference of cubes formula.
a x3 − 125 b j3 + k3 c y3 − 8

d 27x3 + y3 e 64t3 − 216u3 f x3 − 1

x3
g + 8p3 h 27r3 − 1 i (3k)3 − 18
729
j s3t3 + g6
3 WE15b Factorise the following.
a (a − + a3
1)3 b (x + 2)3 − 8 c (2x + 3)3 + 1
d (w − 5) − w
3 3 e (2m + p) + (3m − p)
3 3 f 27x3 − (x + 3)3
g (2y + 7) + (y − 2)
3 3 h (3x + y) + (x − 4y)
3 3 i (2 − 4p)3 − (p + 1)3
j (5x − 9) − (7 − x)
3 3 k x +y
6 9 l 2x3 − 54
m 3a + 3
3 n 6(x + 1) + 162
2 3

4 When mx3 − ny3 is fully factorised it gives (3x − y)(9x2 + 3xy + y2). What are the values of m and n?
5 a Write 3x3 + my3 in the form a3 + b3.
b Identify the values of a and b.
c Factorise using the rule for sum of cubes.

3G Solving polynomial equations

Making x the subject of the equation
Cubic equations of the form a(x − b)3 + c = 0 may be solved by isolating x as follows.
a(x − b)3 = −c
−c
(x − b)3 =
a
− c
x−b= 3
a
3
− c
x=b+
a

Unlike a square root, a cube root can be only positive or negative, not both; for example,
3 −
8 += −2, 3 8 = 2.

118 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 WORKED EXAMPLE 16

Solve 3(x + 2)3 + 192 = 0 by making x the subject.

THINK WRITE

1 Write the equation. 3(x + 2)3 + 192 = 0

2 Subtract 192 from both sides. 3(x + 2)3 = −192
3 Divide both sides by 3. (x + 2)3 = −64

4 Take the cube root of both sides. x + 2 = −4

5 Subtract 2 from both sides and simplify. x = −4 − 2
= −6

Factorising to solve polynomial equations

The Null Factor Law applies to cubic and quartic equations just as it does for quadratics.
If P(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = 0, then the solutions are x = a, x = b and x = c.
If P(x) = k(lx − a)(mx − b)(nx − c) = 0, solutions are found by solving the following equations:
lx − a = 0, mx − b = 0 and nx − c = 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 17

Solve each of the following equations.

a x4 = 16x2 b 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9 = 0
THINK WRITE

a 1 Write the equation. a x4 = 16x2

2 Rearrange so that all terms are on the left. x4 − 16x2 = 0
3 Take out a common factor of x. x2(x2 − 16) = 0
4 Factorise the brackets using a difference of squares. x2(x + 4)(x − 4) = 0
5 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x = 0, x + 4 = 0 or x − 4 = 0
so x = 0, x = −4 or x = 4
b 1 Name the polynomial. b Let P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9.

2 Use the factor theorem to find a factor (search for a P(1) = 2 − 11 + 18 − 9

value a such that P(a) = 0). Consider factors of the =0
constant term (that is, factors of 9 such as 1, 3). The So (x − 1) is a factor.
simplest value to try is 1.
3 Use long or short division to find the other factors 2 2 − 9x + 9
2x
of P(x). x − 1 2x
2 3 − 11x2 − 18x − 9
22x3 − 2x
2 2
−9x2 + 18x
−9x2 + 9x

9x − 9
9x − 9
0
4 Factorise the brackets. P(x) = (x − 1)(2x2 − 9x + 9)
P(x) = (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3)
5 Consider the factorised equation to solve. For (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3) = 0
6 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x − 1 = 0, 2x − 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
3
so x = 1, x = 2 or x = 3

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 119

 Polynomial equations can also be solved using a CAS calculator, which is useful when the solutions
are not rational. The solutions can be found by using the solve function on a calculator page, or by
constructing a graph.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18

Use a CAS calculator to solve x3 + 3 x2 − 8 x − 5 = 0.

THINK WRITE

1 Use the CAS calculator to solve the equation. Enter

solve (x3 + 3x2 − 8x − 5 = 0, x)
into the CAS calculator.
2 Read the results supplied by the calculator. x = −4.524 04 or
x = −0.536 396 or
x = 2.060 43
3 Write the answer. The solutions of x3 + 3x2 − 8x − 5 = 0 are
x = −4.52, −0.54 and 2.06, rounded to 2 decimal
places.

Exercise 3G Solving polynomial equations

1 WE16 Solve the following equations by making x the subject.
a 2(x − − 250 = 0
1)3 b 3(x + 2)3 + 81 = 0
c (x − 4)3 − 1000 = 0 d (x + 7)3 − 8 = 0
e −2(x − 5)3 − 2 = 0 f −(x + 3)3 + 1 = 0
g (2x + 3)3 − 27 = 0 h 4(3x − 1)3 + 500 = 0
2 1
i
3
(x + 1)3 + 18 = 0 j 2
(5 − x)3 − 32 = 0
4
k (x − 5)3 = 343 l 4− 5
(x + 8)3 = 104
2 Find all solutions of the following equations.
a (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 5) = 0 b (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7) = 0
c (x − 5)(x + 2)(x − 9) (x − 1) = 0 d (2x − 4)(x + 1)(x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
e (3x + 12)(x − 4)(x + 4) = 0 f (2 − x)(x + 2)(1 − x)(1 + x) = 0
g (x + 5)(x − 8)2 = 0 h (x − 1)3 = 0
−3x(x − 9)3 = 0
i x2(x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 j
k (6 − x)2 (2 + x) = 0 l x2(2x + 7) = 0
m x(5x − 6)(2x + 3) (6 − 7x) = 0 n (3 − 4x)2(5x − 1) = 0
3 WE17a Solve the following equations.
a x3 − 4x = 0 b x3 − 16x = 0 c 2x4 − 50x2 = 0
−3x4 + 81 = 0
d e x3 + 5x2 = 0 f x3 − 2x2 = 0
−4x3 + 8x = 0
g h 12x3 + 3x2 = 0 i 4x3 − 20x4 = 0
j x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 = 0 k x3 − 8x2 + 16x = 0 l x3 + 6x2 = 7x
m 9x2 = 20x + x3 n x3 + 6x = 4x2
4 WE17b Use the Null Factor Law to solve the following equations.
a x3 − x2 − 16x + 16 = 0 b x3 − 6x2 − x + 30 = 0
c x − x − 25x + 25 = 0
3 2 d x3 + 4x2 − 4x − 16 = 0
e x − 4x + x + 6 = 0
3 2 f x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 10 = 0
−
g x − 3x − 7x + 15x = 18
4 3 2 h x4 + 2x3 − 13x2 + 10x
i 2x + 15x + 19x + 6 = 0
3 2 j −4x3 + 16x2 − 9x − 9 = 0
−
k 2x − 9x − 7x + 6 = 0
3 2 l 2x3 + 4x2 − 2x − 4 = 0
5 WE18 Use a CAS calculator to find all solutions to the following equations.
a x3 − 17x2 − 56x + 1153 = 0 b x3 + 12x2 − 49x − 588 = 0
−
c x + 17x + 65x − 1521 = 0
3 2 d x3 – 48x2 + 768x − 4096 = 0

120 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 e x3 + 6x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 f x3 – 14x2 – 4x + 13 = 0
g 3x2 + 2x + 1 = x3 h −2x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 0.5 = 0
i x4 + 4x3 − 5x2 + 15 = 0 j 2x4 + 25x3 + 17x = 9
6 MC Which of the following is a solution to x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 40?
A −5 B −4 C −2
D 1 E 2
7 MC A solution of x3 − 9x2 + 15x + 25 = 0 is x = 5. How many other (distinct) solutions are there?
DIGITAL DOC
A 0 B 1 C 2 doc-9729
D 3 E 4 WorkSHEET 3.2

3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method

A good sketch graph of a function shows:
1. x- and y-intercepts
2. the behaviour of the function at extreme values of x, that is, as x approaches infinity (x → +∞) and as
x approaches negative infinity (x → −∞)
3. the general location of turning points.
The graphs below show the two main types of cubic graph.

y y
Turning
points

x x

A positive cubic A negative cubic

For positive cubic graphs, as positive values of x become larger and larger, y-values also become
larger.
For negative cubic graphs, as positive values of x become larger and y Point of inflection
larger, y-values become smaller.
Sometimes, instead of two turning points, there is a point of inflection,
where the graph changes from a decreasing gradient to zero to an
increasing gradient (or vice versa). When this occurs, there is only one
x-intercept.
Consider the general factorised cubic f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c).
The Null Factor Law tells us that f (x) = 0 when x = a or x = b or x = c. x
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0; that is, the y-intercept is
f (0) = (0 − a)(0 − b)(0 − c)
= −abc
Cubic with a point of inflection
y

c b a x

−abc

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 121

 WORKED EXAMPLE 19

Sketch graphs of the following, showing all intercepts.

a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5) b y = (x − 6)2 (4 − x) c y = (x − 2)3
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Note that the function is already a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5)

factorised and that the graph is
a positive cubic.
2 The y-intercept occurs where x = 0. y-intercept: if x = 0,
Substitute x = 0 into the equation. y = (−2)(−3)(5)
= 30
Point: (0, 30)
3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 2, x = 3 or x = −5
Points: (2, 0), (3, 0), (−5, 0)
4 Combine information from the above y
steps to sketch the graph.

30

−5 2 3 x

b 1 The graph is a negative cubic b y = (x − 6)2(4 − x)

−x
(the in the last factor produces
a negative x3 coefficient if the
RHS is expanded).
2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
y = (−6)2(4)
= 144
Point: (0, 144)
3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. (Make each bracket equal to 0 and x − 6 = 0 or 4 − x = 0
solve a mini-equation.) x = 6 or x=4
Points: (6, 0), (4, 0)
4 Combine all information and sketch the graph. y
Note the skimming of the x-axis indicative of a
repeated factor, in this case the (x − 6)2 part of the 144
expression.

4 6 x

c 1 Positive cubic. c y = (x − 2)3

2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,

y = (−2)3
= −8

122 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercept: if y = 0,
x-intercept. (Make each bracket equal to 0 and x−2=0
solve a mini-equation.) x=2
4 Combine all information and sketch the graph. The y
cubed factor, (x − 2), indicates a point of inflection
and only one x-intercept.

2 x

−8

If a cubic function is not in the form f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c), we may try to factorise to find the
x-intercepts. We can use the factor theorem and division of polynomials to achieve this.

WORKED EXAMPLE 20

Sketch the graph of y = 2x3 − 11x2 + 7x + 20, showing all intercepts.

TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE/DRAW
eles-1415
Worked example 20
1 Write the equation and name the y = P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2
polynomial P(x). + 7x + 20

2 Note the graph is a positive cubic.

3 Let x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
Note: All terms involving x are equal y = 20
to zero. Point: (0, 20)
4 Factorise P(x) to find x-intercepts. P(1) = 2 × 13 − 11 × 12 + 7 × 1 + 20
= 2 − 11 + 7 + 20
= 18
(x − 1) is not a factor. ≠0
P(−1) = 2 × (−1)3 − 11 × (−1)2 + 7 × (−1) + 20
= −2 − 11 − 7 + 20
=0
So (x + 1) is a factor.
5 Use long or short division to factorise P(x). Here, P(x) = (x + 1)(2x2 − 13x + 20)
short division has been used. = (x + 1)(2x − 5)(x − 4)
6 Write down the x-intercepts (determined by x-intercepts: if y = 0,
making each bracket equal to 0 and solving for x). x = −1, 52 , 4
Points: (−1, 0), ( 52 , 0), (4, 0)

7 Use all available information to sketch the graph. y

20

−1 5– 4 x
2

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 123

 WORKED EXAMPLE 21

Sketch the graph of y = 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 5 using a CAS calculator. Find all intercepts and
stationary points.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Enter the rule for the function into the f1(x) = 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 5
CAS calculator.

