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General Science

(Paper - I)

(Civil Service Prelims Examination)

General Science 2

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3 General Science

Content
Biology .................................................................................................... 7
The Science of Life ........................................................................................... 9
Classification of Organisms ............................................................................ 13
Biology of a Cell ............................................................................................. 23
Organisation of Living Organism .................................................................... 31
Genetics ......................................................................................................... 41

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Nutrition ........................................................................................................ 53

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Respiration ..................................................................................................... 63

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Transportation in Plants & Animals ................................................................ 67

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Excretory System ........................................................................................... 75
Neurology ...................................................................................................... 79
Skeletal and Muscular System ........................................................................ 89
Reproduction ................................................................................................. 99
Evolution of Life ........................................................................................... 105
Health and Diseases ..................................................................................... 113
Agriculture ......................................................................................... 121
Chemistry ........................................................................................... 127
Physics ................................................................................................ 159
General Science 4

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5 General Science

Preface
In the General Studies paper of Civil Service (Prelims), a considerable number of
questions are from the Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Technology. The questions
are based mainly on genetics, cell, nutrition, neurology, skeletal and muscular
system, health and diseases, use of chemicals in our daily life, application of
various laws of physics and the latest development in computer, space and defense
technology. Although there is no specific provision for it and we can expect
questions from any section. The subject of General Science constitutes its own
category in the sense that we can put it clearly in various natural aspects,
chemicals and artificial things around us. It is very interesting that the subject

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teaches us and acknowledges us those things which are directly affecting our
physical and social environment.

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From Prelims point of view, however, what has to be kept in mind is that you

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understand the basics of the subject well, so that many terms and concepts are
not difficult to retain. Thus in this booklet, we have tried to provide clear and
comprehensive notes on the topics stated above and with an additional
supplementary material of terminology, important factoids and ample practice
questions related to General Science. A set of practice questions has been set at
the end which you must try after reading the material thoroughly. This will help
you self-assess your progress.
This booklet represents an effort of ETEN faculty and Publishing Team. While
ETEN ensures a study material that has potential to give an added advantage to
our students, it is also true that it is a result of cumulative effort of our academic
team and staff. We invite all our distinguished readers to give constructive as
well as critical suggestions so that we make it a habit to constantly improve and
innovate.

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General Science 6

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7 General Science

Biology
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General Science 8

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9 General Science

The Science of Life

Biology, as the science of life, uses scientific principles to study the living world. The great
Greek philospher Aristotle is considered to be the 'Father of Biology'. In modern times, Jean Baptiste-
de-Lamarck, the French naturalist, was the first to use the word 'biology' in 1800. The other
important influence on the study of biology was that of the English zoologist Thomas Henry
Huxley, who argued against the division of the subject into zoology and botany.
Branches of Biology

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Living & Non-Living Organisms
Living Organisms Non-Living Organisms
Metabolism Cells transform energy while maintaining No metabolism done
their identity and reproduce through
metabolism
Growth Grow from within, using food obtained Non-living objects, such as a
from nutrition. The molecules are formed crystal or a stalagmite, grow by
into new living material. addition of new material to their
outside surface.
Reproduction Life span is limited but organisms have an Can be broken down into new or
ability to perpetuate life. The offsprings similar objects, but cannot
have the same general characteristics as of produce products that can grow to
their parents. Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), a similar size or shape as their own.
containing the coded information, are
passed on to the next generation.
Nutrition Need food and other material for life Objects do not require energy for
General Science 10

processes. Light and chemical energy are their survival. If, however, some
the only two energy sources. input is added to the object, it may
lose its original identity.
Respiration Energy is released during the breakdown No inbuilt mechanism is available
of energy-rich compounds, the process for the generation, consumption
called as respiration. This energy is stored and storage of energy.
up in molecules of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), known as 'universal energy carrier',
present in all living cells.
Organisation Occur in definite shapes, sizes and possess Such complex organisation is not
inherited physical and chemical composition. present here. Example : Water (H2O)
The whole organism can be brought down to can be found in various physical
organs, tissues and cells. forms such as a dew drop, ice,
vapour or vast ocean.
Adaptation and Have the ability to respond to changes in Changes, physical or chemical, are
responsiveness both internal and external environments, bound to destruct the inanimate
therefore, survival chances are maximum. objects, either in shape, size or
The change may be chemical, such as composition.
presence of acids and bases; physical, heat
or light; mechanical, a contact or a blow. The
responsiveness to such changes brings about
structural, physiological or behavioural

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changes in animals or plants. Permanent

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adaptation, however, may occur over
generations.
Movement

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Some organisms are mobile. They move from

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Inanimate objects move under the

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place to place, as animals or some bacteria, in influence of physical or chemical
search of food or for survival. Plants, unlike forces. Movement of plants is due to
mobile organisms, manufacture their own gravitational and centrifugal forces.
food from raw material obtained in one place. Inanimate objects cannot move on
However, some movement can occur in plants their own.
as well, such as the growth of a leaf towards
the sun or a flower closing at night.
Excretion Excretion is removal of waste products from No metabolism or nutritional intake,
the body that are left after metabolism. therefore, no excretion takes place.
Example : Excess proteins cannot be stored
in animals and must be broken down and
expelled.
Four Groups of Biological Entities
(a) Archaea : These are a group of organisms that can live in extremely hostile habitats like
thermal volcanic vents, saline pools and hot springs. Like bacteria, archaea are single-celled
organisms. They are sometimes referred to as archaebacteria.
(b) Bacteria : Bacteria are simple single-celled organisms that generally lack chlorophyll
(cyanobacteria are an exception). They have a prokaryote cell type. It is through the
breakdown of organic matter, that is, through fermentation and respiration that bacteria
derive energy to sustain themselves. They also help in maintenance of nitrogen in the
atmosphere (Rhizobium spp. and cyanobacteria). The oldest fossils of life on Earth are
bacteria-like organisms.
11 General Science

(c) Eukaryota : All organisms with a eukaryote cell type are termed eukaryota. Included in this
group are the kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae.
(d) Viruses : These are fragments of DNA or RNA, which depend for reproduction on the hos
cell that they infect. They are not cells but are thought to be parts of the genetic code that
originated from eukaryote or prokaryote cells. The viruses, at times, are metabolically inert
and technically non-living but can cause several diseases in eukaryote organisms. In humans,
they can cause smallpox, chicken pox, influenza, shingles, herpes, polio, ebola, AIDS, rabies
and some types of cancer.
Major Fields of Biology
l Anatomy : Structure and organisation of living things.
l Bacteriology : Study of Bacteria.
l Biochemistry : Chemical processes and substances occurring in living things.
l Biophysics : Applies tools and techniques of the physics in the study of living things.
l Botany : Study of plants.
l Cryobiology : Analysis how extermely low temperatures affect living things.
l Cytology : Structure, composition and function of cells.
l Ecology : Relationships between living things and environment.
l Embryology : Formation and development of plants and animals through fertilization until

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they become independent organisms.

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Entomology : Study of insects.

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l Ethology : Animal behaviour under natural conditions.
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Evolutionary biology : Study of evolution of organisms.
Ichthyology : Ichthyology is study of fish.
Immunology : Study of body's defence mechanism against diseases and foreign substances.
Limnology : Bodies of fresh water and the organisms found in them.
l Marine biology : Investigates sea life.
l Medicine : Science and art of healing.
l Microbiology : Study of microscopic organisms.
l Molecular biology : Analysis of molecular process in cells.
l Neurobiology : Study of nervous system of animals.
l Ornithology : Study of birds.
l Palaentology : Study of fossils.
l Pathology : Examines the changes in body leading to the disease or changes caused by the
disease.
l Physiology : Function of living things.
l Sociobiology : Focuses on biological basis for social behaviour in human beings and other
animals.
l Taxonomy (Systematics) : Scientific classification of plants and animals.
l Virology : Deals with viruses and viral diseases.
l Zoology : Study of animals.
General Science 12

Organism Group Time of origin

Marine invertebrates 570 million years ago
Fish 505 million years ago
Land Plants 438 million years ago
Amphibians 408 million years ago
Reptiles 320 million years ago
Mammals 208 million years ago
Flowering plants 140 million years ago
Huminid line 20-15 million years ago

Practice Questions
1. Which of the following scientist introduced the word 'biology'?
(a) Aristotle (b) Henry Huxley
(c) Lamark (d) Carl Linneaus
2. Zoology comes under which part of biology?
(a) Basic biology (b) Applied biology
(c) Botany (d) Microbiology
3. Which of the following statement is wrong for Living Objects?
(a) Cell transform energy and reproduce through metabolism

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(b) Used food to get nutrition for their growth

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(c) Offsprings may or may not have general characteristics as of their parents
(d) Light and chemical energy are the only two energy sources for living organism
4. Archaea are :

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(a) bacteria (b) Single-celled organisms
(c) both (d) None of these
5. Which of the following are fragments of DNA or RNA?
(a) Viruses (b) Eukaryota
(c) Bacteria (d) Archaea
6. Which of the following are prokaryote cell type organisms?
(a) Viruses (b) Bacteria
(c) Archaea (d) None of these
7. Which of the following kingdoms belong to Prokaryota?
(a) Protista (b) Fungi
(c) Animalia (d) Plantae
8. What is regarded as a link between the living and non-living?
(a) amoeba (b) virus
(c) bacteria (d) RNA

Classification of Organisms
Classification
Classification is grouping things together on the basis or certain features and the science of
classification is called taxonomy. Taxonomy has two branches - 'nomenclature' (the naming of the
organisms) and 'systematics' (the placing of organisms together). These needs were met by the
work of the famous Swedish naturalist, Carolus Linnaues who described his system of classification
in a book called "Systima Natural" and also put forth the concept of bionomial nomenclature in
1758.

Binomial Nomenclature

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According to this system of nomenclature being universally followed since then, the name of
every living organism consists of two words. The first word refers to the generic name (name of

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the genus) which it shares with related forms and the second word is a specific eithet. The two

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words together constitute the name of the species.

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Other Important Types of Classifications
Artificial classification : Usually designed for practical purpose with an emphasis on
convenience and simplicity, this category is based on one or a few easily observed characteristics.
Natural classification : It considers more evidence than artificial classification, including
internal as well as external features, and tries to use natural relationships between organisms.
Phylogenetic classification : Based on evolutionary relationships, this system proposes that
organisms belonging to the same groups have common ancestors. The phylogeny (evolutionary
history) of a group can be shown be means of a family tree. Cladisdes, a form of phylogenetic
classification, is the most popular method for the classification of organisms.
Phenetic classification : If there is little or no fossil evidence, it can be difficult and even
controversial, to establish evolutionary relationships. Phenetic classification, therefore, relies solely
on observable characteristics, all of which are considered equally important.

The Five Kingdoms

Taxonomists in the last few decades have felt that the classification is artificial and quite
unsatisfactory. Therefore there have been attempts during this period to devise systems. The
system currently gaining maximum support is that of R.H.O. Whittaker (1969), He divides
organisms into five kingdoms.
(a) Bacterial conjugation : Transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another vial a special
protein structure called a conjungation pilus.
General Science 14

(b) Transformation : Transfer of naked DNA from one bacterial cell to another in solution (this
can include dead bacteria).
(c) Transduction : Transfer of viral, bacterial or both bacterial and viral DNA from one cell to
another via bacteriophage.
After acquiring DNA from any of these events, bacteria can undergo fission and pass the
recombined genome to new progeny cells. Many bacteria harbour plasmids that contain
extrachromosomal DNA. Under favourable conditions, bacteria may form aggregates to naked
eyes, such as bacterial mats.
l Symbiosis (Greek symbioum, "to live together") looks into the interdependence of different
species, which are sometimes called symbionts. The symbiosis resulting in mutual benefits
to interdependent organisms is called mutualism. Example : Rhizobium, a nitrogen-fixer
living in the root nodules of legumes such as pea and clover.
l Parasitism is a kind of relationship between organisms of different species in which one
(the parasite) benefits from a prolonged, close association with the other (the host), which is
harmed. In general, parasites are much smaller than their hosts, show a high degree of
specialisation for their mode of life and reproduce more quickly and in greater numbers
than their hosts. Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens.
l Commensalism, another type of symbiosis, defines the association between two different
kinds of non-parasitic animals, called commensals. It is harmless to both and beneficial to
one of the two organisms. The association of colour bacteria with humans and other animals,

Reproduction in Bacteria
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especially plant-eaters, is also a type of commensalism.

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The reproduction in bacteria is asexual, through binary fission or simple cell division. Here,

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one cell divides into two daughter cells with the development of a transverse cell.
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) is a photosynthetic bacteria containing chlorophyll.
Classified under plant kingdom earlier, discoveries through electronic microscope and new
biochemical techniques, however, showed them to be prokaryotes, more similar to bacteria than
plants. Now, they are placed under kingdom Monera. Cyanobacteria are familiar to many as a
component of pond scum.
Viruses
Viruses are the smallest living organisms, but without a cellular structure. They have a simple
structure, consisting of a small piece of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein
or lipoprotein coat. They can reproduce by invading living cells, therefore are all parasitic.

Structure of Viruses
The structure of viruses comprises :
(a) Core : The genetic material, either DNA or RNA, which may be single stranded or
double stranded.
(b) Capsid : A protective coat of protein surrounding the core.
(c) Nucleocapsid : The combined structure formed by the core and capsid.
(d) Envelope : A few viruses, such as HIV and influenza viruses, have an additional
lipoprotein layer around the capsid, derived from the cell surface membrane of the
host cell.
15 General Science

(e) Capsomers : Capsids are often built up of identical repeating subunits called capsomers.
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Protista consists of unicellular or colonial eukaryotes with diverse nutritional habits
and reproduces, both sexually and asexually, through meiosis and nuclear fusion, respectively.
Those interested in evolution find the group fascinating, as its organisms are the link between
prokaryotes and the modern eukaryotes like plants and animals. A wide variety of protista
organisms exist, inhabiting in different environments like freshwater, seawater, soils and intestines
of animals (where they perform crucial digestive processes).

Structure of Protists
Most protists contain membrane-bounded organelles (cellular parts) called 'mitochondria',
which break down complex molecules and in the process, release chemical energy that powers
the rest of the cell. In addition to mitochondria and nuclei, membrane-bound organelles called
'plastids', which perform photosynthesis, are found in the protist cell structure.
Algae : Algae are placed in kingdom Protista due to their occurrence in microscopic forms,
but many of them have characteristics in common with plants, such as contain cell walls, green
pigment chlorophyl and manufacture own food through photosynthesis. Chlorophyll may be
masked by other pigments, giving various kinds of algae of different colours.
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Fungi comprises of numerous moulds that grown on damp organic matter (such as

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bread, leather, decaying vegetation and dead fish) and unicellular yeasts that are abundant on

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sugary surfaces of the ripe fruits and many parasite plants. Though botanists classified fungi in
the plant kingdom, biologists later considered it as a separate kingdom. Most fungi can be seen

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through naked eye and its study is called 'mycology' ('mykes' mushrooms). They are sub-divided

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on the basis of mycelium morphology and mode of nutrition and reproduction.

Characteristics Of Fungi (Kingdom Fungi)

l The absence of chlorophyll makes fungi non-photosynthetic therefore, they resort to
heterotrophic nutrition.
l Can be mutualists, parasites or saprotrophs.
l Digestion takes place outside the body and nutrients are absorbed directly.
l Body is usually a 'mycelium', a network of five tubular filaments called 'hyphae'. These may
be septate (have cross-walls, like Penicillium) or aseptate (no cross-walls, e.g. Mucor).
l Rigid cell walls containing 'chitin' as the fibrillar material (Chitin is nitrogen-containing,
polysaccharide, very similar in structure to cellulose with high tensile strength). It, therefore
gives shape to the hyphae and prevents osmotic bursting of cells.
l If carbohydrate is stored, it is usually as 'glycogen' and not starch. They reproduce by means
of spores and are non-motile organisms.
Classification of Fungi
Fungi are categorised on the basis of reproduction modes, kinds of life cycle and growth forms.
(a) Zygomycota Terrestrial species including several important decomposers, mycorhizal fungi
and parasites of spiders and other insects, fall in this category.
(b) Ascomycota also called sac fungi, it is the largest group of fungi which includes yeast, lichens,
movels, cup-fungi, truffles and a number of plant parasites such as powdery mildew.
General Science 16

(c) Basidiomycota or club fungi include mushrooms, puff-balls, birds nest fungi, jelly fungi,
rusts, smuts and shelf and bracket fungi. Also grouped under this category are vital plant
parasites, mutualists and saprobes, including decay fungi that cause brown rot and white
rot of wood.
(d) Denteremycetes or 'fungi imperfecti' : The reproduction in some fungi is through asexual
mode either by detached mycelium or by vegetative spores and conidia. Such fungi that
reproduce exclusively by asexual reproduction are placed under the artificial group called
'fungi imperfecti' or imperfect fungi.
Kingdom Plantae (Plant Kingdom)
Classification of Plant Kingdom
With about 2.5 lakh species of mosses, liverworts, ferns, flowers, bushes, trees and other plants,
the Kingdom Plantae accounts for the largest proportion of the Earth's biomass. Aquatic and
terrestrial plants, which are the basis of all food webs, contribute life-supporting oxygen to the
atmosphere and provide to the humans fossil fuels, medicines and other substances required for
existence.

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Bryophytes : Found mostly in moist places, bryophytes are simple, non-vascular small plants
with thalius like body, which remains attached to the soil by 'rhizoids'. The mode of reproduction
is mainly sexual and they lack roots, flowers and seeds. Bryophytes are embryo-bearing plants of
three plant divisions - Bryophyta (mosses), Hepatophyta (liverwort) and Anthocerophyta
(hornworts). In their level of organisation, bryophytes lie between chlorophyts (from which they
are likely to be evolved and simpler, lower vascular plants like the Lycopodophyta.
Tracheophytes : Found only on land, tracheophytes are a collective term applied to vascular
plants of a division or phyla. The nine divisions can be divided into two main groups - pteridophytes
and permatophytes.
17 General Science

A. Pteridophytes (Lower Seedless Vascular Plant)

Lycopodophyta : Multicellular terrestrial plants with vascular tissues, lycopodophyte's body
are differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. The spores are produced in the axils of fertile leaves
most aggregated into club-like terminal cones. Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts are common
examples.
Arthrophyta : Possessing upright stems that grow from underground branches, arthrophyta,
too are multicellular plants with vascular tissues. The plant body is divided into roots, stem and
small whorled leaves. They are largely an extinct group, represented by a single living genus the
'Equisetum' (the horsetails).
Pterophyta : They contain spores for reproduction, which usually are produced on the lower
surface of leaves on their margins. Pterophyta also are multicellular plants with vascular tissues,
their body differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. Here, seeds are not produced.

B. Spermatophytes
These plants have seeds and are divided as (i) Gymnosperm (Latin gymn 'naked' and Greek
sperma 'seed') and (ii) Angiosperm (Latin angi 'enclosed' and Greek sperma 'seed' meaning seed
inside fruits).
Gymnosperm : These are further divided into :
l Cycadophyta : These are multicellular terrestrial plants with vascular tissues (without

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vessels). The plant body is divided into root, stem and leaves. The stem is large and woody,

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leaves are large and fern like. Example - Cycus (sago palm), Zamia (sago tree).

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Coniferophyta : Multicellular plants with well-developed tissues, the main plant body of

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'coniferophyta' is large and woody leaves are simple, smaller than cycodophyta and needle-

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like. Example - Cedrus (deodar) and Taxus (yew).
Angiosperms (or Authrophyta) : This category includes more advanced flowering plants
with well developed vascular tissues and makes up for more than half of all known species
of plants, about 20,000. They are predominantly saprophytic, possess a well-differentiated
body of roots, stem and leaves and occur in almost all places. on the basis of age they are
grouped as
(a) Perennials : living for many years,
(b) Annuals : producing flowers and fruits in the course of a single season,
(c) Biennials : living for two seasons.
Angiosperms are broadly divided into two classes :
l Dicotyledons : Possessing two cotyledons (seed leaves that usually do not become foliage
leaves but serve to provide food for the new seedling) in their seeds, these plants may be
annuals, biennials or perennials. Example - Gram.
l Monocotyledons : Mostly annuals with a single cotyledon in their seeds, these plants do
not have any secondary growth and their features include flower parts in threes : one
cotyledon leaf veins (which are usually parallel) and vascular tissues (present in scatterred
bundles in the stem).

Other Classifications
(a) Terrestrial plants - grow on soil.
(b) Hydrophytes - grow in water.
General Science 18

(c) Epiphytes - perch on other plants, but do not take nourishment from them. They are not
rooted in the soil but upon branches and stems of other plants. Example - Urn.
(d) Xerophytes - grow in dry habitats like deserts. Example - Cacti.
(e) Mesophytes - thrive under conditions intermediate between very wet and very dry. A great
variety of crops like beans, tomatoes, peas etc. belong to this category.
(f) Parasitic - lack chlorophyll and therefore cannot prepare their own food.
(g) Carnivorous - trap insects and other small creatures on their sticky leaves and digest them
to obtain nitrogen and other material essential for their growth. Example - Insectivorous
plants like pitcher plant and bladderwort.
Kingdom Animalia (Animal Kingdom)
Kingdom Animals has all animals as its members, but does not contain prokaryotes or protists.
All members are multicellular and heterotrophs, relying directly or indirectly on other organisms
for nourishment. Most ingest food and digest it in an internal cavity.

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19 General Science

The rigid cell wall that characterises plant cells is absent here. The bodies of animals (except
sponges) are made up of cells organised into tissues, each specialised to a certain extent to execute
specific functions. As compared to plants and other organisms, most animals are capable of rapid
movement. They reproduce sexually, by means of differentiated eggs and sperms are diploid.
While the exact number is yet to be known, about 10 million animal species are found on
Earth. They may vary in size from no more than a few cells to organisms weighing several tonnes
such as blue whales and giant squids.
Protozoa
Protozoa, the single-celled microscopic organisms, includes flagellated Zoomastigina as its
members, many of which live as parasites on plants and animals. All functions of protozoa are
performed within the single cell itself. Examples : Amoeba, sarcodina.
Metazoa
All animals, including humans are placed under the metazoa sub-kingodm. They are
multicellular organism in which cells are grouped together to form tissues, organs and systems.
Metazoa are divided in two main groups :
1. Invertibrates (Non-chordata Phyla) : Commonly called sponges, non-chordates do not
possess a vertebral column; they lack a backbone and up till now the most abundant species
on Earth. Nearly 2 million such animals have been identified so far, constituting about 98
percent of the total members identified in the entire animal kingdom. Many invertebrates,

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such as earthworms, have no hard body parts at all and their body shape is maintained by

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means of an internal pressure, similar to the one in an inflated balloon.

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Vertebrates (Phylum Chordata) : These are animals that possess a backbone or spinal column,

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made of interlocking units called vertebrate. Also called as phylum Chordata, vertebrates

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have a strong but flexible structure that supports the body and anchors the limbs. They also
protect the nerves of the spinal cord. They include fish, amphibians and reptiles, as well as
birds and mammals. In all vertebrates, the spinal column forms part of a complete internal
skeleton, which can grow gradually along with the rest of the body.
Four Evolutionary Lines of Placemental Mammals
(a) Insectivorous Includes primitive insect-eating placental mammals and the group
arising from it, such as bats and primates.
(b) Rodents and rabbits Both groups have no canines. The incisors are adapted for
gnawing.
(c) Whales, dolphins and tortoises The are aquatic placental mammals and have flipper
like fore limbs and lack hand limbs.
(d) Elephants, carnivoures and ungulates Elephants have padded feet and no hoovers.
Their trunk is an elongated nose and the tusks are modified incisors, Carnivores are
flesh eating ungulates are hoofed herbivorous mammals.
Family Hominidae
The family that humans belong to 'Family Hominidae' also includes chimpanzees, gorillas
and orangutans. There are only four generae and six species in this family, but it is a very diverse
group. Male hominids are larger than females, and they have opposable thumbs and big toes,
except for humans. Hominids, probably the most advanced family in the world, possess developed
forearms with legs longer than the arms. They lack a tail and all the species in this family, other
than humans are good tree climbers. Hominids also have a unique structure of their teeth with
General Science 20

canines and have not developed into tusks and broad incisors. Following species are included
under the family hominidae.
l Gorilla beringei beringei – Mountain gorilla
l Gorilla gorilla gorilla – Western lowland gorilla
l Homo sapiens – Humans
l Pan paniscus – Bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee
l Pan troglodytes – Chimpanzee
l Pongo pygmaeus – Orangutan
Homo sapiens – Humans
Homo sapiens (our species) are the only living species in the Homo genus. The main
characteristics here are bipedal posture, excellent eyesight and a large brain that allows problem
solving capabilities and innovative thinking. The head is larger than other primates because the
skull requires room to enclose the large brain. Humans also have a highly developed nervous
system and strong senses.