2 Determine the y-intercept (when x = 0). f1(0) = 3(0)3 + (0)2 − 2(0) + 5

=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).

3 Use the CAS calculator to help sketch the y

graph. A

(0, 5) B

(−1.51, 0) x

4 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The x-intercept is (−1.51, 0).
to find zeros (x-intercepts). In this case there
is only one x-intercept.

5 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The local maximum (A) is (−0.62, 5.9).
to find the local maximum, point A.

6 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The local minimum (B) is (0.36, 4.6).
to find the local minimum, point B.

Exercise 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method

1 WE19 Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) b y = (x + 6)(x + 1)(x − 7)
c y = (x + 8)(x − 11)(x + 1) d y = (2x − 5)(x + 4)(x − 3)
e y = (4x − 3)(2x + 1)(x − 4) f y = (x − 3)2(x − 6)
2 Sketch the following.
a y = (2 − x)(x + 5)(x + 3) b y = (x + 8)(x − 8)(2x + 3)
c y = x(x + 1)(x − 2) d y = 3(x + 1)(x + 10)(x + 5)
e y = 4x2(x + 8) f y = (6x − 1)2(x + 7)
3 WE20 Sketch each of the following as fully as possible.
a y = + 2x2 − x − 2
x3 b y = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
c y = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 d y = x3 − x2 − 14x + 24
e y = x3 − 3x2 − 25x − 21 f y = 3x3 + 17x2 + 28x + 12
g y = 6x3 − 17x2 + 6x + 8 h y = −2x3 − 18x2
4 WE21 Sketch the following using a CAS calculator. Find the intercepts and the coordinates
of all turning points, correct to 2 decimal places.
a y = −x3 − 8x2 − 5x + 14
b y = −x3 + 8x2 + 13x − 140
c y = 3x3 − 3x2 − 15x − 9
d y = 7x3 + 29x2 + 32x + 4

124 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 5 MC Which of the following is a reasonable sketch of y = (x + 2)(x − 3)(2x + 1)?
A y B y C y
3
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9730
Cubic graphs —
x general form
− 1–
2
−3 1
– 2 x −2 − 1– 3 x
2 2 −2

D y E y

−2 3 x
1– 2 3 x
− 1– 2
2

6 MC The graph shown on the right could be that of: y

A y= + 2)
x2(x B y = (x + 2)3
C y = (x − 2)(x + 2)2 D y = (x − 2)2(x + 2)
E y = (x − 2)3 −2 2 x

−8

7 MC The graph below has the equation:

y

−3 −1 2 x

−6

A y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) B y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) C y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

D y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) E y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
8 MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph shown below is:
A y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) B y = (x + a)(x − b)(x + c) C y = (x + a)(x + b)(x − c)
D y = (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) E y = (x − a)(x + b)(x − c)
y

−b c a x

9 MC Which of the following has only two distinct x-intercepts when graphed?
A y = x(x + 1)(x + 2) B y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) C y = x3
D y = (x + 1)(x + 2)2 E y = x(x + 1)(x − 1)
10 a Sketch the graph of y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 showing all intercepts.
b Factorise y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 expressing your answer in the form of y = (x + a)(x2 + bx + c).
c Hence, show that y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 has only one real solution. (Hint: Consider the discriminant.)
d If y = (x + a)(x2 + kbx + c) where k is a constant, find the values of k such that the cubic has:
i two real solutions
ii three real solutions.
Note: a, b and c are the same values from part b.

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 125

 3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method
Quartic functions are polynomial functions of degree 4.
The graphs shown below are the main types of quartic graphs.
y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d)
y y = (x − a)3(x − b)
y y
y = x4

(2, 16)
a b x
repeated factor
0 2 x (x − a)3 a b c d x

y
Negative quartics are reflected across the x-axis.
Consider the general factorised quartic, f (x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c)(x – d). abcd
As for the cubic functions, the Null Factor Law tells us that f (x) = 0 (that is,
an x-intercept occurs) when x = a, x = b, x = c or x = d.
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0, therefore the y-intercept is
f (0) = (0 – a)(0 – b)(0 – c)(0 – d) a b c d x
= abcd

WORKED EXAMPLE 22

Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts.

a y = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) b y = (x − 3)2(x + 1)(x + 5)
c y = (2x − 1)(x + 1)3
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. a y = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)

y = (−2)(−1)(1)(3)
=6
Point: (0, 6)
2 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a x − 2 = 0, x − 1 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 2, x = 1, x = −1 or x = −3
Points: (2, 0), (1, 0), (−1, 0), (−3, 0)
3 The graph has a positive x4 coefficient, so large positive Shape:
values for x result in large positive values for y.
4 Combine information from steps 1 to 3 to sketch y
the graph.
6

−3 −1 0 1 2 x

b 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. b y = (x − 3)2(x + 1)(x + 5)

y = (−3)2(1)(5)
= 45
Point: (0, 45)
2 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. (Make each bracket equal x − 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
to 0 and solve a mini-equation.) x = 3, x = −1 or x = −5
Points: (3, 0), (−1, 0), (−5, 0)

126 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 3 The graph has a positive x4 coefficient. (Large Shape:
positive values for x result in large positive values
for y.)
4 Combine all the information above to sketch the y
graph. Note that it touches the x-axis where there
are repeated squared factors, (x − 3)2. 45

−5 −1 0 3 x

c 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. c y = (2x − 1)(x + 1)3

y = (−1)(1)3
= −1
Point: (0, −1)
2 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a 2x − 1 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 12 or x = −1
Points: (1, 0) and (−1, 0)
2
3 x4
The graph has a positive coefficient. (Large Shape:
positive values for x result in large positive values
for y.)
4 Combine all the information from above to sketch y
the graph. Note that the graph has a point of
inflection where it crosses the x-axis with repeated
cubic factors (x + 1)3.
−1 0 1– x
2

−1

Follow the instructions in worked example 21 to draw quartic graphs using a CAS calculator.

Exercise 3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method

1 WE22 Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 2) b y = (x − 2)2(x + 1)(x + 2)
c y = (x + 5)(x − 1)3 d y = (x − 1)4
−
e y = x(2x − 1)(x – 3)(x + 3) f y = (x − 2)2(x + 1)2
g y = (1 − 3x)4 h y = (x + 5)3(1 − x)
2 Compare your answers to question 1 to those found using a CAS calculator.
3 If the graph of y = (x + a)(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 3) has four distinct x-intercepts and has a y-intercept at
(0, 45), find the value of a.
4 A quartic graph has only two x-intercepts, at x = a and x = b, and a y-intercept at the point (0, 81).
If a = −b:
a find a possible equation for the quartic graph
b sketch the graph, labelling all intercepts.
5 MC Which of the following has two distinct x-intercepts when graphed?
A y = x(x + 7)(x − 7)(x + 2)
B y = x2(x + 3)(x − 3)
C y = x3(x + 27)
D y = x(x + 7)2(x − 7)
E y = x4

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 127

 6 MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph y
shown is:
A y = (x + a)2(x + b)(x + c) B y = (x − a)2(x − b)(x − c)
C y = (x + a)2(x − b)(x + c) D y = (x − a)(x + b)(x – c) −b a c x
E y = (x − a)2(x + b)(x − c) −abc

7 MC For the graph of the quadratic equation y = (x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 3)2,

the y-intercept occurs at:
A 6 B −6 C −12 D −18 E 18
8 Use a CAS calculator to help you sketch the following quartics, showing all intercepts and turning
points correct to 2 decimal places.
a y = 2x4 + x3 − 5x2 + 7x + 2 b y = 3x4 − 9x3 − 8x2 + 12x + 9
c y = −x4 − 2x3 + 5x2 + 4x d y = x4 − 5x3 − 45x2 + 8x + 120
e y = 3x4 − 10x2 − 3 f y = −8x4 − 10x3 + 120x2 + 15x + 358

Graphs of cubic functions in

3J
power function form
Remember the power form or turning point form for quadratic graphs y = a(x − b)2 + c, which was related
to transformations of the basic parabola? The same understanding of transformations can be used to sketch
cubic functions.
Cubic functions can be power functions. Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n ∈ R.
The value of the power, n, determines the type of function. When n = 1, f (x) = x, and the function is
linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2, and the function is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3, and the function is
cubic. When n = 4, f (x) = x4, and the function is quartic.
Other power functions will be discussed later.
Under a sequence of transformations of f (x) = xn, n ∈ R, the general form of a power function is
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c (where a, b, c and n ∈ R).
Although all linear and quadratic polynomials are also linear and quadratic power functions, this is not
the case for cubic functions (or quartic functions). For example, a cubic power function in the form of
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c has exactly one x-intercept and one stationary point of inflection. A cubic polynomial
in the form f (x) = ax3 − bx2 + cx + d can have one, two or three x-intercepts and is therefore not always a
power function.
For example, the cubic function y = 2(x − 3)3 + 1 is a polynomial and a power function. It is the graph
of y = x3 under a sequence of transformations.
A cubic power function has a stationary point of inflection at (b, c). A stationary point of inflection is
where a graph ‘levels off’ to have a zero gradient at one point with the same sign gradient either side.
y y = x3 y = −x3 y

x x

Stationary point
of inflection

Summary of transformations
y = a(x − b)3 + c y

(b, c)
Stationary point
of inflection
Dilation factor x-translation y-translation c
b
from the x-axis x
(y-stretch)

128 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

The effect of a is illustrated below.
y = 2x3 y = −2x3
y y = x3 y = −x3 y
y = 1–2 x3 y = − 1–2 x3

x x

Positive a Negative a

Intercepts
Intercepts may be found by substituting x = 0 (to find the y-intercepts) and y = 0 (to find the x-intercepts)
into the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23

Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing the stationary point of inflection and intercepts.
a y = 3(x − 2)3 + 3 b y = −2x3 + 54 c y = −2(1 − 2x)3 − 16
THINK WRITE/DRAW

a 1 Compare the equation with y = a(x − b)3 + c, which a y = 3(x − 2)3 + 3

has a stationary point of inflection (b, c).
2 Note the values that match, namely a = 3, b = 2 and c = 3. Stationary point of inflection (2, 3)
State the stationary point of inflection (b, c).
3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = 3(0 − 2)3 + 3
y = 3(−8) + 3
y = −21
4 Find the x-intercept. If y = 0, 0 = 3(x − 2)3 + 3
(Note that the cube root of −1 is −1.) −3(x − 2)3 = 3
(x − 2)3 = −1
x − 2 = −1
x=1
5 Note that the equation is for a positive cubic. Shape:

6 Sketch, showing the stationary point of inflection and y

intercepts.

(2, 3)

1 2 x

−21

b 1 Manipulate into y = a(x − b)3 + c form. b y = −2x3 + 54

y = −2(x − 0)3 + 54
2 Note the graph is a negative cubic with stationary Stationary point of inflection (0, 54)
point of inflection (0, 54).

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 129

 3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = −2(0) + 54
y = 54
4 Find the x-intercept. If y = 0, 0 = −2x3 + 54
2x3 = 54
x3 = 27
x=3
5 Sketch, showing the stationary point of inflection and y
intercepts.
(0, 54)

3 x

c 1 Manipulate into y = a(x − b)3 + c form. c y = −2(1 − 2x)3 − 16

= −2[−2(x − 12)]3 − 16
= −2[−8(x − 12)3] − 16
= 16(x − 12)3 − 16
2 Note the graph is a positive cubic with stationary point Stationary point of inflection ( 12 , −16)
1
of inflection ( 2 , −16).
−
1
3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = 16( 2 )3 − 16
= −2 − 16
= −18
1
4 Find the x-intercept. Use the result from step 1. If y = 0, 0 = 16( x − 2 )3 − 16
1
16 = 16( x − 2 )3

1
1 = ( x − 2 )3
1
1=x − 2
3
2
=x
5 Sketch, showing stationary point of inflection and y
intercepts.