Practice Questions
1. Crows and pigeons are :
(a) warm blooded (b) cold blooded

2.
(c) neither (a) nor (b)

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Cud-chewing animals are knows as :
(d) both (a) and (b)

(a)
(c)
frugivores
ruminant

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(d)
sanguivores
cannibals
3.

4.
Fungi are always :
(a)
(c)
autotrophic
parasitic
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(d)
heterotrophic
saprophytic
Man has become the dominant species in the biosphere because of his :
(a) tool making capacity
(b) ingenious brainpower
(c) articulated speech and language
(d) all the above mentioned qualities
5. Which of the following is a carnivorous plant?
(a) urn plant (b) pitcher plant
(c) cacti (d) ribbon plant
6. Which of the following is a parasitic plant?
(a) marchantia (b) kelp
(c) mushroom (d) pteris
7. Which of the following is an amphibian?
(a) whale (b) turtle
(c) frog (d) cow
21 General Science

8. Which of the following is not a mammal?

(a) fish (b) cow
(c) goat (d) whale
9. The banana plant is :
(a) shrub (b) herb
(c) tree (d) none of the above
10. Every multicellular organism, be it a microscopic algae, a banyan tree or a human being,
starts as a single cell called a/an :
(a) egg (b) sperm
(c) nucleus (d) gene
11. The life span of which of the following may extend up to 140 years?
(a) monkey (b) parrot
(c) eagle (d) none of the above
12. The life span of which of the following may extend up to 3000 years?
(a) sequoia (b) tortoise
(c) banyan tree (d) none of the above
13. Fern belongs to :
(a)
(c)
bryophyta
anthophyta

IAS (b)
(d)
pterophyta
none of these
14.

N
Ferns, club mosses and horsetails are all included in :

E
ET
(a) monocotyledons (b) dicotyledons
(c) gymnosperms (d) pteridophytes
15. Vascular plants with flowers, fruits and seeds are grouped under :
(a) angiosperms (b) gymnosperms
(c) pteridophtes (d) bryophtes
16. Vascular plants with seeds but not fruit are grouped under :
(a) bryophytes (b) pteridophytes
(c) gymnosperms (d) angiosperms
17. Vascular plants without seeds are grouped under :
(a) gymnosperm (b) ferns
(c) angiosperms (d) bryophytes

IAS
EN
ET
23 General Science

Biology of a Cell
The Cell
Cells are the basic unit of life and the smallest part of a living organism that can lead an
independent life. The discovery of cell was made by Robert Hooke (1665) as when he observed a
section of cork under his microscope and found that the structure is resembling a 'honey comb'.
He gave the name 'cell' to each of the compartments of the structure. Further observations concluded
that each and every living organism is made up of cells.

Size and Shape of Cells

They vary considerably in size with the smallest cell, mycoplasma (a type of bacterium),

I S
measuring 0.0001 mm in diameter while the largest ones, such as the nerve cells running down a

A
giraffe's neck may exceed 3 metre in length. In humans, small red blood cells (RBCs) measure
only 0.00076 mm while liver cells may be 10 times larger. About 10,000 average sized human cells
can fit on the head of a pin.

EN
ET
Generalised Structure of a Cell
Cell Structure

Every cell is surrounded by a membrane or a living covering through which it consumes what
it requires from the atmosphere and discharges what is superfluous. Withing the membrane is
there protoplasm.
Parts of the Protoplasm : The nucleus controls and directs the activities of all other parts of the
cell. The remainder is known as cytoplasm, where many vital activities of the cell takes place. The
diagram shows the following structures under an ordinary microscope :
General Science 24

(a) Cell wall is found only in plant cells and consists of non-living substances such as lignin,
pectin and cellulose.
(b) Cell membrane (Plasmalemma) is found both in animals and plants. It is the outer membrane
of the cytoplasm and consists of living substances such as proteins.
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes or channels of membrane in the cytoplasm,
which help in protein synthesis and conduction of material.
(d) Ribosomes are extremely small dense, granular and spherical bodies found in a free state
in the cytoplasm and are composed of RNA and proteins. They help in the synthesis of
protein from amino acids.
(e) Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies) are bag like structures formed of stacks of membranes.
They are called 'dictyosomes' in plants and their functions include secretion of various
substances from amino acids.
(f) Vacuoles are fluid-filled sacs within a cell. In plant cells, they are very big and surrounded
by a membrane called 'tonoplast' while in animals, they are tiny. Their functions include
osmo-regulation and maintenance of cell turgidity.
(g) Mitochondria are rod-like or spherical semi-solid structures containing DNA in its matrix
along with some enzymes, which are found in all cells. They synthesize adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) (energy storing molecules).
(h)

IAS
Plastids are small bodies found in the cells of higher plants. They are of two types : 'Lucoplasts'
which are colourless and store starch, protein or lipids; and 'Chromoplasts' which are coloured
and further have two sub-groups : (i) non-photosynthetic chromoplasts (providing colour

EN
in flowers, fruits and leaves) and (ii) photosynthetic chromoplasts (manufacture food from

ET
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight).
(i) Nucleus may be round, oval, cylindrical or elongated in shape. Each nucleus is bound by
the nuclear membrane, which contains 'nucleoplasm'. Nucleoplasm consists of 'chromatin'
and 'nucleoli'. Chromatin consists of DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleus controls all cell
activities and is responsible for the transfer of hereditary characters and also assists in cell
division.
(j) Centrosome, a dense area of the protoplasm, lies close to the nucleus and is usually found
in animal cells. In the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like bodies called centrioles.
They form a spindle during cell division.
(k) Cillian and flagella are fine extensions of the cell surface and are similar in structure. They
help in locomotion or movement and in some animals also help in feeding.
(l) Cell inclusions are non-living substances, present either in cytoplasm of the cell or in
vacuoles. In animals, cell inclusions are in the form of secretory granules, such as zymogen
granules, haemoglobin in RBCs; food material in the form of glycogen in liver cells and as
pigments in skin, eye and hair cells. In plant cells, they are present in the form of food
particles, such as starch granules, oil globules or excretory products like resin, gum etc.

Plant and Animal Cells

The living world has two types of cellular organisation first type, the prokaryotes, there is no
definite membrane bound nucleus in contrast to the eukaryotes, which have a defined nucleus
with a double membrane.
25 General Science

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Usually smaller in size 1. Comparatively larger in size
2. Enclosed by plasma membrane only 2. In addition to plasma membrane,
surrounded by a thick cell wall
3. Plastids absent 3. Plastids are very common
4. Cytoplasm consists largely of 4. Cytoplasm peripheral central space
smaller vacuole occupied by a large vacuole
5. Prominent and highly complex Golgi 5. Contain several sub-units of Golgi
bodies present near nucleus apparatus called dictyosomes
6. Possess centrosome with one or two 6. Instead two small clear areas called polar
centrioles caps are present
Cell Division in Animal and Plant Cells
Plant Cells Animal Cells
Centriole absent Centrioles exist
No aster forms Aster forms
Cell division involves formation Cell division involves formation and cleavage
of a cell plate of cytoplasm
Occurs mainly in main stem Occurs in tissues throughout the body
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

IAS
Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Structure

EN
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

ET
Cell Size Mostly very small (1-10 micrometers in diameter) Much larger, mostly 10-100 micrometers (µm)
of some cyanobacteria may be larger (upto 60 µm) in diameter.
and cells of 'Mycoplasmas' (smallest bacteria) are
only 0.2-0.3 mm in diameter.
Cell Wall Present, except in 'Mycoplasma' but chemically Absent in animals and Protozoa, present in
different from plant cell walls in being made up plants (made up of cellulose) and Fungi
of peptides and polysaccharide (peptidoglycans). (made up of chitin).
Cytoskeleton Absent Present, made up of microfibresand
microbules.
Plasma Membrane Present (lipoproteinaceous) but chemically often Present (lipoproteinaceous).
different.
Intracellular Absent Present, comprising gendoplasmic reticulum
Membrane System and Golgi bodies
Other Cell organelles Absent, except ribosomes Organelles like mitochondria, microbodies,
lysosomes, chloroplasts (or proplastids),
centrioles or basal bodies and ribosomes
present in various groups.
DNA Single circular DNA molecule without associated Multiple DNA molecules (linear, not circular)
proteins (naked DNA). with associated proteins to form many
chromosomes.
Cell Division Binary fission, budding or other means; no Both by mitosis (equational) and meiosis
mitosis or meiosis. (reductional).
Ribosomes Vacuoles Smaller in size (70s type), Absent. Larger (80s type). May be present or absent.
Plasmid Often present (as very small extrachromosomal Absent but very small circular DNA molecule
circular DNA molecule). present in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
General Science 26

Cell Division
Cell division is the process by which a cell, called the parent cell, divides into two cells, called
daughter cells. Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. In meiosis however,
a cell is permanently transformed and cannot divide again.
Three types of cell division occur : binary fission, mitosis and meiosis.
1. Binary fission : It is the method used by prokaryotes. It produces two identical cells
from one cell.
2. The more complex process of mitosis, which also produces two genetically, identical
cells from a single cell, is used by many uni-cellular eukaryotic organisms for
reproduction.
3. Multicellular organisms use mitosis for growth, cell repair and cell replacement.
Mitosis
Mitosis or mitotic division or karyokinesis or indirect cell division.
The mitotic division occurs in the body cells (somatic cells) of the organism and therefore it is
also called somatic cell division.
Since the number of chromosomes remains the same during mitosis, this division is also referred
to as the equational division. Although it is a continuous process, mitosis is generally divided into
four phases - (a) prophase; (b) metaphase; (c) anaphase; (d) telophase.
The events during the cell division are almost similar in plants and animals, but the difference

I S
lies in the formation of the spindle and cytokinesis. In animal cells the centrioles are responsible

A
for the formation of spindle. The microtubules radiating from the centrioles form aster and are
instrumental in establishing the spindle. Therefore, this kind of spindle is called 'astral spindle'.

N
Since there are no centrioles in higher plants, the spindle formed is called anastral.

E
ET
In most cells (plants and animals alike), mitosis and cytokinesis take place in close sequence
usually cytokinesis is initiated during anaphase. In animal cell, cytoplasmic division is simply by
furrowing from the plasma membrane since there is no rigid cell wall but in plants it begins in the
centre proceeding towards the periphery by the formation of a cell plate.

Meiosis
Prophase I : It is the longest phase divided into four stages :
1. Early Prophase I (chromosomes shorten and become visible as single structures),
2. Prophase I (homologous chromosomes pair up in a process called 'synopsis'. Each
pair is called 'bivalent', one coming from male parent and the other from female. Each
chromosome and its centromeres are clearly visible here).
3. In the next stage, crossing over takes place (homologous chromosomes appear to repel
each other and are partially separate. The stage is called crossing over phase and the
two chromosomes are joined at several points along their length, the joining points
called as 'chiasmata (cross) and
4. The chromosomes of homologous chromosomes continue to repel each other and
bivalents assume particular shapes, depending upon the number of chiasmatas.
l Metaphase I : The bivalents become arranged around the quarter of the spindle attached by
their centromeres.
l Anaphase I : Spindle fibre pulls homologous chromosomes and centromeres towards
opposite poles of the spindles, separating chromosomes into two haploids sets, one at each
end of the spindle.
27 General Science

l Telophase I : The arrival of homologous chromosomes marks the end of Meiosis I. Though
the chromosomes divide into halves, two chromatids still remain present.
l Interphase II : Varying in length, this stage is usually present only in animal cells. No further
DNA replication occurs here.
l Meiosis II : Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
l Prophase II : This is absent if Interphase II is absent. The nucleoli and nuclear envelope
disperse, chromatids shorten and thicken and the spindle fibre appears.

IAS
EN
ET

l Metaphase II : Chromosomes line up separately around the equator of the spindle.

l Anaphase II : The centromeres divide and the spindle fibres pull the chromatids to opposite
poles.
l Telophase II : Four daughter cells are formed. The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen and become
very indistinct. Spindle fibres disappear and the centrioles replicate. Nuclear envelopes
reform around each nucleus, which now have half the number of chromosomes of the original
parent cell (halploid). The subsequent cleavage (animals) or cell wall formation (in plants)
will produce four daughter cells from the original single parent cell.
General Science 28

Practice Questions
1. A mature living cell without a nucleus is a :
(a) sieve cell (b) sieve tube
(c) companion cell (d) vessel
2. Chromosomes are :
(a) parts of the human brain
(b) thread-like bodies that occur in the nuclei and carry the genetic code
(c) constituent of blood, which produces heat in the body
(d) none of the above
3. The plant hormone that induces cell division is :
(a) auxins (b) gibberellins
(c) cytokinis (d) domains
4. The power house of energy in cells is :
(a) Golgi bodies (b) mitochondria
(c) ribosomes (d) endoplasmic reticulum
5. The process of cell division can take place :
(a) heterosis (b) fusion

6.
(c) mitosis

IAS (d) none of these

Which of the following is absent in Prokaryotic cell organisms?
(a) Cell Wall

EN (b) Cell Membrane

ET
(c) Mesosomes (d) Ribosomes
7. Cell recognition and adhesion occur due to biochemicals of Cell Membrane named :
(a) Proteins (b) Lipids
(c) Proteins and lipids (d) Glycoproteins and glycolipids
8. Cell Wall of chloroplast is removed, the remaining is called :
(a) Etioplast (b) Aleuroplast
(c) Amyloplast (d) Protoplast
9. Endocyotosis is a process whereby a cell :
(a) digests itself
(b) engulfs and internalizes material using its membrane
(c) identifies other cells within its immediate
(d) enables the extracellular digestion of large molecules
10. A plant cell is distinguished from an animal cell by the presence of :
(a) nucleus (b) chloroplasts
(c) cell membrane (d) cell wall
11. In meiosis the daughter cells are not similar to that of parent because of :
(a) crossing over (b) synapsis
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
29 General Science

12. Movement of cell against concentration gradient is called :

(a) osmosis (b) active transport
(c) diffusion (d) passive transport
13. Which organelle does assemble ribosomes?
(a) nuclear envelope (b) nucleolus
(c) chromosomes (d) nucleoplasm
14. When Plant Cell Wall is kept in saline drip cell :
(a) decreases in size (b) bursts out
(c) increases in size (d) remains unchanged

IAS
EN
ET
General Science 30

IAS
EN
ET
31 General Science

Organisation of Living Organism

Organisation in Plants
The organisation in lower plants (algae and myophytes) is generally very simple. The cells
may be organised into colonies or filaments (algae) or into flattened thallose forms (bryophytes).
In large-sized marine algae (sea weeds) and some bryophtes, howeever the plant body shows
differentiation into root, stem, and leaflike forms. Internally also, there is nor much differentiation
of cells into different tissues. But in ferns, gymnosperms (cycads, conifers etc.) and flowering
plants, the plant body is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves which in turn are made up
of different kind of tissues. These plants are called vascular plants since they have a well developed
vascular system (conducting tissues like xylem and phloem).

Plant Tissues

IAS
Tissues are organisations of cells of one or more types with a common origin performing

EN
commong functions or a set of functions. They are variously classified. However on the basis of

ET
their stage of development the tissues are classified into two types : meristematic tissues and
mature non meristematic tissues.
(v) Axillary Meristems : These are actually the apical meristems of axillary buds but some
anatomists put them in separate category – the axillary meristems, because the buds
are located in axls.
On the basis of the types of derivatives produced, the meristems are classified into the following
categories :
1. Protoderm : The meristem that produces cells that differentiate into epidermis is
referred to as the protoderm.
2. Procambium : The meristem producing primary vascular tissues (primary xylem and
primary phloem) is called procambium.
3. Ground Meristem : It is the meristem that produces relatively large amounts of more
or less homogeneous tissues. E.g. cortex, pith or masses of sclerenchyma fibres within
a spine.
4. Promeristems : These are meristems that directly give rise to other meristems or to
other, distinct parts of the same meristem.
Another classification of the meristems is based on their origin or the sequence of formation of
the tissues.
1. Primary Meristems : The meristematic tissues whose cells develop directly from the
embroyonic cells constitute the primary meristems. E.g. the root and the shoot apical
meristems.
General Science 32

2. Secondary Meristems : The tissues produced by the activity of primary meristems are
called primary tissues. Any meristem that develops within these tissues constitutes
the secondary meristem like the cork cambium and the vascular cambium of roots
and many stems.
Mature Tissues
The products of the activity of all meristems differentiate into various kinds of tissues
performing different functions. These tissues are called mature because it was believed that the
tissues that undergo differentiation gradually lose the embryonic characteristics of the meristem
and acquire mature state.
If a mature tissue is made up of a single type of cells, it is called a 'simple tissue' but if the
tissue is composed of more than one type of cells performing various functions, it is referred to as
a 'complex tissue'.

Simple Tissues
1. Parenchyma is found throughout the plant and is living and capable of cell division at
maturity. Usually only primary walls are prsent and these are uniformly thickened. The
cells of parenchyma tissue carry out many specialised physiological functions - for example,
photosynthesis, storage, secretion and wound healing. They also occur in the xylem and
phloem tissue.
2. Collenchyma is also living at maturity and is made up of cells unevenly thickened primary

I S
cell walls. Collenchyma tissue is pliable and functions as support tissue in young, growing

A
portions of plants. On the basis of the pattern of thickening, the collenchyma is usually
classified into four types - angular collenchyma, lamellar collenchyma, lacunar collenchyma
and annular collenchyma.

EN
ET
3. Sclerenchyma consists of cells that lack protoplasts at maturity and that have thick secondary
walls usually containing lignin. Sclerenchyma tissue is important in supporting and
strengthening those portions of plants that have finished growing.

Complex Tissues
1. Xylem : The xylem is primarily a conducting tissue meant for the transport of water and
mineral elements. Since the transport is under tension, the walls of its conducting elements
are highly thickened and therefore, provide strength to the plant body. Some of its cells are
also involved in storage of water and nutrients. It is considered a complex tissue because it
consists of four types of cells in the flowering plants, vessel elements, tracheids, fibres and
parenchyma.
2. Phloem : Phloem is meant for the transport of food material from the leaves, where it is
synthesized, to the consumption/storage organs of the plant. It is considered a complex
tissue because this too consists of four types of cells in flowering plants - sieve tube members,
companion cells, fibres and 'parenchyma'.
3. Epidermis : The epidermis is the outermost layer of the plant body and is primarily protective
in function. It protects the plant against excessive loss of water through transpiration from
the general surface of the shoot and also protects against microbial (fungal and bacterial)
infection. Epidermis is considered a complex tissue because it consists of several types of
cells, ordinary epidermal cells, guard cells, trichomes, subsidiary cells and root hairs. The
leaf and stem epidermis is always covered with a thick layer of cutin. Because of its lipid
nature, it is strongly hydrophobic and impervious to water. The layer of cutin over the
33 General Science

surface is called cuticle. The epidermis of leaves and young twigs is interrupted by very fine
pores called 'stomata' which are guarded by a pair of 'guard cells'. The guard cells together
with the adjacent epidermal cells constitute the 'stomatal complex'.

Secretory Tissues
The tissues secreting various types of substances resin, mucilage, essential oils, gums, nectar
etc. have complex structures (several types of cells) and hence in recent years they are included
among the complex tissues.

Organisation in Animals
Cells are organised into four types of tissues in higher animals including man. They are
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular and Nervous tissues.
Animal Tissues
Epethelial Connective Muscular Nervous

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue is the covering tissue. It forms a continuous protective layer on the entire
body surface and cavities inside the body and its parts. The skin, surface layers of mouth, alimentary
canal and lungs are made of epithelial tissues. The cells in epithelial tissue vary in their shape.
The main functions of the epithelial tissues are :

S
1. Inside the body they form lining of the mouth and alimentary canal and protect these

A
organs.
2.
3.

N I
They help in the elimination of waste products.
They help in the absorption of water and other nutrients.

ETE

l Simple squamous – flat cells, one layer thick

l Simple cuboidal – cube-shaped cells, one layer thick
l Simple columnar – rectangular cells, one layer thick
General Science 34

l Stratified squamous – multilayered with outhermost cells flat

l Stratified cuboidal – multilayered with outhermost cells cube-shaped
l Stratified columnar – multilayered with outermost cells rectangular

Muscular Tissues
Muscles of the body are made of muscle cells. Being elongated in structure they are also called
muscle fibres. The movement of the body or limbs is brought about by contraction and relaxation
of contactile proteins present in muscle cells. The unit of muscle tissue is a cell that is usually
called a muscle fibre. It represents a compound structure. Since it consists of fine thread called
'myofibrils'. A myofibril is made up of still finer elements called myofilaments.
There are three types of muscle fibres :
1. Striated muscle
2. Unstriated muscle
3. Cardiac muscle
1. Striated muscle or skeletal muscle : The skeletal muscles are attached to the bones and help
in body movement. Also called striped muscles and it brings about powerful voluntary
contractions affecting movements of limbs or other parts of body.
2. Unstriated muscle : It constitutes the walls of hollow organs except the heart. The component
cells are in the form of long spindles tapering at two ends except in the middle where the
elongated nucleus is present. They are significant in bringing, about wave-like peristaltic

stomach and intestine.

IAS
movements by the involuntary contraction and relaxation of the walls of the oesophagus,

EN
Cardiac muscle : This type of muscle tissue is exclusively present in the heart.

ET
Connective Tissue
It performs the functions of binding, supporting and packing together different organs of the
body. The cells of this tissue are embedded in a matrix. The matrix is the basis for further
classification of connective tissues. Three main categories are recognised as soft. hard and fluid.
The space between cells is filled with the matrix which may be solid as in bone or cartilage
and fluid as in blood. Different types of connective tissues are found in our body.
The examples of connective tissue are cartilage bone, tendons, ligaments and blood. They
connect different tissues and organs and provide necessary support to the body.
Tendon and ligaments : Tendons and ligaments are thick network of fibres. The fibres are
loose and very elastic in nature. These fibres are secreted by the surrounding connective tissue
cells, the tendons are strong and connect the muscle to bone. The ligaments are elastic and connect
35 General Science

bone to bone. There are other examples of connective tissue such as areolar tissue, which forms a
packing tissue for organs lying in the body cavity.
Blood : Blood is also a connective tissue. In this tissue the cells move in a fluid matrix or
medium called blood plasma. The plasma is a complex fluid forming 55 percent of the total volume
of blood. Its activities are related to respiration, coagulation, temperature regulation, buffer
mechanisms and fluid balance. Plasma also transports hormones, antibodies, nutrients and
excretary wastes. The blood plasma also contains cells called blood corpuscles. They are RBC
(Red Blood Corpuscles) and WBC (White Blood Corpuscles).

Nervous Tissues

IAS
N
Brain, spinal cord and nerve are all composed of nervous tissue, the cell of nervous tissues are

E
called neurons. These are highly specialised to conduct impulse (signals) and they are the structural

ET
and functional unit of the nervous system. The nervous tissues does not exclusively consists of
neurons but is as well supported by non-nervous cells called 'neuroglia'. A neuron consists of a
cell body with a prominent central nucleus and a number of cytoplasmic processes. Several branches
that arise from the cell body show tree-like form and are called dendrites. They carry impulses
towards the cell. One thin and long cytoplasmic process termed axon moves away from the cell
body. It maintains a uniform diameter and branches profusely at its terminal end. Each tiny branch
ends in a swollen structure called 'synaptic knots'. It is the axon that is directly concerned with the
conduction of nerve impulse away from the cell body. Two neurons are not directly joined to each
other and there is a gap between them termed as synapse. The synaptic knobs that contain the
chemical transmitter - acetylcholine, help in the transmission of the impulse across the synapse
after it has travelled the entire course of an axon. The impulse travels from one neuron to another
neuron.
General Science 36

Plant Organs
The body of a vascular plant is organised into three general kinds of organs :
(a) Roots : Root is an important basic organ of the plant because of its two major functions-
absorption of water and minerals from the soil and fixation of the plant in the soil.
Unlike stems, they have no leaves or nodes. The epidermis is just behind the growing tip of
roots and is covered with root hairs, which are outgrowths of the epidermal cells. Internally, roots
consist largely of xylem and phloem, although many are highly modified to carry out specialised
functions. Thus, some roots are important food and storage organs - for example, beets, carrots
and radishes.
Such roots have an abundance of 'parenchyma tissue'. Many tropical trees have aerial prop
roots that serve to hold the stem in an upright position. 'Epiphytes' have roots modified for quick
absorption of rainwater that flows over the bark of the host plants.
On the basis of place of origin two types of roots are distinguished - (i) Tap roots and (ii)
Adventitious roots.
(i) Tap root : The root developing directly from the radicle is known as primary root. It
usually produces lateral branches called 'secondary roots' and their branches in turn
are called 'tertiary roots'. This arrangement is called 'aeropetal'.
(ii) Adventitious Roots : Roots developing from any part of the plant, other than radicle
are known as 'adventitious roots'.
Modification of Roots

IAS
Roots are modified into a number of forms to carry out specific functions.