3– x
2

−18 ( 1–2, −16)

Graphs of cubic functions in power

Exercise 3J
function form
1 Without sketching graphs for each of the following, state:
i the dilation factor ii the coordinates of the stationary point of inflection.
a y = 2(x − 1)3 + 3 b y = 3(x + 5)3 − 2
−
c y = 2(x − 6) − 8
3 d y = −7(x + 4)3 + 1
e y = (x − 9) + 4
3 f y = x3 − 7

130 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 1
g y = −(x + 1)3 − 1 h y = 2 (x + 2)3
−1
i y= 4 (x − 3)3 + 2 j y = 4x3
−1 3
k y= 3
x l y = −2x3 − 2
2 WE23 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing the stationary point of inflection and
intercepts.
a y = 2(x − 2)3 + 2 b y = −3(x + 3)3 + 81
c y = 4(x − 4) − 32
3 d y = −5(x − 1)3 + 5
−
e y= x −83 f y = x3 − 1
1
g y = (x + 2) + 27
3 h y = (x + 5)3 − 32
2
−1 −1
i y= 3 (x − 3) − 9
3 j y= 4 (x + 1)3 + 2
1
k y= 5
(x + 2)3 + 25 l y = −2x3
m y= 5x3 n y = 3x3 − 3
3 Sketch the following, showing the stationary point of inflection. Intercepts are not required. Use a
CAS calculator to verify answers.
a y = (4 − x)3 + 1 b y = 3(5 − x)3 − 3
c y = 2(4x − 1)3 d y = 5(3 − 2x)3 + 1 DIGITAL DOC
doc-9731
y = − 17 (3 − 4x)3 − 2
2
e y = 5 (1 − x)3 f Cubic graphs — basic
form
g y = −(4 − x)3 + 3 h y = (9 − 5x)3 − 7
i y = 83 (6 − x)3 + 4 j y = −2(5 − 2x)3 − 1

4 MC The basic cubic graph y = x3 undergoes a dilation factor of 6 from the x-axis and is translated
right 4 units and down 3 units. The equation for this graph is:
A y = 6(x − 4)3 − 3 B y = 3(x − 4)3 − 6
C y = −6(x − 3)3 − 4 D y = 4(x + 6)3 + 3
E y = −4(x + 3)3 + 6
5 MC The graph of y = 5(2 − x)3 + 9 has a stationary point of inflection at:
A (5, 2) B (5, 9) C (−2, 9)
D (2, −9) E (2, 9)
6 Suggest a possible equation for each of the following, given that each is a cubic with a dilation factor of
1 or −1 from the x-axis.
a y b y

(1, 5)

(−2, 2)
x
x

c y d y

(−3, 4) x
(−3, 0)

7 Write an equation for a cubic with:

a a dilation factor of 4 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (2, 3)
DIGITAL DOC
b a dilation factor of –2 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (−5, 1)
doc-9732
c a dilation factor of 1 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (1, −2) Investigation
4
−1 Graphs of the form
d a dilation factor of from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (0, 4). y = a (x − b )n + c
2

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 131

 Domain, range, maximums
3K
and minimums
The domain of a function is the set of x-coordinates of points on its graph. The range is the set of
y-coordinates of points on the graph. Normally, the domain and range of a cubic function are the set of
all real numbers, or R for short, as such graphs extend indefinitely in both positive and negative axis
directions. The domain and range of a restricted cubic function may be a smaller set of numbers.
Actual maximum
(within given domain)
y
Local maximum
10

Range = [−8, 10]

−5 3 x

−8

Domain = [−5, 3]

The restricted graph has a domain of x-values between −5 and 3, denoted [−5, 3]. y
The range is [−8, 10].
Square brackets are used to indicate that an end value is included. 10

Range = [−8, 10]

We show this with a small coloured-in circle on the graph. If an end
value is not included, a curved bracket is used. We show such points
on a graph using a ‘hollow’ circle. −5 3 x

−8

Domain = [−5, 3]
Function notation
When we wish to convey information about the domain of a function, the following notation may be used:
f : [−4, 1] → R, where f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
}

}
The ‘name’ of The domain The rule for
the function the function
The co-domain. The
range is within this set.

Note: The range is not necessarily equal to R; the range is within R.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24

For the function f: [−4, 1] → R where f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4), sketch the graph of f (x), showing
intercepts and the coordinates of any local maximum or local minimum, and state the range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW

1 Determine the y-intercept by setting x = 0. f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)

f (0) = (0 − 1)(0 + 2)(0 + 4)
= −8
The y-intercept is (0, −8).
2 Determine the x-intercept by setting y = 0. Use the 0 = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
Null Factor Law. x − 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
x=1 x = −2 x = −4
The x-intercepts are (1, 0), ( 2, 0) and (−4, 0).
−

132 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 Enter the rule into a CAS calculator (including the f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4) | −4 ≤ x ≤ 1
restricted domain).
4 Sketch the graph over the restricted domain. y

A
(−2, 0) (1, 0)
(−4, 0) x

B
5 Use the CAS calculator to determine the maximum The maximum (A) is (−3.12, 4.06).
at point A.
6 Use the CAS calculator to determine the minimum The minimum (B) is (−0.21, −8.21).
at point B.
7 Use the graph and the local maximum and The range is [−8.21, 4.06].
minimum to determine the range.

The maximum and minimum of a graph within a certain y

Absolute maximum
domain are not necessarily the values of the local Local maximum
maximum or minimum. Sometimes an extreme value is
simply the y-coordinate of an end point of a graph.

Local minimum

x
Absolute minimum

WORKED EXAMPLE 25

Sketch f: [0, 7) → R where f (x) = x(x − 5)2, showing intercepts, end points, and the local maximum
and minimum, and state the range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Determine the y-intercept by setting x = 0. f (x) = x(x − 5)2
f (0) = 0(0 − 5)2
=0
The y-intercept is (0, 0).
2 Determine the x-intercept by setting y = 0. Use the 0 = x(x − 5)2
Null Factor Law. x = 0 or (x − 5)2 = 0 → x = 5
The x-intercepts are (0, 0) and (5, 0).
3 Calculate the value of the end points of the f (0) = 0
restricted domain. f (7) = 7(7 − 5)2
= 7 × 22
= 28
4 Use a CAS calculator to sketch the graph over the y
restricted domain. Note the right end point (7, 28)
(7, 28) should be shown as a hollow circle.
A

(0, 0) (0, 5) x

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 133

 5 Use the CAS calculator to determine the local The local maximum is (1.67, 18.52).
maximum at point A.
6 Use the graph to determine the range. Note the use The range is [0, 28).
of a curved bracket to indicate that the end value is
not included in the range.

Domain and range will be discussed in more detail in chapter 4.

A method of finding maximums and minimums without a calculator will be covered in the study of
calculus later in this book.

Domain, range, maximums and

Exercise 3K
minimums
A graphics calculator is required for this exercise.
1 State the domain and range of the sections of graph shown in each case.
a y b y
(−2, 5)
DIGITAL DOC (1, 7)
doc-9733
SkillSHEET 3.2
Interval notation (−5, 2) (−2, 3)
(4, 0)
x
x
(2, −2)
(4, −2)
c y d y (6, 10)
(−4, 2)

x
(4, 1)
x
(2, −3)
(−2, −2)
(−3, −5)

e y f y
(5, 5)
(2, 0)
(−1, 2) x

x (−3, −8) (4, −5)

(−3, 0) (3, 0)

(−1, −9)

2 WE24,25 For each of the following, sketch the graph (showing local maximums and minimums, and
intercepts) and state the range.
a f: [−1, 4] → R where f (x) = (x − 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)
b f: [−5, 1] → R where f (x) = (x + 2)(x + 5)(x − 1)
c f: [1, 3) → R where f (x) = (x − 2)2(x − 1)
d f: (−3, 0] → R where f (x) = (x + 3)(x + 1)2
e f: [−8, 2) → R where f (x) = (2x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 7)
f f: [0, 4] → R where f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 4
g f: [−4, −1.442] → R where f (x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
h f: (−2, 2.1) → R where f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6
i f: [−3, 5.1] → R where f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 17x + 15
1
j f: (−3, 2 ) → R where f (x) = 3x3 + 5x2 − 19x − 21
3

134 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 MC The range of the function shown at right is: y (4, 18)
(−0.786, 8.209)
A [−4.061, 18]
B [−4.061, 8.209] 6
C (0, 18]
D (−2, 3]
E (−2, 4]
−2 1 3 x
(2.120, −4.061)

4 MC Point A on the curve is: y

A an intercept
B a local minimum
C an absolute minimum
D a local maximum
E an absolute maximum
A
x

5 A roller-coaster ride is modelled by the function y

f (x) = 0.001(x − 10)(x + 20)(x − 40).
a What is the height above ground level of the 20
A Ground level
track at x = 50? x
−20 40
b How far apart vertically are points A and B?
B

6 The course of a river as marked on a map follows the curve defined by the function
f (x) = 1.5x3 − 2.7x2 + x − 1. Find the coordinates of the southernmost point on the river
between x = 0 and x = 2.

y
N

−1.5 1.5 x
DIGITAL DOC
−5 doc-9734
Investigation
Modelling the path of
a roller-coaster

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 135

 3L Modelling using technology
INTERACTIVITY Scientists, economists, doctors and biologists often wish to find an equation that closely matches, or
int-0262 ‘models’, a set of data. For example, the wombat population of a particular island may vary as recorded
Modelling data using in the following table.
polynomials
Year of study (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wombat
59 62 69 83 81 76 70 66 52 49 41
population (W)

The graph below shows these data, with a possible

model for the wombat population superimposed.

90

Wombat population
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 y = 0.0888x3 − 2.4598x2 + 14.196x + 55.063
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Year
We will examine polynomial models up to degree 3, that is, models of the form:
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 y
where a0, a1, a2 and a3 are constants. 35
Several technological options are available to assist in 30
25 Sum of squares of these
obtaining models for data, including a CAS calculator, 20 lengths is minimised.
spreadsheets and computer algebra systems such as 15
Mathcad. Many of these applications use a method 10
5 y = 2.6636x + 7.3182
involving minimising the sum of the squares of the vertical
distances of the data points from the graph of the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
function — this is known as the least squares method.

Modelling using a calculator

A CAS calculator can be used to find a model or regression for a set of data. The following example
employs cubic regression, but the general approach is the same for all types of regression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26

Fit a cubic model to the following data using a CAS calculator.

Write the equation and draw a rough sketch of the graph. TUTORIAL
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 eles-1416
Worked example 26
y 627 545 580 528 436 318 238 229 134 169 139
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Use the CAS calculator to perform a cubic Enter the x- and y-values into two columns in
regression. This fits a best-fit cubic to the given data. a spreadsheet on the CAS calculator.
2 Write the equation. y = 1.37x3 + 19.14x2 + 8.55x + 607.48
3 Use the CAS calculator to sketch the graph over y
the even domain. 600

0 x
10

136 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 Exercise 3L Modelling using technology
Use a CAS calculator or other technology to answer the questions in this exercise.
1 WE26 Find a linear model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−30 −9
DIGITAL DOC
y 0 5 28 29 50 68 73 77 84 doc-9735
Modelling
b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y −15 −12 −26 −27 −12 −20 −39 −46 −50 −40 −67

c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 11 8 9 14 19 18 29 29 28 32 39

d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 53 44 39 42 35 32 30 29 23 27 19

2 Find a quadratic model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 19 4 48 60 36 88 126 116 159 168 122

b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 65 33 80 12 50 248 228 252 496 439 694

c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y −14 16 32 36 37 51 57 56 55 54 56

d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 70 −27 92 2 −148 −327 −447 −639 −733 −910 −1204

3 Find the cubic model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 627 545 580 528 436 318 238 229 134 169 139

b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 21 28 91 182 81 203 345 397 730 873 1205

c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 55 84 64 29 10 4 −17 35 182 400 631

d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 45 26 109 201 399 466 621 755 800 868 854

4 For the following data set, find and sketch:

a a linear model b a quadratic model c a cubic model.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 537 681 536 624 632 763 686 885 1090 1230 1451

5 Which of the models in question 4 fits best?

6 Use the model from question 1a to predict the value of y when x = 20.
7 Use the model from question 2a to predict the value of y to the nearest unit when x = 5.5.
8 Use the model from question 3a to predict the value of y to the nearest unit when x = 12.

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 137

 9 The value of shares in the company Mathsco is plotted by a sharemarket analyst over a
12-month period as shown.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Month
J J A S O N D J F M A M
Share
0.50 0.58 0.53 0.76 1.00 1.50 1.55 2.20 3.06 3.83 4.79 4.40
price

a Find and sketch a quadratic model for the data.

b Use your model to predict the share price 2 months later.
c Give reasons why such a prediction may not be accurate.
10 The population of a colony of yellow-bellied sap-suckers on an isolated island is studied
over a number of years. The population at the start of each year is shown in the table below.
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Population 250 270 310 375 410 395 335 290 290 320 325

Find and sketch a cubic model for the population, and use it to estimate the population at the start of
year 11.

3M Finite differences
If pairs of data values in a set obey a polynomial equation, that equation or model may be found using
the method of finite differences.
Consider a difference table for a general polynomial of the form
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0.
We begin the difference table by evaluating the polynomial for x values of 0, 1, 2 etc.
The differences between successive y-values (see table) are called the first differences.
The differences between successive first differences are called second differences.
The differences between successive second differences called the third differences.
We will call the first shaded cell (nearest the top of the table) stepped cell 1, the second shaded cell
stepped cell 2 and so on.

x y First Second Third

(= a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1x + a0) differences differences differences
0 a0
a3 + a2 + a1
1 a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 6a3 + 2a2
7a3 + 3a2 + a1 6a3
2 8a3 + 4a2 + 2a1 + a0 12a3 + 2a2
19a3 + 5a2 + a1 6a3
3 27a3 + 9a2 + 3a1 + a0 18a3 + 2a2
37a3 + 7a2 + a1 6a3
4 64a3 + 16a2 + 4a1 + a0 24a3 + 2a2
61a3 + 9a2 + a1
5 125a3 + 25a2 + 5a1 + a0

If a3 ≠ 0, the above polynomial equation represents a cubic model, and the third differences are
identical (all equal to 6a3).
If a3 = 0, a2 ≠ 0 and the polynomial reduces to y = a2x2 + a1x + a0, that is, a quadratic model, and the
second differences become identical (all equal to 2a2).

138 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 If a3 = 0 and a2 = 0, the polynomial becomes y = a1x + a0, that is, a linear model, and the first
differences are identical (all equal to a1).
1. Stepped cell 1 = a0
2. Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3
3. Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3
4. Stepped cell 4 = 6a3
WORKED EXAMPLE 27

Complete a finite difference table based on the data below, and use it to determine the equation
for y in terms of x.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −1 0 7 20 39 64

THINK WRITE

1 Place the data in columns as shown, allowing

Differences
space for 3 difference columns. x y
1st 2nd 3rd
2 Calculate the first differences and place them in the −1
next column. The first differences are not constant, 0
so we need to find the second differences. 1
3 Calculate these and place them in the next column. 1 0 6
The second differences are constant, so our table 7 0
is complete. Showing the third differences is 2 7 6
optional. The curve is a quadratic.
13 0
3 20 6
19 0
4 39 6
25
5 64

4 Recall the stepped cell equations, and equate them a0 = −1* [1]
to the shaded cells as shown: a1 + a2 + a3 = 1 [2]
Stepped cell 1 = a0 2a2 + 6a3 = 6 [3]
Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 6a3 = 0 [4]
Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3
Stepped cell 4 = 6a3
Here, * is used to denote solved values.
5 [1] gives a0 = −1 and [4] gives a3 = 0. So a3 = 0*
Substitute this information into [2] and [3]. Sub a3 = 0 into [2]:
a1 + a2 + 0 = 1
a1 + a2 = 1 [5]
Sub a3 = 0 into [3]:
2a2 + 6 × 0 = 6
2a2 = 6
a2 = 3*
Sub a2 = 3 into [5]:
6 Substitute a2 = 0 into [5] to find a1. a1 + 3 = 1
a1 = −2*
7 Substitute your values for a0, a1, a2 and a3 into the y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 becomes
equation y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0. y = (0)x3 + (3)x2 + (−2)x + (−1)
y = 3x2 − 2x − 1

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 139

 The stepped equations work only if the finite differences table begins with x = 0 and x increases in
steps of 1. It may be necessary on occasions to adjust the table to achieve this, as the following example
shows.

WORKED EXAMPLE 28

Complete a finite difference table based on these

x 1 2 3 4 5
data and use it to determine the equation for y in
terms of x. y −3 5 13 21 29
THINK WRITE

1 Construct a difference table, leaving room

Differences
for the x = 0 row. x y
1st 2nd 3rd
2 Calculate and fill in the first differences
where possible. 0 −11

3 Note the first differences are constant, so 8

the last two columns are optional. The
1 −3 0
relationship is linear.
4 Working ‘backwards’, the first stepped 8 0
cell must be −11 in order for the difference 2 5 0
between it and the next cell to be 8.
8 0
3 13 0
8 0
4 21 0
8
5 29

5 Recall the stepped cell equations, and equate

them to the shaded cells as shown:
Stepped cell 1 = a0 a0 = −11* [1]
Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 a1 + a2 + a3 = 8 [2]
Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3 2a2 + 6a3 = 0 [3]
Stepped cell 4 = 6a3 6a3 = 0 [4]
Here, an asterisk (*) is used to denote
solved values.
6 [1] gives a0 = −11, [4] yields a3 = 0, and So a3 = 0* and a2 = 0*
hence [3] yields a2 = 0. Substitute this Sub a2 = 0 and a3 = 0 into [2]:
information into [2]. a1 + 0 + 0 = 8
a1 = 8*
7 Use the asterisked values to build the equation
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 becomes
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0.
y = (0)x3 + (0)x2 + (8)x + (−11)
y = 8x − 11

Using simultaneous equations to find

a polynomial model
The method of fitting a polynomial to a set of data using finite differences requires the data to be
sequential. Often this is not the case. Simultaneous equations can be used to find a polynomial model
when the data are not sequential.

140 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 The number of simultaneous equations required to find the rule of a degree n polynomial is n + 1.
For example, to find a quadratic model, 2 + 1 = 3 points are required as a quadratic is a degree 2
polynomial. Each of the points are substituted into the general equation of the quadratic polynomial,
y = ax2 + bx + c, to generate 3 simultaneous equations. These can be solved using elimination or by
using a CAS calculator.

WORKED EXAMPLE 29

Using simultaneous equations, find a quadratic model for the points (−2, −9), (3, 1) and (1, 9).
THINK WRITE

1 Write down the general rule of a quadratic. y = ax2 + bx + c

2 Substitute each point into the general equation to a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = −9
get three simultaneous equations. ∴ 4a − 2b + c = −9 [1]
a(3)2 + b(3) + c = 1
∴ 9a + 3b + c = 1 [2]
a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 9
∴a+b+c=9 [3]
3 Solve equations [1], [2] and [3] using elimination.
Equation [1] − [2] to eliminate c. −5a − 5b = −10 [4]
Equation [2] − [3] to eliminate c. 8a + 2b = −8 [5]
Equation [4] × 8 −40a − 40b = −80 [6]
Equation [5] × 5 40a + 10b = −40 [7]
Add equations [6] and [7] to eliminate a and solve −30b = −120

for b. ∴b=4
Substitute b = 4 into equation [4] to find a. −5a − 5(4) = −10
−5a = 10

∴ a = −2
−2 + 4 + c = 9

Substitute a = −2 and b = 4 into equation [3] ∴c=7

to find c.
4 Write the rule. y = −2x2 + 4x + 7

WORKED EXAMPLE 30

Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the points (−2, −10), (1, 2), (3, −20) and (6, 22).
Use a CAS calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
THINK WRITE

1 Write the general rule for a cubic. y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

2 Substitute each point into the general equation to a(−2)3 + b(−2)2 + c(−2) + d = −10
get 4 simultaneous equations. −8a + 4b − 2c + d = −10 [1]
a(1) + b(1)2 + c(1) + d = 2
3

a+b+c+d=2 [2]
a(3)3 + b(3)2 + c(3) + d = −20
27a + 9b + 3c + d = −20 [3]
a(6) + b(6)2 + c(6) + d = 22
3

216a + 36b + 6c + d = 22 [4]

3 Use the CAS calculator’s solve feature to The values are a = 1, b = −5, c = −4 and d = 10.
determine a, b, c and d.
4 Write the rule. y = x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 10

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 141

 Exercise 3M Finite differences
1 WE27,28 For each of the following, complete a finite difference table based on the data below and
use it to determine the equation of y in terms of x.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 6 17 28 39 50 61

b x 0 1 2 3 4 5
−4 −30
y 100 74 48 22

c x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −4 7 32 71 124 191

d x 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 −9 −13 −11 −3

e x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −7 −10 −1 26 77 158

f x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 16 17 20 31 56 101

g x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −23 −11 5 25 49 77

h x 1 2 3 4 5
y 28 27 32 31 12

i x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −27 −18 −9 0 9 18

j x 1 2 3 4 5
y −7 −3 −3 −7 −15

k x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −66 −5 58 99 94 19

l x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 43 35 27 19 11 3

2 Triangular numbers may be illustrated as shown at right. x=1 x=2

If x is the number of dots on the base of each diagram, and y is the total
number of dots:
a complete the table below
b find an equation linking x and y x=3 x=4

x (base dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5
y (total dots)

c find the total number of cans in the supermarket display shown at right using
the equation found in b, and check your answer by counting the cans.

142 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 The diagonals in polygons of various types are shown at right in red. Find the
relationship between the number of dots (x) and the number of diagonals (n).
(Hint: Continue patterns in a difference table so that it is completed back to
x = 0.)

4 If n is the number of different squares that can be found within a square grid of edge length x, find
an equation for n in terms of x and use this equation to find the number of different squares on a
chessboard.

x=1 x=2 x=3

n=1 n=5 n=?

5 Find a linear model for the following sets of points.

a (2, 1) (−1, −23) b (−4, 6) (8, −3)

6 WE29 Using simultaneous equations, find a quadratic model for the following sets of points.
a (−2, −13) (6, −37) (−4, −57) b (−1, 4) (1, −2) (4, 19)
−
c (4, 8) (0, 8) ( 4, 24) d (−5, −360) (−2, −96) (6, −272)
7 WE30 Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the following sets of points. Use a CAS
calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
a (−6, 3) (−3, −27) (3, −33) (2, 3) b (−2, −39) (1, 6) (4, 141) (−3, −118)
c (4, −10) (6, 90) (8, 302) (−2, 2) d (−1, −4) (1, −8) (4, −314) (0, −6)
8 Using simultaneous equations, find a quartic model for the following sets of points. Use a
CAS calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
a (1, 2) (−3, 354) (4, 1313) (2, 79) (−1, −2)
b (−4, 73) (0, 1) (2, −11) (−2, 13) (6, −707)

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 143

Summary
Expanding r
When expanding three linear factors:
1. expand two factors first, then multiply the result by the remaining linear factor
2. collect like terms at each stage
3. (x + 2)3 may be written as (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 2)
4. (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3

Long division of r
Long division of polynomials is similar to long division with numbers.
polynomials r
The highest power term is the main one considered at each stage.
r
The key steps are:
1. How many?
2. Multiply and write the result underneath.
3. Subtract.
4. Bring down the next term.
5. Repeat until no variables remain to be divided.
6. State the quotient and the remainder.