N
Modification of Tap roots – (i) fusiform roots; (ii) napiform roots; (iii) conical roots; (iv)

E
ET
Tuberous or tubercular roots; (v) Pneumatophores or knees.
Modification of Adventitious roots – (i) fasciculated roots; (ii) Tuberous roots; (iii) maniliform
or beaded roots; (iv) nodulose roots; (v) annulated roots; (vi) prop roots; (vii) stilt roots; (viii)
climbing roots; (ix) floating roots. Fixation, absorption, conduction, storage and aeration are the
major functions of the roots.
(b) Stems : Stems usually are above ground, grow upward and bear leaves, which are attached
in a regular pattern at nodes along the stem. The portions of the stem between nodes are called
internodes. Stems increase in length through the activity of an apical meristem at the stem tip.
This growing point also gives rise to new leaves, which surround and protect the stem tip, or
apical bud, before they expand. Apical buds of deciduous trees, which lose their leaves during
part of the year, are usually protected by modified leaves called 'bud scales'.
Stems are more variable in external appearance and internal structure than are roots, but they
also consist of the three tissue systems and have several features in common. The vascular tissue
of herbaceous plants is surrounded by parenchyma tissue, whereas the stems of woody plants
consist mostly of hard xylem tissue. Stems increase in diameter through the activity of 'lateral
meristems', which produce the bark and woody in woody plants. The bark, which also contains
the phloem, serves as a protective outer covering, preventing damage and water loss.
Within the plant kingdom are many modifications of the basic stem, such as the thorns of
hawthorns. Climbing stems, such as the tendrils of grapes and Boston ivy, have special
modifications that allow them to grow up and attach to their substrate. Many plants, such as cacti,
have reduced leaves or no leaves at all, and their stems act as the photosynthetic surface. Some
37 General Science

stems, including those of many grasses, creep along the surface of the ground and create new
plants through a process called vegetative reproduction. Other stems are borne underground and
serve as food-storage organs, often allowing the plant to survive through the winter; the so-called
bulbs of the tulip and the crocus are examples.
Stem has two major functions :
Normal function - It includes mechancial support, conduction, etc.
Special function - It includes food storage, water storage, vegetative propagation and
photosynthesis.

Modifications of Stems
In some plants, the stem gets modified to carry out some specific functions such as vegetative
propagation and synthesis and storage of good, etc. Modification are (i) Underground modification;
(ii) Sub-aerial modification; (iii) Aerial modification.
(c) Leaves : The leaf is the primarily photosynthesis organ of most plants. Leaves are usually
flattened blades that consist, internally, mostly of parenchyma tissue called the 'mesophyll', which
is made up of loosely arranged cells with spaces between them. The spaces are filled with air,
from which the cells absorb carbon dioxide and into which they expel oxygen. The mesophyll is
bounded by the upper and lower surface of the leaf blade, which is covered by epidermal tissue.
A vascular network runs through the 'mesophyll', providing the cell walls with water and removing
the food products of photosynthesis to other parts of the plants.

IAS
The leaf blade is connected to the stem through a narrowed portion called the 'petiole', or
'stalk', which consists mostly of vascular tissue. Appendages called 'stipules' are often present at

N
the base of the 'petiole'.

(i)
E
Major functions of leaves are -

ET
Synthesis of organic food;
(ii) Exchange of gases;
(iii) Transpiration;
(iv) Food storage;
(v) Protection;
(vi) Vegetative Propogation.
Factors Affecting Plants : Growth and Growth Hormones
The growth and differentiation of plants is controlled by a special class of chemicals are
synthesised at one place in the plant body and translocated to another where they act in a specific
manner. They regulate growth and differentiation of root and stem, elongation of cells, production
of flowers, movement of organs, dominance of certain parts over the other and production of
many abnormal structures such as galls and tumors. Thus plant hormones are certainly essential
for plant development. They are needed in small quantitites at very low concentration. They are
rarely effective at the site of their synthesis.
Plant hormones also known as growth factors, growth substances, growth regulators or
phytohormones, can either promote the growth or may inhibit it. On the basis of their chemical
nature, phytohormones can be classified into following groups - (a) Auxins; (b) Gibberellins; (c)
Cytokinins.
Auxin, one of the most important plant hormones is produced by growing stem tips and
transported to other areas where it may either promote growth or inhibit it. 'Gibberellins' are
General Science 38

other important plant growth hormones which control the elongation of stems, and they cause
the germination of some grass seeds by initiating the production of enzymes that break down
starch into sugars to nourish the plant embryo. 'Cytokinins' promote the growth of lateral buds,
acting in opposition to auxin they also promote bud formation. In addition, plants produce the
gas ethylene through the partial decomposition of certain hydrocarbons and ethylene in turn
regulates fruit maturation and abscission.
Tropisms : It causes a change in the direction of a plant's growth. Examples are 'phototropism',
the bending of a stem toward light, and geotropism, the response of a stem or root to gravity.
Stems are negatively geotropic growing away from gravity, whereas roots are positively geotropic.
Photoperiodism, the response to 24-hour cycles of dark and light, is particularly important in the
initiation of flowering.
Diseases of Plants : The microorganisms, parasitic flowering plants, nematodes, viruses or
adverse environmental conditions affects the normal growth of plants.
1. Diseases caused by Bacteria : Oak Apple Gall Galls; the gall or cecidium, Citrus canker,
2. Diseases caused by Fungus : Hemileia vastatrix, destroyed the coffee plantations of
Sri Lanka.
3. Diseases caused by Virus : The calico virus or mistletoes, dodders and root parasites
of the genera Striga and Orobanche (broomrape) are the more common of these parasitic
plants.
4. Nematodes or roundworms, are an important cause of disease in plants.

1.
IAS
Practice Questions
Which of the following can be found in cartilage but not in bone tissue?
(a) lacunae

EN (b) protein fibres

ET
(c) blood vessels (d) chondroitin
2. The most common type of exocrine gland is of this type :
(a) apocrine (b) merocrine
(c) endocrine (d) holocrine
3. Epithelia that consist of more than one layer of cells is termed :
(a) striated (b) stratified
(c) stipilated (d) intercalated
4. The matrix of connective tissue is composed of :
(a) cells, fibres and ground substance
(b) cells and fibres
(c) fibres and ground substance
(d) cells and ground substance
5. Small hair-like structures on the surface of some epithelial cells are termed :
(a) cilia (b) glia
(c) villi (d) microvilli
6. These cells are located in bone tissues :
(a) chondroblasts (b) ostecytes
(c) fibroblasts (d) chondrocytes
7. Which of the following heals the quickest after injury?
(a) bone (b) epithelium
(c) cartilage (d) muscle
39 General Science

8. The small holes in which some connective tissues cells reside are termed :
(a) lumen (b) lamellae
(c) lacunae (d) lamaze
9. Which of the following does not describe skeletal muscle tissue fibres?
(a) striated (b) voluntary
(c) multinucleate (d) branched
10. Which of the following suffixes implies 'growth' or 'formation'?
(a) - blast (b) - lemma
(c) - stasis (d) - cyte
11. Based on basic tissue type, which of the following terms does not belong grouped with
the others :
(a) muscle (b) ligament
(c) cartilage (d) blood
12. A tissue viewed under the microscope displays cells in little holes, densely packed fibres
and no blood vessels. This describes :
(a) dense regular connective tissue
(b) hyaline cartilage
(c) fibro cartilage
(d) adipose tissue
13.
(a) it is derived from mesenchyme
(b) sarcomas originate from it
IAS
Which of the following characteristics can be used to describe epithelial tissue?

(c) it is well vascularized

EN
ET
(d) it forms the glands of the body
14. The serous membrane lining the surface of the lung is the :
(a) parietal pleura (b) visceral peritoneum
(c) visceral pleura (d) peritoneal pleura
15. Read the following statements carefully. Which of the following is/are incorrect statements:
1. Cartilage heals slower than skin because cartilage is a deeper tissue.
2. The inside lining of the intestine has a large surface area because of the presence of
cilia.
3. Adipose is a type of connective tissue because that it is where fat is stored.
Code :
(a) only 1 and 3 are incorrect (b) only 1 and 2 are incorrect
(c) only 2 and 3 are incorrect (d) all are incorrect statements

IAS
EN
ET
41 General Science

Genetics
Genetics - The Science of Heredity
It is a common observation that a wheat grain when sown gives only a wheat plant and puppies
always grow into having the characteristics of the race their parents belonged to. The fact of
characters being transferred from parents to progeny has been well known (in fact it is not the
characters that are transferred but the potential).
Gene : A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some
stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a polypeptide or for an RNA chain that has a function in
the organism. Living beings depend on genes as they specify all proteins and functional RNA
chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic
traits to offspring.

IA
Gregor Mendel - Father of GeneticsS
EN
Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, conducted some elegant experiments on garden peas (Pisum

ET
sativum) which were published in a local journal in 1866 enunciating the basic principles of
heredity. He postulated that :
1. The characters like flower colour, height of the plant, etc. are controlled by a pair of
factors (now called genes).
2. Recessive characters like white flower colour are not able to express themselves in the
presence of dominant characters like red flower colour.
3. The factors segregate and recombine in the next generation.
4. The factors are inherited independently of each other.
Genotype and Phenotype
The genotype refers to the genetic complement of an individual or a group of individuals, e.g.
in the experiment given above. Plants of the F1 generation have a different genotype (RrTt) although
they are similar in the appearance to one of the parents (RRTT). On the other hand, the phenotype
refers to the physical appearance of individuals. Individuals that are similar in appearance with
references to a particular trait.

Sex Chromosomes
A pair of chromosomes controls the inheritance of sex. These chromosomes are referred to as
sex chromosomes in contrast to the autosomes referring to the other chromosomes.
Sex-linked Inheritance
The inheritance of characters controlled by genes in the sex chromosomes varies with the sex
and is, therefore, called sex-linked.
General Science 42

Man - the Heterogametic Sex

The study of human chromosomes has finally established that there are 23 pairs of chromosomes
(46) in a human body cell. A human sperm or egg, therefore, has 23 chromosomes. If the pair
consists of two identical chromosomes (designated XX) the sex would be female, i.e. women have
an XX chromosomal complement. On the other hand, if the pair consists of two dissimiliar
chromosomes (XY) the sex would be male.
Mutation : A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations in a
gene's DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene. This
happens when the DNA sequence of each gene determines the amino acid sequence for the protein
it encodes. The DNA sequence is interpreted in groups of three nucleotide bases, called codons.
Each codon specifies a single amino acid in a protein.

Linkage, Crossing Over and Recombination of Genes

Linkage : Genetic linkage is the tendency of certain loci or alleles to be inherited together.
Genetic loci that are physically close to one another on the same chromosomes tend to stay together
during meiosis, and are thus genetically linked.
Recombination : Genetic recombination is a process by which a molecule of nucleic acid
(usually DNA, but can also be RNA) is broken and then joined to a different one. Recombination
can occur between similar molecules of DNA, as in homologous recombination, or dissimilar
molecules, as in non-homologous end joining. Recombination is a common method of DNA repair
in both bacteria and eukaryotes. In eukaryotes, recombination also occurs in meiosis where it
facilitates chromosomal crossover.