Polynomial values r
P(a) means the value of P(x) when x is replaced by a and the polynomial is evaluated.

The remainder and r
The remainder R = P(a) when P(x) is divided by x − a.

factor theorems r
If P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).

Factorising r
To factorise a polynomial:

polynomials 1. let P(x) = the given polynomial
2. use the factor theorem to find a linear factor
3. use long or short division to find another factor
4. repeat steps 2 and 3, or factorise by inspection if possible.
Alternatively, use the factor function on a calculator.

Sum and difference of r
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2)

two cubes r
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2)

Solving polynomial r
To solve a polynomial equation:

equations 1. rewrite the equation so it equals zero
2. factorise the polynomial as much as possible
3. let each linear factor equal zero and solve for x in each case.

Cubic graphs — r
To sketch a cubic function of the form f (x) = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D: y
intercepts method 1. determine if the expression is a positive or negative cubic (that is,
if A is positive or negative) 20
2. find the y-intercept (let x = 0)
3. factorise if necessary or possible; for example, obtain an
expression in the form f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)
4. find the x-intercepts (let factors of f (x) equal 0)
−1 5– 4 x
5. use all available information to sketch the graph. 2

Quartic graphs — r
To sketch a quartic function in the form y

intercepts method f (x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) (x – d): 840
1. find the y-intercept (f (0) = abcd)
2. find the x-intercepts (let factors of f (x) = 0)
3. use all available information to sketch the graph.

−8 −5 0 3 7 x

144 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Graphs of cubic r
A cubic function in the form y = a(x − b)3 + c has a y-dilation of a and a stationary point of
functions in power inflection at (b, c).
function form
y y
a>0 a<0

(b, c) (b, c)

x x
Positive a Negative a

Domain, range, r
The absolute maximum or minimum is either the y-value at a local maximum or minimum, or the
maximums and y-value at an end of the domain.
minimums

Modelling using r
An equation to model data may be obtained using a calculator.

technology 1. Enter data as lists.
2. Find the regression equation (linear, quadratic etc.).

Finite differences r
To use the method of finite differences:

1. Set up a table as shown and find differences by subtracting successive values (value – previous
value). Circle or shade the stepped cells.
First Second Third
x y
differences differences differences
0 Stepped cell 1
Stepped cell 2
1 Stepped cell 3
Stepped cell 4
2

3 Etc.
Etc.
4 Previous value
Value –
previous value
5 Value

2. Use the following equations to determine the polynomial model’s coefficients.

}
1. Stepped cell 1 = a0
2. Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 The equation of the polynomial model is
3. Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3 y = a3x3 + a2x2+ a1x + a0.
4. Stepped cell 4 = 6a3

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 145

Chapter review
1 Expand:
SHORT
ANS WER a (x − 2)2(x + 10) b (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 5)
c (x − 7)3 d (5 − 2x)(1 + x)(x + 2).
2 Find the quotient and remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second in each case.
a x3 + 2x2 − 16x − 3, x + 2 b x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 7, x − 3 c −x3 + x2 + 4x − 7, x + 1
3 If P(x) = −3x3 + 2x2 + x − 4, find:
a P(1) b P(−4) c P(2a).
4 Without dividing, find the remainder when x3+ 3x2 − 16x + 5 is divided by x − 1.
5 Show that x + 3 is a factor of x3 − 2x2 − 29x − 42.
6 Factorise x3 + 4x2 − 100x − 400.
7 Factorise:
a 1 − 125x3 b (x − 2)3 + (x + 3)3.
8 Solve:
a 5(x + 5)3 + 5 = 0 b (2x + 1)2 (x − 3)2 = 0 c x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 24 = 0.
9 Sketch:
a y = x(x − 2)(x + 11) b y = x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 c y = −2x3 + x2.
10 Sketch:
a y = x(x – 7)(x – 2)(x + 4) b y = (2x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 4)2 c y = −x(x + 5)3.
−1
11 Sketch y = 8
(x + 1)3 + 8.
12 Find the range of f : [−6, 3] → R, where f (x) = (x + 1)(2 − x)(x + 5).
13 Complete a finite difference table, and use it to determine the equation for y in terms of x for the
following data set.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 8 7 8 17 40 83
14 The following series of diagrams show the maximum number of regions
produced by drawing chords in a circle.
x=0 x=1 x=2 x=3
Find a relationship between the number of chords (x) and the maximum r = 1 r = 2 r = 4 r = 7
number of regions (r).
15 Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the points (−1, −10), (2, −4), (−3, −104) and (0, −2).

MULTIP L E 1 The expansion of (x + 5)(x + 1)(x − 6) is:

C H OICE
A x3 − 30 B x3 − 6x2 + 5x − 6 C x3 + 12x2 − 31x + 30
D x3 − 31x − 30 E x3 + 5x2 − 36x − 30
2 x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 is the expansion of:
A (x + 3)3 B x(x + 3)(x − 3) C (x − 1)(x + 3)2
D (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) E (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
Questions 3 and 4 refer to the following long division.
x2 + x + 2
x + 4)x3 + 5x2 + 6x − 1
x3 + 4x2
x2 + 6x
x2 + 4x
2 −1
2x
2 +8
2x
−9
3 The quotient is:
A −9 B 4 C x+4 D x2 + x + 2 E x3 + 5x2 + 6x − 1

146 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 4 The remainder is:
A −9 B 2 C 4 D 2x − 1 E 2x + 8
5 If P(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 7x + 1, then P(−2) equals:
A −34 B −33 C −9 D 7 E 35
6 The remainder when − 7x is divided by x − 1 is:
x3
A −6 B 1 C 6 D 7 E 8
7 Which of the following is a factor of x − 3x2 − 18x + 40?
3

A (x − 4) B (x − 2) C (x + 1) D (x + 3) E (2x − 1)
8 x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 factorises to:
A (x − 1)2(x + 8) B (x + 1)2(x + 8) C (x + 2)3
D (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 4) E (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
9 64x3 − y3 factorises to:
A (4x − y)(16x2 + 4xy + y2) B (4x − y)(16x2 − 4xy + y2) C (4x − y)(16x2 + 8xy + y2)
D (4x + y)(16x2 − 8xy + y2) E (4x + y)(16x2 − 4xy + y2)
10 Which of the following is the solution to −(x − 4)3 − 2 = 6?
A −6 B −2 C 2 D 4 E 6
11 Which of the following is a solution to (x − 11)(3x + 5)(7 − 3x)(2x + 5) = 0?
−3 3 5 7
A −11 B 5
C 7 D 3 E 3

12 The equation for this graph could be: y

A y = (x − 5)(x + 1)(x + 3)
B y = (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 5)
C y = (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)
D y = (3x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 5)
E y = (5 − x)(1 + x)(3 + x)

−3 −1 5 x

13 The equation for the graph shown below could be: y

A y = (x – 3)2(x + 3)2
B y = (x – 3)(x + 3)3
C y = (x – 3)3(x + 3) −3 0 3 x
D y = (x – 3)4
−81
E y = (x + 3)4
14 Which of the following shows the graph of y = −2(x + 5)3 − 12?
A y B y C y

x x
(−5, 12)
(−5, −12) (5, −12)
x

D y E y
(5, 12)

x
x
(−5, −12)

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 147

 Questions 15 and 16 refer to the following graph (below).
y
(−7, 252)

(4.813, 60.370)

−5 2 7 x

(−2.147, −108.222)

15 The domain of the graph is:

A [−108.222, 252) B (−2.147, 4.183] C (−108.222, 60.370]
D (−7, 7] E (−6, 7]
16 The range of the graph is:
A [−108.222, 252) B [−2.147, 4.183] C [−108.222, 60.370]
D [7, 252) E [0, 252)
17 The data below obey which type of relationship?

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 4 16 66 208 520

A Linear B Quadratic C Cubic D Quartic E None of the above

18 Which of the following points lies on the curve of the quadratic model that fits the points (1, 0), (0, −7)
and (2, 11)?
A (3, −4) B (0, 7) C (−2, −7) D (−1, −10) E (−1, −14)

E X TENDED 1 For P(x) = 5x3 − 3x2 − 6x − 22, find P(3) and P(−x).
R E S P ONS E
2 Find the value of m if x + 3 is a factor of 2x3 − 15x2 + mx − 21.
3 Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 9x + 18. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 9x +18.
4 Factorise (3x − 2)3 + (x + 5)3.
5 Determine the x- and y-intercepts of the cubic graph y = (2 − 3x)(4x + 1)(2x − 7). Hence, sketch the
graph.
6 The graph y = x3 has been moved parallel to the x-axis 5 units to the left and moved upwards 2 units
from the x-axis.
What is the equation of the translated graph and what are the coordinates of the point of inflection?
Sketch the translated graph.
7 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)2(x − 3)(x − 4), showing all intercepts.
8 The polynomial P(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 54 is exactly divisible by x − 9 and also exactly divisible by x − 6.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find the third factor.
c Hence, sketch the graph of the polynomial y = x3 + ax2 + bx + 54.
9 Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 6 over the real number field. Sketch the graph of y = x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 6.
10 Find the points of intersection between y = x3 − x2 − 19x − 13 and 3x + y − 7 = 0.
11 Use the method of finite differences to fit a polynomial model to the following data.

x 0 1 2 3 4
y 4 16 25 30 30

148 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

12 A diagram of a proposed waterslide based on a cubic function appears below.
Find:
a the height, h1, of the top of the slide
b the coordinates of point A (where the slide enters the water)
c the length, L, of the ladder
d the height, h2, of the ‘mini-hump’ to the nearest centimetre.
y

y = −0.008(x3 − 30x2 + 285x − 900)

L
h1

h2
(−5, 0) (8, 0.22) A x

13 An innovative local council decides to put a map of the district on a website. Part of the map involves
two key features — the Cubic River and the Linear Highway. A mathematically able website designer
has found the following equations for these features:
Cubic River: y = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4
Linear Highway: y = 5x + 5.
a Sketch the river and highway, showing x- and y-axis intercepts.
b Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the highway and the river.
c A fun-run organiser wishes to arrange checkpoints at the closest points of intersection. Find the
distance between the proposed checkpoints.
14 A cubic function in the form f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has the following values.

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 42 36 20 0 −18 −28

a Use finite differences to find the values of a, b, c and d.

b State one factor of f (x), giving your reasoning.
c Using long or short division, factorise f (x).
d Sketch the graph of f (x), labelling all intercepts.
15 The height (in centimetres) of a wave above a 1-metre pole is measured over an interval of 8 seconds.
The wave’s height above the 1-metre pole has been found to approximate the function H1 = t3 − 13t2 + 48t.
a Find the initial height of the wave above the 1-metre pole.
b Using a CAS calculator, sketch the function and find the local maximum and minimum height of
the wave.
c The height of a later wave above the 1-metre pole is found to approximate the function DIGITAL DOC
H2 = t3 − 14t2 + 53t − 40. doc-9737
Test Yourself
Show at what times the height of this wave is exactly the same height as the pole. Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 149

 ICT activities
Chapter opener 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method
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SRO\QRPLDOV(page 108) 3J Graphs of cubic functions in power
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3C Polynomial values DIGITAL DOCS
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3D The remainder and factor theorems DIGITAL DOCS
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3E Factorising polynomials 3L Modelling using technology

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� doc-9728:,QYHVWLJDWH]HURVRIFXELFV(page 117) � Modelling data using polynomials int-0262:8VHWKHLQWHUDFWLYLW\WR
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TUTORIAL GDWD(page 136)
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(page 114) TUTORIAL
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3F Sum and difference of two cubes
DIGITAL DOCS
TUTORIAL � doc-9735:,QYHVWLJDWHWKHEHVWPRGHOIRUDVHWRIGDWD(page 137)
� WE15 eles-1414::DWFKKRZWRIDFWRULVHH[SUHVVLRQVXVLQJWKH
VXPRUGLIIHUHQFHRIWZRFXEHVIRUPXODH(page 117)
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3G Solving polynomial equations DIGITAL DOC
� Test Yourself doc-9737:7DNHWKHHQGRIFKDSWHUWHVWWRWHVW\RXU
DIGITAL DOC
SURJUHVV(page 149)
� WorkSHEET 3.2 doc-9729:)DFWRULVLQJFXELFVDQGTXDUWLFVXVLQJORQJ
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VNHWFKLQJFXELFVDQGTXDUWLFV(page 121) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

150 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_03.indd 150 8/05/13 2:47 PM

Answers CHAPTER 3
CUBIC AND QUARTIC c 4x2 − 7x − 2, −3 Exercise 3D The remainder and factor

FUNCTIONS d x2 − 4x + 3, 8 theorems
e x2 + x − 6, −11 1 a −30 b 0 c 0
Exercise 3A Expanding f 3x2 + 2x + 1, 13 d −24 e −24
1 a x3 + 7x2 + 6x 3 a −x2 − 5x − 2, −14
f k3 + 3k2 − 10k − 24
b x3 − 7x2 − 18x b − 2
3x − 2x + 4, −3 g −n3 + 3n2 + 10n − 24
c x3 + 8x2 − 33x c −x2 + 5x + 6, 9 h −27c3 + 27c2 + 30c − 24
d 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x d −2x2 + 7x − 1, 1 2 a 58 b −8 c 11
e 48x − 3x3 4 a x2 − x − 2, 3 d −9 e −202 f 6
f 5x3 + 50x2 + 80x g 158 h −6 i 35
b x2, −7
g x3 + 4x2 j 441
c x2 − x − 2, −8
h 2x3 − 14x2 −x2 − x − 8, 0 3 a 6 b 3 c 1
d
i −
30x3 − 270x2 d −2 e 2 f 2
e 5x − 2, 7
j −7x3 − 56x2 − 112x g −5, 2 h a = −5, b = −3
f 2x2 − 2x + 10, −54 4 a Not a factor b Is a factor
2 a x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42 g −2x2 − 4x − 9, −16
c Is a factor d Not a factor
b x3 − 3x2 − 18x + 40 h −2x2 + 4x − 1, 1
5 Show P(−2) = 0, P(3) = 0 and P(−5) = 0.
c x3 + 3x2 − 36x + 32 5 a x3 + 2x2 + 5x – 2, −2 6 For example, for a show P (1) = 0.
d x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 b x3 + 2x2 – 9x – 18, 0 7 a E b C c D d A
e x3 + 6x2 − x − 6 6x3 + 17x2 + 53x + 155, 465
c 8 a (x − 1)
f x3 + 5x2 − 49x − 245 6 a The quotient is x2 − 6x + 101; the b (x − 3) or (x − 2)
g x3 + 4x2 − 137x − 660 remainder is −1490. c (x − 3) or (x + 2)
h x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 5 b The quotient is 2x2 + 44x + 1369; the d (x − 6) or (x + 4) or (x + 5)
i x3 − 12x2 + 21x + 98 remainder is 42 430. 9 a i 0 ii 0 iii 0
j x3 + x2 − x − 1 16 x 160 b i (x + 1)(6x2 + x − 2)
3 a x3 + 13x2 + 26x − 112 c The quotient is 4x2 − + ; ii (x + 1)(2x − 1)(3x + 2)
− 721 3 9
b 3x3 + 26x2 + 51x − 20 the remainder is 9 . c P ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ = 0 and (2x − 1) is a factor.
c 4x3 − x2 − 36x + 9 735
⎝ 2⎠

d 10x3 − 49x2 + 27x + 36 d The quotient is 9x3 − 30x2 + 105x − 2 ; 2x − 1 = 0 gives x = 2 .

1

−6x3 − 71x2 − 198x + 35 5235 −2

e the remainder is 2 . P( 3 ) = 0 and (3x + 2) is a factor.
f 21x3 − 96x2 + 48x −2
g 54x3 + 117x2 − 72x Exercise 3C Polynomial values 3x + 2 = 0 givesx = 3.
h 24x3 − 148x2 + 154x + 245 1 a 10 b 11 c 18 d In general if (ax + b) is a factor, then
i 20x3 − 19x2 − 69x + 54 d 43 e 3 f −22 −
−77
⎛ b⎞
j 4x3 + 42x2 + 146x + 168 g P ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.
a⎠
4 a x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 h 2a3 − 3a2 + 2a + 10
b x3 + 15x2 + 75x + 125 i 16b3 − 12b2 + 4b + 10 Exercise 3E Factorising polynomials
c x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 j 2x3 + 9x2 + 14x + 18 1 a (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 6)
d x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 27 k 2x3 − 21x2 + 74x − 77 b (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5)
−128y3 − 48y2 − 8y + 10
e 8x3 − 72x2 + 216x − 216 l c (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 9)
f 27x3 + 108x2 + 144x + 64 2 a P(−11) = 230 522 d (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 4)
5 a x3 − 4x2 − 67x − 110 b P(102) = 1 735 072 853 e (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7)
b 3x3 + 15x2 − 18x c P(2x + 9) = 256x4 + 4632x3 + 31 428x2 f (x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 7)
c −6x3 + 72x2 + 510x − 3600 + 94 726x + 106 982 g (x + 1)2(x + 2)
d − 3
x + 29x2 − 264x + 720 d P(x3 + 2) = 16x12 + 131x9 + 402x6 h (x + 2)2(x + 3)
e −x3 − 20x2 − 100x + 526x3 + 253 i (x + 4)(x + 5)2
f −x3 − 39x2 − 507x − 2197 3–7 j x(x + 5)(x + 8)

Exercise 3B
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column
Long division of polynomials
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 a x + 3x − 6, 19
2

b x2 + 2x − 1, 6 Rem Rem Rem Rem

c x2 + 1, 2 when when when when
d x2 − x + 6, −11 divided divided divided divided
e x2 + 4x + 3, −3 by by by by
f x2 + 3x − 3, −11 P (x) P (1) P (2) P (−1) P (−2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
g x2 − 2x − 3, −17 a 4 15 0 −5 4 15 0 −5
h x2 − 4x − 18, −91
i 3x2 − 7x + 20, −35 b 10 28 −2 −8 10 28 −2 −8

j 4x2 − 8x + 18, −22

c 3 11 −7 −21 3 11 −7 −21
k 2x2 − 3x + 3, 7
l 2x2 − 9, 35 d −7 −19 5 −7 −7 −19 5 −7
2 a 3x2 − 2x + 1, 5
b 2x2 + 5x − 6, −7 8 a P (−8) b P (7) c P (a)

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 151

 k x(x + 3)(x + 4) 3 a (2a − 1)(a2 − a + 1) Exercise 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts
l x(x + 5)2 b x(x2 + 6x + 12) method
m x(x + 1)(x + 5) c 2(x + 2)(4x2 + 10x + 7) 1 a y

n x2(x + 6) d −5(3w2 − 15w + 25)

2 a (x − 1)(x + 1)2 e 5m(7m2 − 3mp + 3p2)
x
b (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) f (2x − 3)(13x2 + 15x + 9) 1 2 3
c (x + 1)2(x + 5) g (3y + 5)(3y2 + 21y + 67)
d (x − 3)(x + 2)2 h (4x − 3y)(7x2 + 9xy + 21y2) −6
e (x + 1)(x + 4)2 i (1 − 5p)(13p2 − 16p + 7)
f (x − 5)(x − 2)(x + 2) j 2(3x − 8)(21x2 − 60x + 67)
b y
g (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) k (x2 + y3)(x4 − x2y3 + y6)
h (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) l 2(x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)
i (x − 1)(x + 2)2 m 3(a + 1)(a2 − a + 1) −6 −1 7 x
j (x + 2)(x2 − x + 3) n 6(x2 + 4)(x4 − x2 + 7) −42
k (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) 4 m = 27, n = 1
l (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 3)
5 a 3x3 + my3 = ( 3 3 x )3 + ( 3 m y)3
m (x − 2)2(x + 3)
n (x − 4)(x + 5)(x + 8) b a = 3 3x , b = 3 m y
c y
o (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)2
c (3 3x + 3 m y) ((3 3 x) 2 − 3 3mxy + ( 3 my)2 )
p (x − 3)(x + 2)3 −8 −1 11
q (x − 1)(x + 1) (x + 3)2 Exercise 3G
x
Solving polynomial −88
r x(x − 1)(x − 7)(x + 3)
3 a x(x − 2)(3x + 5)
equations
1 a 6 −5
b 2x(x + 1)(2x − 1) b
c 14 −5
c 3x(x − 4)(x + 2) d
e 4 −2
d −2x(x + 3)2 f
−4 y
e 6x2(x − 1) g 0 h
d
f −x(x + 4)(x + 3) 3
g −(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) i −4 j 1 60
h −2x(x − 3)(x − 2) k 12 l −13
i −(x + 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 2) 2 a 1, 2, 5 b −
3, −4, −7
j −(x − 2)2(5x − 4) −2, −2, −1, 5–
c 1, 5, 9 d 2, 3
k −(x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 5)(x + 2)2 −4, −2, −1, 1, 2
2
e 4 f −4 3 x
l (x − 2)2(3x + 5)(8x + 1) −5, 8
g h 1
4 a (2x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) e y
b (3x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 4) i −1, 0, 1 j 0, 9 12 3–
4
c (3x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 2) −
−7
− 1– 4 x
k 2, 6 l 2, 0 2
d (4x + 3)(x + 3)(x + 5)
e (5x − 1)(x + 1)2 −3 6 6 1 3
m 2 , 0, 7 , 5 n 5, 4
f (x + 2)(x2 − x + 2)
g (x + 1)(2x + 3)2 3 a −2, 0, 2 b −4, 0, 4 c −5, 0, 5
h (x − 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 4) −3, −5,
d 3 e 0 f 0, 2
i (x + 4)(2x − 5)(5x + 2) f
y
− −1 1
j (7x − 2)(x − 2)(x + 4) g 2, 0, 2 h ,0 i 0, 5
k (x − 3)(x + 1)2(2x + 1) 4 3 6 x
l (x − 1)(x + 3)(2x + 1) (3x − 2) j 0, 2, 3 k 0, 4 l −7, 0, 1
Exercise 3F Sum and difference of m 0, 4, 5 n 0
two cubes 4 a −4, 1, 4 b −2, 3, 5 c −5, 1, 5
1 a a = x, b = 6 b a = 2y, b = z d −4, −2,
2 e −1,
2, 3 f −2, 1, 5 −54
c a = x + 5, b = 3 d a = 1, b = 4h −1
g −2, −1, 3 h −5, 0, 1, 2 i −6, −1 y
2,
c u 2 a
e a= , b = eg f a = t, b = −1 3 1
30
2 6 , k −3, −2, l −2, −1, 1
j 2 2, 3 2
2 a (x − 5)(x2 + 5x + 25)
−
b ( j + k)( j2 − jk + k2) 5 a 8.002, 9.008, 15.994
−
c (y − 2)( y2 + 2y + 4) b 12, −7, 7
−
d (3x + y)(9x2 − 3xy + y2) c 9, 13
e 8(2t − 3u)(4t2 + 6tu + 9u2) d 16 −5 −3 2 x
−
f (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) e 6.91
b y
f 14.22, −1.071, 0.854
⎞ ⎛ x − 2 xp + 4 p2 ⎞
2
⎛x
g ⎜ + 2 p⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎠ g 3.627
⎝9 ⎠ ⎝ 81 9
h 0.646, −1.948, −0.199 −8 − 3– 8 x
h (3r − 1)(9r2 + 3r + 1) i −4.894, −1.325 2