IAS
Crossing Over : Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is an exchange of genetic material

N
between homologous chromosomes. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which

E
occurs during prophase I of meiosis (pachytene) in a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins

ET
before the synaptonemal complex develops, and is not completed until near the end of prophase
I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then
reconnect to the other chromosome.
43 General Science

K. Lansteiner and his students classified human beings (1900-1902) in four groups on the basis
of the reactions of their blood. A, B, AB and O. Since then, the data has been of great help in blood
transfusions as would be clear from Table.
Blood Group and Possible Transfusions in Various Persons
Blood Group Carries antigen Carries antibody Can donate blood to Can receive blood from
A A anti-B A, AB A and O
B B anti-A B, AB B and O
AB A and B none only AB universal acceptor
O none anti-A and anti-B universal donor only
Possible/impossible Blood Groups of Children from Parent of Various Blood Groups
Blood Group Parents Possible blood group of children Blood group of children not possible
A×A A or O B or AB
A×B O, A, B, AB
A × AB A, B, AB O
A×O O or A B or AB
B×B B or O A, AB
B × AB A, B, AB O
B×O O or B A, AB
B × AB
AB × O

IAS A, B, AB
A, B
O
O, AB
O×O

EN O A, B, AB

ET
Rh Factor
Another blood antigen was discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S. Wiener. Since this was
initially found in rhesus monkeys (Macacus rhesus) and later in human beings, it has been caleld
Rh factor. The antigen is present in a majority of humans but some persons do not carry this factor
in their blood. These Rh persons also do not carry anti-Rh antibodies naturally but could synthesize
them if sensitised through blood transfusion from an Rh+ person, or pregnancy. Testing for Rh
factor is also, therefore, very important.

Genetic Disorders
A change in the number or structure of chromosomes or gene mutations often result in various
kinds of disorders which are heritable. These are called genetic disorders, some examples of which
are given below :
1. Albinism : The disorder is characterised by the absence of pigment (melanin) in the
skin, hair and iris of the eyes. It is caused by a recessive gene that blocks the conversion
of the amino acid tytosine to melanin throug a series of reactions.
2. Cri-du-chat syndrome : A chromosomal abnormality arising by the deletion of whole
or part of the short arm of chromosome 5. The most characteristic feature of the
syndrome is the infant's cry like that of the mewing of cat; other characteristic features
linclude a small head, receding lower jaw and a moonlike face.
3. Cystic fibrosis : The disorder develops because of a recessive autosomal gene. In
homozygous condition it results in increased susceptibility to lung infection and
abnormal pancreatic function resulting in improper absorption of fats and proteins
General Science 44

from the intestine. It also causes an abnormally high levels of excretion of sodium and
chloride in sweat. The disorder often results in early death.
4. Down syndrome (Mongolism) : A congennital abnormality in human beings due to
the trisomy of chromosome 21 (chromosome 21 occurs in triplicate rather than in
duplicate). The affected individuals, therefore carry 47 chromosomes and are generally
retarded physically and mentally. They are usually short-saturated with a broad skull
and a round face having a much higher frequency of congential heart defects.
5. Edward syndrome : An abnormally arising because of the trisomy of chromosome 18
(chromosome 18 occurs in triplicate). The characteristic features are mental deficiency
and multiple congenital malformations affecting almost all organ system. Most infants
with the disorder die before 6 months.
6. Fabry's disease : The disease develops because of a recesive X-linked (sex-linked)
gene that results in a metabolic block affecting the metabolism of glycosphingolipids
(a kind of lipid). As a result, these compounds get deposited as crystals in the wells of
blood vessels in the heart, kidneys and eyes, often causing shooting plan with
progressive heart, kidney and opthalmic problems.
7. Galactosemia : A recessive autosomal gene in homozygous condition results into a
defect in the enzyme system utilising the sugar galactose which is a breakdown product
of the milk sugar, galactose which is a breakdown product of the milk sugar, lactose.
Since the infants feed only on milk, this defect lead to high levels of galactose in the

S
blood and may result into development of cataracts and brain damage.

A
8. Hemophilia : The disease is caused by a sex-linked recessive gene which results into

N I
synthesis of a defective protein (antihemophic globulin) essential for the clotting of
blood. As a result, a person suffering from the disease may bleed to death even from

9.
E
minor cuts as the blood would not clot naturally. However injections of the protein

ET
(factor VIII) may save the person as it would cause normal clotting.
Huntington's disease : The disease is caused by a dominant autosomal gene which
leads to progressive deterioration of the nervous system. A peculiar feature of the
disease is that it develops at an age of 30 to 45 years and slowly leads to loss of control
on the movement of limbs so that eventually the person becomes helpless and
bedridden. Ultimately the affected person dies some 10 to 15 years after the disease
developed.
10. Kincfelter syndrome : An abnormality in men who are always sterile due to improper
development of testes because of an additional X chromosome (47, XXY). The affected
persons may also suffer from some degree of mental retardation.
11. Lesch Nyhan syndrome : It is inherited as a sex-linked recessive trait resulting into
the development of involuntary movements, mental retardation and kidney damage.
The disease is progressive and fatal.
12. Marfan syndrome : It is inherited as an autosomal dominant resulting into
abnormalities of the eye, cardiovascular system and the skeletal system. Most persons
suffering from the disease have myopia, elongated eyeballs, long and narrow
extremities (spider fingers), and irregular body proportions.
13. Muscular dystrophy (Duchenne type) : This is a sex-linked recessive disease
developing in childhood, at an age of 1 to 6 years. The disorder leads to progressive
muscle weakness and atrophy so that the patient is often confined to wheelchair by
the age of 12 years. A majority of the individual die before the age of 20.
45 General Science

14. Patau syndrome : It results from the trisomy of chromosome 13 (47, 13+) that leads to
cleft lip and/or plate, deafness, cardiac malformations and mental retardation. Most
children with this abnormality die within 3 months of their birth.
15. Phenylketonuria (PKU) : This disease is caused by a recessive autosomal gene which,
in homozygous condition, results into lack of an enzyme essential for metabolism of
the amino acid phenylalanine (phenyl-alanine hydroxylase). As a result, phenyl-alanine
accumulates and damages the brain producing an idiot. If detected soon after birth, it
can be prevented by feeding the child on low phenylalanine diet.
16. Sickle cell anaemia : It is caused by an abnormal haemoglobin molecule due to a
recessive gene in homozygous condition resulting in sickling of the red blood cells.
The heterozygous individuals (carriers) may also suffer at high altitudes due to low
oxygen tension.
17. Tay-sachs disease : This disease is caused by an autosomal recessive gene. Usually
the development of the child is normal till the age of eight or nine months after which
degeneration of the cerebral functions begins leading to epilepsy, enlargement of the
head, paralysis and even blindness. Ultimately the affected child dies by the age of
two or three years.
18. Thalassemia : Also called "Cooley's anaemia", the disease occurs mostly in children
and is nearly fatal. It occurs due to an abnormality of the haemoglobin controlled by a
recessive gene which in homozygous condition causes severe anaemia.

S
19. Turner syndrome : A human abnormality in which the affected individuals are

A
phenotypically females but have rudimentary sex organs and mammary glands. It

N
chromosomes (45, XO).
I
results from lack of an X chromosomes, that is, the complement is XO with 45

20.

ETE
Xeroderma pigmentosum : This is an autosomal recessive disease resulting from an
inherited sensitivity to ionizing radiations like ultraviolet light. The persons suffering
from the disease have been found to be deficient in the repair of UV-induced damage
to DNA and are, therefore, extremely sensitive to sunlight. This results in excessive
pigmentation of skin and development of lesions on exposed body parts such as the
face. The lesions frequently become cancerous. It has been determined that the disorder
may arise as a result of mutations in as many as six different genes. It has also been
found that some individuals with Xeroderma Pigmentosum develop neurological
disorders because of the premature death of some long-lived nerve cells.
DNA Fingerprinting
DNA of very individual comprises of the same chemical constituents. However, the difference
lies in the base pairing that varies from person to person. DNA comprises of millions of base
pairs. So, every individual has a different sequence. But it also makes the differentiation difficult.
This difficulty can be overcome by utilising the repeating patterns in DNA. These patterns help in
predicting whether two DNA samples belong to the same person or two related people or non-
related people. Such samples are used by the researchers that are known to vary among individuals.
These samples are analysed to reach to a certain level of probability.

How DNA fingerprinting is done?

In the first step, DNA is separated from the cells, tissues etc. For example, it can be isolated
from the root of the hair or blood. This is followed by cutting the DNA at specific places. This is
done by using special kinds of enzymes like. These pieces are separated by a process called
electrophoresis. The DNA pieces are passed through a gel. Then a nylon sheet is place over the gel
General Science 46

and the DNA pieces are put on to the sheet. They are soaked overnight. Radioactive or coloured
probes are added to the nylon sheet which produces a pattern called the DNA fingerprint.

Uses of DNA Fingerprinting

1. It helps in identifying biological parents. An individual inherits the variable number of
tandem repeats (VNTRs) (repeat sequences) from his parents. As a result, one can easily
construct the parents repeat sequences by using the child's VNTRs. Thi is helpful in the
detection of biological parents of an individual.
2. It helps in criminal and forensic investigations. If blood, hair, skin cells or other genetic
evidence is left by the criminal at the scene of crime then DNA is isolated from these evidences
and VNTR patterns (repeat sequences) of this DNA are studied and compared with the
DNA of the suspects.
3. Inherited disorders can be easily recognised. DNA finger printing helps in the detection of
various inherited disorders before or after the birth of a child. These include cystic fibrosis,
haemophilia, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, sickle cell anaemia and thalassemia,
etc. This further guides the parents regarding the treatment required.
4. Inherited diseases can be cured. This is done by studying the DNA fingerprints of those
who are related to the individual and have a history of some particular disorder. Besides
this, it can also be studied by comparing large groups of people with and without the disorder.
This helps in identifying the DNA patterns that show association with a particular disease
which is to be studied.
Molecular Biology

IAS
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other

EN
areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly

ET
concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of cell, including
the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these
interactions are regulated.

Gene (DNA) Expression

Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a
functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such
as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product
is a functional RNA. The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes (including
multicellular organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), possibly induced by viruses - to
generate the macromolecular machinery for life. Several steps in the gene expression process may
be modulated, including the transcription, RNA splicing, translation and post-translation
modification of a protein. Gene regulation gives the cell control over structure and function, and
is the basis for cellular differentiation, morphogenesis and the versatility and adapatability of any
organism.

Gene Replication
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their
DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance. The process starts with one double-stranded DNA
molecule and produces two identical copies of the molecule. Each strand of the original double-
stranded DNA molecules serves as template for the production of the complementary strand, a
process referred to as semi conservative replication. Cellular proofreading and error toe-checking
mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. In a cell, DNA replication begins at
47 General Science

specific locations in the genome, called 'origins'. Unwinding of DNA at the origin, and synthesis
of new strands, forms a replication fork. In addition to DNA polymerase, the enzyme that
synthesises the new DNA by adding nucleotides matched to the template strand, a number of
other proteins are associated with the fork and assist in the initiation and continuation of DNA
synthesis.

Transcription
Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA.
Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary
language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct
enzymes. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a
complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. As opposed to DNA replication, transcription results
in an RNA complement that includes uracil (U) in all instances where thymine (T) would have
occurred in a DNA complement.
Transcription can be explained easily in 4 or 5 steps, each moving like a wave along the DNA.
l RNA polymerase moves the transcription bubble, a stretch of unpaired nucleotides,
by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotides.
l RNA polymerase adds matching RNA nucleotides that are paired with complementary
DNA bases.
l RNA sugar-phosphate backbone forms with assistance from RNA polymerase.
Hydrogen bonds of the untwisted RNA+DNA helix break, freeing the newly

S
l

A
synthesised RNA strand.
l

N I
If the cell has a nucleus, the RNA is further processed (addition of a 3' poly-A tail and
a 5' cap) and exits through to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore complex.
Translation

ETE
In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the third stage of protein biosynthesis (part
of the overall process of gene expression). In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by
transcription is decoded by the ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide,
that will later fold into an active protein. In Bacteria, translation occcurs in the cell's cytoplasm,
where the large and small subunits of the ribosome are located, and bind to the mRNA. In
Eukaryotes, translation occurs across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum in a process
called vectorial synthesis.

Genetic Code
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or
mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells. The code
defines how sequences of three nucleotides, called codons, specify which amino acid will be added
next during protein synthesis. With some exceptions, a three-nucleotide codon in a nucleic acid
sequence specifies a single amino acid. Because the vast majority of genes are encoded with exactly
the same code (see the RNA codon table), this particular code is often referred to as the canonical
or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code.