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3k 1⎞ −12.556, 0.418 −192

j
i ⎜⎝ 3k − ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 9 k + + ⎟
2
2 2 4⎠ 6 C
j (st + g2)(s2t 2 − stg2 + g4) 7 B

152 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 e y
c y 5D 6 C 7 B
8 E 9 D
−3 −1 7 x
x −21 10 a y
−1 2

f y −1
y x
d
12
150

b y = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 5)
−1 −2 c Find the discriminant for the quadratic
3
−10 −5 x
−3 −2 x factor,
Δ = (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 5 = 4 − 20 = −16.
g y ∴ As Δ < 0, the quadratic factor has no
y 8 real solutions, so y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 has
e
only one real solution at x = −1.
d Find the discriminant of the quadratic
factor,
−1 4 Δ = (−2k)2 − 4 × 1 × 5 = 4k2 − 20.
2 3
x i For 2 real solutions, the quadratic
2
−8 x factor must have 1 solution. ∴ Δ = 0.
h y Solve 4k2 − 20 = 0.
y −9 x
∴ If k = ± 5 , the cubic will have
f
2 real solutions.
ii For 3 real solutions, the quadratic
factor must have 2 solutions. ∴ Δ > 0.
Solve 4k2 − 20 > 0.
7
∴ If k < − 5 or k > 5 , the cubic will
−7 1– x
6 4 a y (−0.33, 14.81) have 3 real solutions.
14 Exercise 3I
3a y Quartic graphs — intercepts
method
−7 −2 1 x
1 a y

12
−2 −1 1 x
(−5, −36) 0 x
−2 −1 2 3
−2 b y (6.04, 10.02)
−4 5 7 b y
b y x
6
8

x
−2 −1 0 2
−140
−3 −2 −1 (−0.71, −144.84) c y
x
c y
−1 3 0 1 x
y −5
c x −5
(−1, 0)
8
−9

d y

−4 −2 −1 (3, 16)
x (1.67, −28.44) 1
d y 0 1 x
d y
4 e y
24 −2 −1
7
(−2, 0) x

−4 2 3 x
(−0.76, −6.64) −3 0 1– 3 x
2

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 153

 f y 6 E −1
7 D i i 4 ii (3, 2)
8 a y j i 4 ii (0, 0)
4 −1
k i 3 ii (0, 0)
−1 0 2 x −2.23 −0.24 2 l i −2 ii (0, −2)
x
g y 2 a y
(2, 2)

(−1.55, −13.04) 1 x
1
0 1– x (0.46, 12.09)
3
b y
−14
h y
9
125 1.30 3.36
(−0.83, 0.10) x
b y
−5 0 1 x
(−3, 81)

3 a = −5 (2.61, −34.98)
4 a There are many possible quartic c y
equations, including y = −(x + 3)(x – 3)3 (−2.38, 13.68) x
or y = −x4 + 81 or y = −(x − 3)(x + 3)3. (1.22, 6.47)
b y = −(x + 3)(x – 3)3
c y
−3.18 1.86 6
y −0.68 0 x x
(4, −32)

81
d y
(0.09, 120.35)
120 −288
−4.33 −1.79 1.62 9.51
x
−3 0 x (−3.28, −98.19)
3
d y

(6.95, −1343.39) 10
(1, 5)

e y
y = −x4 + 81
2
x
y
−1.90 1.90
81 x
(0, −3) −3 y
e

(−1.29, −11.33) (1.29, −11.33) −2 x

f (−3.22, 1027.74)y
−8
(−0.06, 357.53)
−3 0 3 x (2.35, 682.19)

f y
358
−(x
y= − 3)(x + 3)3 −4.75 3.74
1 x
x
y
−1

81 Exercise 3J Graphs of cubic functions in

power function form
1 a i 2 ii (1, 3) y
g
b i 3 ii (−5, −2)
0 x
−3 3 c i −2 ii (6, −8)
35
d i −7 ii (−4, 1) (−2, 27)
e i 1 ii (9, 4)
f i 1 ii (0, −7)
g i −1 ii (−1, −1)
1 −5 x
5 C h i ii (−2, 0)
2

154 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 h y y y
b j
1
30 –2
x
4 x
−1 ( 5– , −1)
2
x (5, −3)
(−5, −32)

i y
c y 4 A
5 E
6 a y = (x − 1)3 + 5
x b y = (x + 2)3 + 2
x
( 1– , 0) c y = −(x + 3)3 + 4
4
(3, −9) d y = −(x + 3)3
7 a y = 4(x − 2)3 + 3
b y = −2(x + 5)3 + 1
j y
d y 1
c y = 4 (x − 1)3 − 2
1 3–4 −1
(−1, 2)
d y= 2x
3
+4
( 3– , 1)
1 2
x x Exercise 3K Domain, range, maximums
and minimums
1 a Domain [−5, 4], range [−2, 5]
k y b Domain [−2, 4], range [−2, 7]
e y c Domain [−4, 2], range [−5, 2]
26 3–5 d Domain [−2, 6), range [−2, 10)
(−2, 25)
e Domain (−3, 5), range [0, 5)
(1, 0) f Domain (−3, 4], range [−9, 0]
x
2 a y
(0.472, 13.129)
−7 x 12

l y
f y

x x −1 4
x
(3.528, −1.128)
( 3– , −2)
(1, −2) 4 Range [−1.128, 13.129]

b (−3.732, 10.392) y
m y
(1, 5) y
g

(4, 3)
−5 −2 1 x

x
x (−0.268, −10.392) −10
Range [−10.392, 10.392]
n y
h y c y (3, 2) Range [0, 2)
1 x
x

−3
(9–5 , −7) (1.333, 0.148)

1 2 x
3 a y d y Range [0, 3]
i y
3

(4, 1) (6, 4) (−2.333, 1.185)

5 x
x −3 −1 x

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 155

 e (−4.689, 105.526) y b y c y y = 2.5307x3 − 23.29x2 + 38.808x + 59.448
0 x 600
−10 2 4 6 8 10 500
3– (2, 27) −20 400
−7 −1 2 −30 300
x 200
−21 (0.355, −22.822) −40 100
−50 0
−60 2 4 6 8 10 x
y = −4.6273x − 9.0455
(−8, −133) d y y = −2.2988x3 + 32.575x2 −14.094x + 30.154
900
Range [−133, 105.526] c y y = 3.0273x + 6.3182
600
f y 40
30 300
1 4 20
x 0
10 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
4a y y = 81.855x + 419.36
−4 d y y = −2.8818x + 48.318 1400
(3, −4) 1200
1000
50 800
600
Range [−4, 0] 40 400
30 200
g (−2.577, 0.385) y 20 0 x
10 0 2 4 6 8 10
−3 −2 x
0
(−1.422, −0.385) 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
b y y = 12.953x2 − 47.679x + 613.66
1400
2 a y y = −0.5291x2 + 20.8x + 0.5175 1200
1000
250 800
600
200 400
(−4, −6) 150 200
0 x
100 0 2 4 6 8 10
Range [−6, 0.385] 50
h (−2, 4) y 0 c y y = 10.006x3 − 2.1369x2 + 9.8652x + 577.45
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
1400
(2.1, 1.581) 1200
b y y = 8.2459x2 − 21.777x + 56.371 1000
800
−1 2 x 800 600
600 400
200
400 0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
−6 200
(0.786, −8.209) 5 The cubic model
0
Range [−8.209, 4) 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
6 205.629
y 7 99
i (2.737, 48.517) c y y = −1.1014x2 + 16.75x − 5.5664 8 330
50 9 a y
40
Share price ($)

6
30 5
20 4
10 3
−3 −1 5 0
−10 2 4 6 8 10 x 2
x 1
(−2.070, −7.035) (5.1, −4.94) 0 x
y 2 4 6 8 10 12
d
Range [−7.035, 48.517] Time (months)
y 0 x
j (−2.111, 13.169) −200 2 4 6 8 10 b $6.78
−400
2.333 −600 c Anything can happen with prices in the
−3 −1 x −800 sharemarket. The last data point may be
−1000
−1200 the beginning of a share price crash!
y = −11.124x2 − 15.655x + 79.329 10 y y = 1.048x3 − 19.309x2 + 98.296x + 220.7
−21
400
Population

3 a y y = 1.3747x3 − 19.138x2 + 8.5536x + 607.48

(1, −32) 300
600
500 200
Range [−32, 13.169] 400 100
3 A 4 B 300 0
200 x
5 a 28 m b 20.785 m 100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Year
6 (0.971, −1.201) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
Exercise 3L
Year 11 estimate: 360 birds
Modelling using technology
b y y = 1.5056x3 − 6.6906x2 + 35.465x + 20.615 Exercise 3M
1 a y y = 11.436x − 23.091 Finite differences
1200
100
80 1000 1 a y = 11x + 6
60 800
600
b y = −26x + 100
40
20 400 c y = 7x2 + 4x − 4
0 200 d y = 3x2 − 19x + 17
−20 2 4 6 8 10 x 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x e y = x3 + 3x2 − 7x − 7

156 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 f y = x3 − 2x2 + 2x + 16 9a y EXTENDED RESPONSE
g y = 2x + 10x − 23
2 1 P(3) = 68
h y = −2x3 + 15x2 − 32x + 47 P(−x) = −5x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 22
2 m = −70
i y = 9x − 27
3 Factors: (x − 3)(x + 3)(x − 2)
j y = −2x2 + 10x − 15
y
k y = −4x3 + 13x2 + 52x − 66
l y= −8x
+ 43 −11 2 x

b y 18
2 a x (base dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5

y (total dots) 0 1 3 6 10 15
8 x
1 1 −3 0 2 3
b y= x2 + 2 x
2
c 28 −8 1 x
4 (4x + 3)(7x2 − 15x + 39)

3 x (dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 c y
5 x-intercepts: x = ⎨
⎧ −1 2 1
, ,3
⎩ 4 3 2
}
n (diagonals) 0 −1 −1 0 2 5 9 y-intercepts: y = −14
y
1 3
n = 2 x2 − 2 x 1– x
2
1 3 1 1
4 n= x + 2 x 2 + 6 x, 204 squares on
3
a chessboard y
10 a
5 a y = 8x − 15 − 1 0 2 3 1– x
−3 4 3 2
b y = 4x + 3 −4 0 2 7
x
−5
6 a y= 2 x + 7x + 11
2
−14
b y= 2x2 − 3x − 1
1 2 b y
c y= x − 2x + 8
2
d y= −10x2 + 18x –
20 6 Equation: y = (x + 5)3 + 2
Point of inflection: (−5, 2)
7 a y = −x3 − 5x2 + 8x + 15 1– x
−4 −1 0 y
b y = 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 2

3 3 1
−16
c y= x + 2 x 2 − 12 x − 18 (−5, 2)
4 2
d y= −5x3 + 3x – 6 y
c 0 x
−5
8 a y = 5x4 + x3 − 2x2 + x − 3
−1
b y = 4 x4 − 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 1 x
−5 0