Gene Regulation
Regulation of gene expression (or gene regulation) includes the processes that cells and viruses
use to regulate the way that the information in genes is turned into gene products. Although a
functional gene product can be an RNA, the majority of known mechanisms regulate protein
coding genes. Any step of the gene's expression may be modulated, from DNA-RNA transcription
General Science 48

to the post-translational modification of a protein.

Concept Keywords IPR

Reproduction and Inheritance
All living things reproduce. Offspring closely resemble but are not identical to their parents,
from whom they inherit genetic traits. The units of inheritance are called genes and contain the
genetic information. Simple organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, contain one copy of their
genes. More complex organisms contain two copies of each gene, receiving one from each parent,
but the two genes are not necessarily identical. For simple genetic traits, the two inherited copies
of a gene determine the phenotype for that trait. Other genetic traits are determined by more than
one gene.

DNA
The genetic information is contained in DNA molecules, which have a unique double-helical
structure and a four-letter information code.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are long pieces of DNA that consist of linear arrangments of genes and other
DNA. Sexually reproducing organisms have two sets of chromosomes in most cells of their bodies.
Each parent contributes one of each pair of chromosomes to its offspring randomly.

Genetic and Environmental Determinants

IAS
Together with the environment, an organism's genes influence its appearance and
characteristics.

Proteins

EN
ET
The DNA information in genes provides instructions for building proteins. Proteins carry out
life functions and are a diverse collection of molecules that includes hormones, enzymes, structural
proteins and antibodies.

Cells
Cells are the building blocks of almost every organism's body. Each cell of an organism contains
the same genetic information, which is passed on faithfully when cells divide. Different types of
cells arise because they use different parts of the information, as determined by the cell's history
and immediate environment. Different cell types may be functionally organised into tissues and
organs.
Note : Viruses are very simple organisms that are not made up of cells.

Variation
There are genetic differences between individuals of the same species. Any one gene can have
alternate forms called alleles. Changes in the DNA, or mutations, cause new alleles to arise. New
alleles or new combinations of genes can lead to variation among the individuals within a
population. Some variations may confer a survival or reproductive advantage under specific
environmental conditions.

Applications
Genetics research has applications in many fields, for example, in medicine, agriculture,
biotechnology and environmental science.
49 General Science

Ethics
Genetics research raises many ethical, legal and social issues; it is important for everyone to
develop skills to address these issues.

Practice Questions
1. That genes control heredity through their control on enzyme synthesis and that one gene
controls the synthesis one enzyme - the one gene one enzyme hypothesis was proposed
by :
(a) Beadle and Tatum (b) Darwin
(c) Mendel (d) Morgan
2. The genetic material that contains all the information needed for the development and
existence of an organism is :
(a) ribonucleic acid (b) deoxyribonucleic acid
(c) ribosomal RNA (d) transfer RNA
A man met with a serious road accident while going to his office and was immediately rushed
to a nearby hospital where the doctors advised for blood transfusion. The man's blood group
was found to be A. Since the required blood group was not available in the blood bank, the
relatives were asked to donate. Whose blood group was found to be :
1. Wife O
2.
3.
Son
Daughter

IAS A
O
4. Brother

EN AB

ET
3. Who among the above relations could donate blood to the man?
(a) Only 2 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
4. If the above man was sometimes required to donate blood, to whom among the relations
mentioned above could he donate?
(a) son only (b) son and brother
(c) wife and daughter (d) wife, son and daughter
5. That same human diseases are genetically controlled was first established by :
(a) Gregor Mendel (b) A.E. Garrod
(c) Watson and Crick (d) William Bateson
6. Which of the following human diseases is/are controlled by heredity?
(a) alkaptenuria (b) leukemia
(c) anaemia (d) all the above
7. Genetics is the branch of science that deals with the study of :
(a) relations between plants and the environment
(b) inheritance and variation
(c) cell structure
(d) thermal structures
General Science 50

8. A woman receives her X chromosome from :

(a) her mother only (b) her father only
(c) both her mother and father (d) either her mother or her father
9. Gene, the basic unit of heredity, was first synthesized in the laboratory by :
(a) Arthur Komberg (b) Hargobind Khurana
(c) Gregor Mendel (d) Watson and Crick
10. DNA molecules are composed of deoxyribonucleotides of :
(a) adenine and guanine
(b) adenine, guanine and cytosine
(c) adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine
(d) none of the above
11. A man of AB blood group meets with a serious accident and requires blood transfusion.
Who among the following could donate blood to him?
Relation Blood group
1. Wife A
2. Son AB
3. Friend O
4. Daughter
Codes :

IAS B

N
(a) Only 2 (b) 2 and 4

12.
(c) 1, 2 and 4

ETE (d)
Disorder of sex chromosomal changes are :
(a)
(b)
1, 2, 3 and 4

Klinefelter's and Turner's syndrome.

Down's syndrome and Edward's syndrome.
(c) Super female and super male.
(d) Cri du chat and Patau's syndrome.
13. Consider the following statements about viruses :
1. A particular virus has either DNA or RNA, or both.
2. The DNA or RNA of the viruses is enclosed protected by a lipoproteinaceous membrane.
3. RNA is the genetic material of some viruses.
4. Dr. Peyton Rous, an American virologist, was awarded the Nobel Prize for first isolating
a virus in pure crystalline form.
Which of the above statements is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
14. A pair of chromosomes determines sex in human beings and therefore, these chromosomes
are called sex chromosomes. What is the name given to other chromosomes?
(a) autosomes (b) heterosomes
(c) polysomes (d) spherosomes
51 General Science

15. DNA replication means :

(a) DNA→DNA
(b) DNA→RNA
(c) autocatalytic function of DNA
(d) heterocatalytic function of DNA
16. Gregor Mendel is often referred to as the Father of Genetics since he first enunciated the
Principles of Heredity. His experimental material was :
(a) fruit fly (b) bread mould
(c) pea plant (d) rhesus monkey
17. A white woman marries a black man. They have four children – 2 sons and 2 daughters.
What proportion of these children is likely to be black?
(a) 25 percent (b) 50 percent
(c) 100 percent (d) none
18. There are forty six chromosomes in a normal human body cell. Compare the chromosome
numbers given low with the special structure in the human body.
1. Ovum 23 2. Sperm 46
3. Kidney cells 46 4. Urinary bladder 23
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

S
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4

A
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 3 and 4
19.
I
DNA nucleotides are attached by :

N
E
(a) hydrogen bonds (b) covalent bonds

ET
(c) Vander Wall's force (d) electrovalent bonds
20. Which of the following human disease is/are hereditary in nature?
(a) haemophilia (b) phenylketonuria
(c) sickle-cell anaemia (d) all the above
21. There are twenty chromosomes in a somatic cell maize. Compare the chromosomes
numbers given as lows with the organ of the maize plant :
1. Endosperm 30 2. Pollen grains 10
3. Root 30 4. Leaf 20
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 2 and 4 (d) Only 4
22. Genes control :
(a) protein synthesis but not heredity
(b) protein synthesis and heredity
(c) heredity but not protein synthesis
(d) biochemical reaction of some enzymes
23. A person having which of the following blood groups can received blood of any group?
(a) A (b) AB
(c) B (d) O
General Science 52

24. A person of which of the following blood groups is called a universal donor:
(a) O (b) AB
(c) A (d) B

IAS
EN
ET
53 General Science

Nutrition

Plant nutrition
Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth. There
are several principles that apply to plant nutrition. Some elements are directly involved in plant
metabolism. However, this principle does not account for the so-called beneficial elements, whose
presence, while not required, has clear positive effects on plant growth.
A nutrient that is able to limit plant growth according to Liebig's law of the minimum, is
considered an essential plant nutrient if the plant cannot complete its full life cycle without it.
There are 17 essential plant nutrients.

Macro-nutrients

IAS
Calcium

EN
Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the

ET
activation of certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is important for growth because it is a major part of all amino acids, which are the
building blocks of all proteins, including the enzymes, which control virtually all biological
processes. A good supply of nitrogen stimulates root growth and development, as well as the
uptake of other nutrients. Plants deficient in nitrogen tend to have a pale yellowish green color
(chlorosis), have a stunted appearance, and develop thin, spindly stems.

Micro-nutrients
Boron
Boron is important in sugar transport, cell division, and synthesizing certain enzymes. Boron
deficiency causes necrosis in young leaves and stunting.

Copper
Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis.
Involved in many enzyme processes. Necessary for proper photosynthesis, involved in the
manufacture of lignin (cell walls), involved in grain production.

Chlorine
Chlorine is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis.
General Science 54

Iron
Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron
deficiency can result in interveinal chlorosis and necrosis.

Manganese
Manganese is necessary for building the chloroplasts. Manganese deficiency may result in
coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.

Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids.

Nickel
In higher plants, Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen
metabolism that is required to process urea. Without Nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading
to the formation of necrotic lesions. In lower plants, Nickel activates several enzymes involved in
a variety of processes, and can substitute for Zinc and Iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.[citation
needed]

Sodium
Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. It can
also substitute for potassium in some circumstances.

Zinc

IAS
Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription.

EN
A typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little
leaf" and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.

ET Photosynthesis in Plants
In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly within the leaves. Since photosynthesis requires carbon
dioxide, water, and sunlight, all of these substances must be obtained by or transported to the
leaves. Carbon dioxide is obtained through tiny pores in plant leaves called stomata. Oxygen is
also released through the stomata. Water is obtained by the plant through the roots and delivered
to the leaves
In photosynthesis, solar energy is converted to chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored
in the form of glucose (sugar). Carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight are used to produce glucose,
oxygen, and water. The chemical equation for this process is:
6CO2+12H2O+Light → C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
6 molecules of carbon dioxide (6CO2) and 12 molecules of water (12H2O) are consumed in the
process, while glucose (C6H12O6), six molecules of oxygen (6O2), and six molecules of water (6H2O)
are produced.
This equation may be simplified as:
6CO2 + 6H2O + Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Animal Nutrition
Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet.
With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, nutritional immunology, molecular
55 General Science

medicine and genetics, the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and
metabolic pathways: the sequences of biochemical steps through which substances in living things
change from one form to another.
Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions
being at varying levels in particular foods. Carnivores consume more nitrogen than carbon while
herbivores consume less nitrogen than carbon, when an equal quantity is measured.
The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch,
and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical
compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins,
phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms
that humans eat.
Nutrients
There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, minerals, protein, vitamins, and
water.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharide, disaccharides, or polysaccharides
depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of

S
foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.

IA
Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore raise
blood-sugar levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some

N
E
simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) are digested very slowly, while many complex carbohydrates

ET
are digested at essentially the same rate as simple.

Fiber
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans
and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories
(kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that
because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a
large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes
to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits
(especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are
many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal
problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening
it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis
- the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive
tract.

Fat
A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of
carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three
fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated
depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.
Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while Trans fats are to be avoided.
Saturated and some Trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard),
General Science 56

while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very
rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties
useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.

Protein
Most meats such as chicken contain all the essential amino acids needed for humans
Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also
form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is composed
of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. The
body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged
proteins (maintenance). Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals,
some amino acids are essential and some are non-essential. About twenty amino acids are found
in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the
diet. Proteins or amino acids are particularly important in some situations: during early
development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete
protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or
more of the essential amino acids.
Sources of dietary protein include meats, tofu and other soy-products, eggs, legumes, and
dairy products such as milk and cheese.

Minerals

IAS
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four
elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules.

Macro minerals

EN
Many elements are essential in relative quantity; they are usually called "bulk minerals". Some

ET
are structural, but many play a role as electrolytes. Elements with recommended dietary allowance
(RDA) greater than 200 mg/day are
l Calcium a common electrolyte, but also needed structurally (for muscle and digestive
system health, bone strength, some forms neutralize acidity, may help clear toxins,
provides signaling ions for nerve and membrane functions)
l Chlorine as chloride ions; very common electrolyte; see sodium, below
l Magnesium required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes
strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity)
l Phosphorus required component of bones; essential for energy processing
l Potassium a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health)
l Sodium a very common electrolyte; not generally found in dietary supplements, despite
being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food: typically as
sodium chloride, or common salt. Excessive sodium consumption can deplete calcium
and magnesium, leading to high blood pressure and osteoporosis.
l Sulphur for three essential amino acids and therefore many proteins (skin, hair, nails,
liver, and pancreas). Sulfur is not consumed alone, but in the form of sulfur-containing
amino acids
Trace minerals
Many elements are required in trace amounts, usually because they play a catalytic role in
enzymes. Some trace mineral elements are
57 General Science

l Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B12 family of coenzymes. Animals cannot
biosynthesize B12, and must obtain this cobalt-containing vitamin in the diet
l Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
l Chromium required for sugar metabolism
l Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxine, but probably, for other
important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus etc. (see Extrathyroidal
iodine); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and
sometimes classified with the macro minerals
l Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins
l Manganese (processing of oxygen)
l Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
l Nickel present in urease
l Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
l Vanadium (Speculative: there is no established RDA for vanadium. No specific
biochemical function has been identified for it in humans, although vanadium is
required for some lower organisms.)
l Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase's, liver alcohol
dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase
Vitamins

S
Vitamin A : Vitamin A is required for night vision, and for a healthy skin. It assists the immune

A
system, and because of its antioxidant properties is great to protect against pollution and cancer

N I
formation and other diseases. It also assists your sense of taste as well as helping the digestive and
urinary tract and many believe that it helps slow aging.