CHAPTER REVIEW 7 y
SHORT ANSWER 11 y
1 a x3 + 6x2 − 36x + 40 7 –8
7 48
b x3 + 10x2 + 19x − 30 (−1, 8)
c x3 − 21x2 + 147x − 343
d −2x3 − x2 + 11x + 10
2 a x2 − 16, 29
b x2 + 6x + 5, 8 3 x −2 0 3 4 x
c −x2 + 2x + 2, −9
3 a −4 12 [−32, 40]
b 216 13 y = x3 – 2x2 + 8 8 a a = −14, b = 39
c −24a3 + 8a2 + 2a − 4 1 1 b The third factor is x + 1.
14 r = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 y
4 −7 c
5 Show P (−3) = 0. 15 y = 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 2
6 (x − 10)(x + 4)(x + 10)
MULTIPLE CHOICE 54
7 a (1 − 5x)(1 + 5x + 25x2)
b (2x + 1)(x2 + x + 19) 1D 2C 3D
4A 5B 6A
8 a −6 7B 8A 9A
−1
10 C 11 E 12 E
b 2, 3
13 B 14 A 15 D −10 6 9 x
c 2, 3, 4 16 A 17 D 18 D

CHAPTER 3 ‡ Cubic and quartic functions 157

 9 y = ( x − 2)( x − 3)( x + 3) c 8.766 m 14 a a = 1, b = −8, c = 1, d = 42
y
d 58 cm b (x – 3), f (3) = 0
13 a (3, 20) c (x – 7)(x – 3)(x + 2)
y
6 d y
42

0 x
−2 3 7
Linear Highway:
5
− 3 0− 3 2 x y = 5x + 5
15 a Initial height = 0 cm
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x b y 54.5185 (2 2–3 , 54.5185)
−4
(8, 64)
64
10 Points of intersection are (−2, 13) and (5, −8). Cubic River:
(6, 36)
− 3 (−3, −10) y = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4
x 79 36
11 y = − x2 + x + 4
6 6
0 22–3 6 8 x
12 a 7.2 m b (−3, −10), (−1, 0), (3, 20)
b (15, 0) c 10.198 km c 1 s, 5 s and 8 s

158 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Exam practice 1 CHAPTERS 1–3
1 Determine the exact values for x for which x2 − 5 = 3x. 3 marks S H O RT
2 Let f : [−3,
1] → R, where f (x) = +
2x3 − 4x − 3.
5x2 A N S W ER
25 minutes
a Show that (x − 1) is a linear factor. 2 marks
b When factorised, f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 3)(ax + b). Determine the values of a and b. 3 marks
c Hence, sketch the graph of f (x). 3 marks

3 The line y = ax + b passes through the point (2, 1) and is parallel to the line y − 4x + 3 = 0. Determine
the values of a and b. 2 marks

4 Let f : [−1,
3] → R, f (x) = − 4x − 3.
2x2
a Express f in the form f (x) = a(x − b)2 + c. Hence, state the coordinates of the turning point. 3 marks
b State the range for f. 2 marks
c Determine the exact values of the x-intercepts. 3 marks
d Sketch f on a set of axes. Label all key features. 3 marks

M U LTIP L E
1 A straight line passes through the points (2, 4) and (−1, −5). Its equation would be: C HO IC E
A y=6−x B y=x+2 C 3y = x + 10 D y = 3x − 2 E y = −3x + 10 12 minutes

Each question is worth

2 The exact values of x for which 3(2x − 1)2 + 2(2x − 1) − 8 = 0 are: one mark.
−4
A (2x + 1)(6x − 7) B (3x + 4)(x − 2) C or 2
3
− 13 −1 7
13
D or E or
10 10 2 6
3 If (x − a) is a linear factor of the function f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 11x − 12, then the possible value for a is:
A −3 B −1 C 0 D 1 E 4

4 A cubic function has the following axis intercepts: x-intercepts 1, 3 and −4, and y-intercept 24. The
equation that would best describe this function would be:
A 24(x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4) B (x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4) + 24 C (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 4) + 24
D 2(x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 4) E 2(x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4)
5 Three linear functions are defined as:
L1: 4y − 3x − 8 = 0
L2: 3y + 4x + 1 = 0
L3: 3y − 4x − 2 = 0
Which one of the following statements is correct?
A L1 and L2 are parallel. B L1 and L3 are parallel. C L1 and L2 are perpendicular.
D L1 and L3 are perpendicular. E L1, L2 and L3 are parallel.
6 y

−a b x

Which one of the following rules best describes the graph above?
A y = (x + a)2(b − x) B y = (x − a)2(x − b) C y = (x + a)(x − b)
D y = (x − b)2(x + a) E y = (x − a)2(x − b)
7 A polynomial of degree 3 passes through the origin and has x-intercepts at −2 and 3. The equation for
this polynomial would best be described by which one of the following?
A y = (x − 2)(x + 3) B y = (x + 2)(x − 3) C y = x(x − 2)(x + 3)
D y = x(x + 2)(x − 3) E y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
8 A linear function L(x) = ax + 1 intersects the quadratic function Q(x) = 2x2 − x − 1 at the point (−0.5, 0).
The coordinates of the second point of intersection would be closest to:
A (−1, 1) B (−1, 2) C (−1, 4)
D (2, 3) E (2, 5)

Exam practice 1 159

 E XTENDED 1 Points A (−2, 1), B (1, 5) and C (5, 2) are vertices on a triangle.
R E S P ONS E
40 minutes a Show that the triangle is an isosceles triangle. 3 marks
b Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line AC. 4 marks
c Show that the perpendicular bisector found in part b passes through vertex B. 2 marks

2 Seng and Victor are training for a 1000-metre race. The distance in metres they each ran was recorded
in 1-minute intervals. Victor was delayed for 1 minute because he was tying up his shoelaces when he
was 110 m from the starting line. The individual distances are recorded in the table below.

Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Seng’s distance (m) 0 200 380 680 880 1040
Victor’s distance (m) −110 0 200 560 875 1050
a The relationship between distance and time for Victor can be modelled using a quartic function.
Determine this quartic function, Qv. Write your function in terms of Qv (distance in metres) and
t (minutes). Express coefficients correct to 2 decimal places. 2 marks
b Seng’s distance and time relationship can be modelled using a cubic function. Determine this
cubic function, Cs. Write your function in terms of Cs (distance in metres) and t (minutes).
Express coefficients correct to 2 decimal places. 2 marks
c i State the domain of Qv. 1 mark
ii State the domain of Cs. 1 mark
iii Sketch both Qv and Cs on the same set of axes. 3 marks
d Using your functions Qv and Cs, determine the time first Victor passes Seng. Write your answer in
minutes and seconds. 2 marks

3 A children’s playground in the shape of a rectangle is to be constructed at a local park. The longer side
is 5 metres longer than the shorter side.
a If x is the shorter side, write down an expression for the longer side in terms of x. 1 mark
b Write down an equation for the area, A(x), of the playground in terms of x. 2 marks
c If the maximum area of the playground is 150 m2, determine the
dimensions of the playground. 3 marks y
A miniature bike path will be built within the playground. It will travel
from the gate to the seesaws, slides and swings. The bike path can
be modelled by the cubic function B(x) = x3 − 6x2 +10x, where x is
the horizontal distance, in metres, and B(x) is the vertical distance, in
metres, from the gate.
d Assuming that the slides are on the path, determine the vertical
distance the slides are from the gate if their measurement is 3 metres
horizontally from the gate. 2 marks
e If the seesaws are on the bike path, show that the seesaws are located
DIGITAL DOC 1 metre horizontally and 5 metres vertically from the gate. 2 marks
doc-10161
Solutions f Determine the shortest distance, in metres, between the seesaws and
Exam practice 1 the slides. Write your answer in exact form. 2 marks
0 x

160 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

CHAPTER 4
Relations, functions and
transformations
CHAPTER CONTENTS DIGITAL DOC
doc-9738
4A Set notation 10 Quick Questions
4B Relations and graphs
4C Domain and range
4D Types of relations (including functions)
4E Power functions (hyperbola, truncus and square root function)
4F Function notation
4G Special types of function (including hybrid functions)
4H Inverse relations and functions
4I Circles
4J Functions and modelling

4A Set notation
Set notation is used in mathematics in the same way as symbols that are used to represent language statements.

Definitions
1. A set is a collection of things.
2. The symbol {. . .} refers to a set.
3. Anything contained in a set, that is, a member of a set, is referred to as an element of the set.
(a) Thes ymbol ∈ means ‘is an element of’, for example, 6 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
(b) Thes ymbol ∉ means ‘is not an element of’, for example, 1 ∉ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

CHAPTER 4 ‡ Relations, functions and transformations 161

 4. A capital letter is often used to refer to a particular set of things.
5. The symbol ⊂ means ‘is a subset of’, so, if B ⊂ A, then all of the elements of set B are contained in
set A. For example, {2, 4} ⊂ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
6. The symbol ⊄ means ‘is not a subset (or is not contained in)’, for example {2, 3} ⊄ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
7. The symbol ∩ means ‘intersection’, so, A ∩ B is the set of elements common to sets A and B. For
example, {1, 2, 3} ∩ {2, 4, 6} is {2}.
8. The symbol ∪ means ‘union’, so, A ∪ B is the set of all elements belonging to either set A or B or
both. For example, {1, 2, 3} ∪ {2, 4, 6} is {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.
9. The symbol A \ B denotes all of the elements of A that are not elements of B.
10. The symbol ∅ means the null set. It implies that there is nothing in the set, or that the set is empty.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

If A = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32}, B = {1, 2} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find:

a A∩B b A∪C c A\B d {3, 4} ∩ B
e whether or not: i 8 ∈ A ii B ⊂ A iii C ⊂ A.
THINK WRITE

a The elements that A and B have in common are 1 and 2. a {1, 2}

b The elements that belong to either A or C are 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16 and 32. b {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, 32}

c The elements of A that are not elements of B are 4, 8, 16 and 32. c {4, 8, 16, 32}

d {3, 4} and B have no common elements. d {∅}

e iii 8 is an element of A. e i Yes. 8 ∈ A

ii All elements of B belong to A. ii Yes. B ⊂ A
iii 3 is an element of C but not A. iii No. C ⊄ A

Sets of numbers
Certain letters are reserved for important sets that arise frequently in the study of mathematics.
1. R is the set of real numbers, that is, any number you can think of.
2. N is the set of natural numbers, that is, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}.
3. Z is the set of integers, that is, {. . ., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
a
4. Q is the set of rational numbers (that is, numbers that can be expressed as fractions in the form
where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0). b
5. Q′ is the set of numbers that are not rational (that is, cannot be expressed as a ratio of two whole
numbers). These numbers are called irrational, for example, π, 3, etc.
Note that N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R, that is,

R
Q' 3
Q π ...
1–
Z 2 3–
4 2–
3
7–
N 5
1 2 3 33
— ...
51
0 4 ...
−1
−2 −3 ...

Exercise 4A Set notation

1 WE1 If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {4, 5, 6, 7} and D = {6, 7, 8}, find:
a A∩B b A∩C c A∩C∩D d A∪B
e C∪D f A\C g C \ D.

162 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

 2 If A = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3} and C = {−3, 2, 3, 4}, find:
a A∩B∩C b A\B c A \ (B ∪ C)
d A \ (B ∩ C) e A ∪ C.
3 If F = {a, e, i, o, u}, G = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} and H = {b, c, d, f, g, h}, find:
a F∩G∩H b G∩H c G\H
d H\F e (F ∪ H) \ G.
4 MC Given that A ⊂ B, then A ∩ B is equivalent to:
A B B ∅ C {1, 2}
D A∪B E A
5 MC Given that C ⊂ B ⊂ A, then it follows that:
a A ∪ B ∪ C is equivalent to:
A B B C C A D A∪B E B∪C
b (A \ B) ∩ C is equivalent to:
A B B ∅ C C D A∩B E B\C
6 Answer