E
Deficiency of vitamin A : A deficiency of vitamin A may lead to eye problems with dryness

ET
of the conjunctiva and cornea, dry skin and hair, night blindness as well as poor growth skin
disorders, such as acne, boils and a bumpy skin, as well as weight loss might be indicative of the
vitamin being in short supply. Insomnia, fatigue and reproductive difficulties may also be indicative
of the vitamin in short supply.
Food sources of vitamin A : Liver, milk, egg-yolk, carrots, dark green leafy vegetables and
yellow fruits are high in vitamin A or beta-carotene.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) : Thiamin may enhance circulation, helps with blood formation and
the metabolism of carbohydrates. It is also required for the health of the nervous system and is
used in the biosynthesis of a number of cell constituents; it is also great for the brain and may help
with depression and assist with memory and learning.
Deficiency of vitamin B1 : A deficiency will result in beriberi, and minor deficiencies may be
indicated with extreme fatigue, irritability, constipation, edema and an enlarged liver.
Forgetfulness, gastrointestinal disturbances, heart changes, irritability, labored breathing and loss
of appetite may also be experienced.
Food sources of vitamin B1 : Sunflower seeds, peanuts, wheat bran, beef liver, pork, seafood,
egg-yolk, beans all contain good amounts of thiamin.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) : It is required by the body to use oxygen and the metabolism of
amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. Riboflavin is further needed to activate vitamin B6
(pyridoxine). It may be used for red blood cell formation, antibody production, cell respiration,
and growth. It eases watery eye fatigue and may be helpful in the prevention and treatment of
cataracts.
General Science 58

Deficiency of vitamin B2 : A shortage of this vitamin may manifest itself as cracks and sores
at the corners of the mouth, eye disorders, inflammation of the mouth and tongue, and skin lesions.
Dermatitis, dizziness, hair loss, insomnia, light sensitivity, poor digestion, retarded growth, and
slow mental responses have also been reported. Burning feet can also be indicative of a shortage.
Food sources of vitamin B2 : Organ meats, nuts, cheese, eggs, milk and lean meat are great
sources of riboflavin, but are also available in good quantities in green leafy vegetables, fish,
legumes, whole grains, and yogurt.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin, Niacinamide, Nictonic Acid) : Required for cell respiration, helps in the
release of energy and metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, proper circulation and
healthy skin, functioning of the nervous system, and normal secretion of bile and stomach fluids.
It is used in the synthesis of sex hormones, treating schizophrenia and other mental illnesses, and
a memory-enhancer.
Deficiency of vitamin B3 : Shortage of niacin may be indicated with symptoms such as canker
sores, depression, diarrhea, dizziness, fatigue, halitosis, headaches, indigestion, insomnia, limb
pains, loss of appetite, low blood sugar, muscular weakness, skin eruptions, and inflammation.
Food sources of vitamin B3 : Lean meat, poultry, fish, rabbit, nuts, peanut yeast, meats including
liver, cereals, legumes, asparagus, seeds, milk, green leafy vegetables, and fish.
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) : Plays an important role in the secretion of hormones These
hormones assist the metabolism, help to fight allergies and are beneficial in the maintenance of
healthy skin, muscles and nerves.

AS
Deficiency of vitamin B5 : Vitamin B5 in short supply symptoms like fatigue, headaches,

I
nausea, tingling in the hands, depression, personality changes and cardiac instability have been
reported.

EN
ET
Food sources of vitamin B5 : Beef, brewer's yeast, eggs, fresh vegetables, kidney, legumes,
liver, mushrooms, nuts, pork, royal jelly, saltwater fish, torula yeast, whole rye flour, and whole
wheat.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) : Required for the balancing of hormonal changes in women as well
as assisting the immune system and the growth of new cells. It is also used in the processing and
metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, while assisting with controlling your behavior. It
also assists in the prevention of dandruff, eczema and psoriasis.
Deficiency of vitamin B6 : Irritability, nervousness and insomnia as well as general weakness,
skin changes such as dermatitis and acne as well asthma and allergies might develop when
pyridoxine is in short supply
Food sources of vitamin B6 : Brewer's yeast, eggs, chicken, carrots, fish, liver, kidneys, peas,
wheat germ, walnuts,
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid, Folacin, and Folate) : Required for DNA synthesis and cell growth
and is important for red blood cell formation, energy production as well as the forming of amino
acids. Folic acid is essential for creating heme, the iron containing substance in hemoglobin, crucial
for oxygen transport.
Deficiency of vitamin B9 : deficiency of folic acid on an unborn baby may increase the risk of
the baby being born with spina bifida and other serious defects of the nervous system. When
deficient of folic acid, you might suffer from fatigue, acne, a sore tongue, cracking at the corners of
your mouth. Long term deficiency may result in anemia and later in osteoporosis, as well as
cancer of the bowel and cervix.
59 General Science

Food sources of vitamin B9 : Fresh green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli contain
folic acid. It is also found in fruit, starchy vegetables, beans, whole grains and liver.
Vitamin B12 (Cynocobamine and Coboloamine) : Needed in the manufacture of red blood
cells and the maintenance of red blood cells and it stimulates appetite, promotes growth and
release energy. It is often used with older people to give an energy boost.
Deficiency of vitamin B12 : Symptoms of a deficiency will include a sore tongue, weakness,
fatigue, and weight loss, back pain and apathy. It might further result in loss of balance, decreased
reflexes, tingling of the fingers, ringing in the ears.
Food sources of vitamin B12 : Organ meat, muscle meat, shellfish, eggs, cheese, fish.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) : Required in the synthesis of collagen in connective tissue,
neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, carnitine, and conversion of cholesterol to bile acids and
enhances iron bioavailability.
Deficiency of vitamin C : Shortage of vitamin C may result in "pinpoint" hemorrhages under
the skin and a tendency to bruise easily, poor wound healing, soft and spongy bleeding gums and
loose teeth. Edema (water retention) also happens with a shortage of vitamin C, and weakness, a
lack of energy, poor digestion, painful joints and bronchial infection and colds are also indicative
of an under-supply
Food sources of vitamin C : Green leafy vegetables, berries, citrus fruits, guavas, tomatoes,
melons, papayas etc.

IAS
Vitamin D (Calciferol) : Helps with increasing the absorption of calcium, assists in bone
growth and the integrity of bone and promotes strong teeth.

N
Deficiency of vitamin D : Shortage can lead to softening of the bone and muscle twitching

E
and convulsions, and in children it causes rickets - resulting in bent legs. In adults, the shortage

ET
causes loss of minerals from the bones, osteomalacia and weak muscles.
Food sources of vitamin D : Fatty fish like kipper, sardines, salmon, tuna and mackerel, liver,
egg yolk and butter.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) : A powerful antioxidant, protects your cells from oxidation, and
neutralizes unstable free radicals,
Deficiency of vitamin E : Deficiency of Vitamin E is not common, and the symptoms not very
clear cut, but may include fatigue, inflamed varicose veins, wounds healing slowly, premature
aging and sub-fertility.
Food sources of vitamin E : Nuts, oils, vegetables, sunflower seeds, whole grains, spinach,
oils, seeds, wheat oils, asparagus, avocado, beef, seafood, apples, carrots, celery.
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) : Used in the body to control blood clotting and is essential for
synthesizing the liver protein that controls the clotting. It is involved in creating the important
prothrombin, which is the precursor to thrombin - a very important factor in blood clotting. It is
also involved in bone formation and repair. In the intestines it also assists in converting glucose to
glycogen
Deficiency of vitamin K : Deficiency of this vitamin in newborn babies results in hemorrhagic
disease, as well as postoperative bleeding and hematuria while muscle hematomas and inter-
cranial hemorrhages have been reported.
Food sources of vitamin K : Leafy vegetables (especially spinach and celery), cheese and
liver. It is also found in asparagus, coffee, bacon and green tea.
General Science 60

Water : Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating,
and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to
replace lost fluids.

Some additional information

Process of Digestion in human body
Region in which Name of the secretion Enzyme/s Substate Optimal pH Products formed
digestion takes and its source
place
Mouth salivary saliva, salivary glands Salivary amylase Starch 6.8 Maltose (disaccharide)
digestion via dextrins
Stomach : gastric Gastric juice; gastric Pepsinogen (inactive) Protein 1.5 to 2.0 Peptones via acid
digestion glands chiefly of fundus +HCl®Pepsin (active) metaproteins and proteose
Prorennin (inactive) Milk protein 1.5 to 2.0 Milk clot in the form
+ H+®Rennin (active) caseinogen of calcium paracaseinate
Lipase and whey protein later
digested by pepsin
Light fat 1.5 to 2.0 Fatty acids and glycerol
like cream
Intestine : intestinal Pancreatic juice Protein splitting Protein 8.0 Polypeptides via ......
(pancreatic acini in trypsinogen (inactive) metaproteins, proteose
part of pancreas + enterokinase from and peptones

S
duodenal mucosa®

A
Trypsin

N I Chymotrypsinogen
(inactive) + trypsin
do do do

E
® Chymotrypsin

ET
Carboxypeptidase Polypeptide do amino acids
Carbohydrate splitting
Pancreatice amylase ss 8.0 Maltose (sugar) via dextrirs
(amylopsin)
Maltase Maltose do Glucose+glucose
Lactase Lactose do Glucose+galactose
Sucrase Sucrose do Glucose+fructose
Fat splitting Lipase Fat do Fatty acids+glycerol
Bile, Liver No enzyme; instead
contains bile salts
which
(i) activate lipases
(ii) emulsify fats for – 7.1 to 7.3
better action of lipase
(iii) render fat soluble
substances water
soluble
Intestinal juice Protein splitting Polypeptides 8.0 Amino acids
(succus entericus); Erepsin : a group of 8.0 and short
intestinal glands peptidasess peptides
Carbohydrate
splitting
Maltase Maltose do 2 mols. of glucose
Lactase Lactose do glucose+galactose
Sucrase Sucrose do glucose+fructose
Fat splitting Lipase Fat do Fatty acids+glyclrol
61 General Science

Requirement of Vitamin
Vitamin A 5000 I.U. Pantothenic Acid 10 mg
Vitamin B-complex Vitamin C or 75 mg
Ascorbic Acid
Thiamine 1.5 mg
Riboflavin 1.8 mg Vitamin D 400 I.U.
Niacin 18 mg Vitamin K none
Vitamin B6 2 mg
Vitamin B12 0.003 mg

Requirement of Minerals
Na : 4 to 8 g as NaCl Fe : 5 to 15 mg
K : 4.0 g Cu : 2 mg
Ca : 1.0 g P : 0.88 g
Mg : 0.27 g Cl : 4 to 8 g as NaCl
I : 0.25 mg

Requirement of Energy
1. A sedentary worker (clerk)
(i) 8 hours sleep (8×72)

IAS
(ii) Stimulating action of food
576 kcal
50 kcal

EN
(iii) 8 hours of basal metabolism 576 kcal

ET
(a) 7 hours of minor activities (7×40) 280 kcal
(b) 1 hour of exercise 240 kcal
(iv) 8 hour of work [576 basal+(8×50)] 976 kcal
2,698 kcal
2. An active worker (carpenter/labourer)
(i) 8 hours sleep (8×72) 576 kcal
(ii) Stimulating action of food 50 kcal
(iii) 8 hours of work (8×240) 1920 kcal
(iv) 2 hours of light work (2×150) 300 kcal
(v) 6 hours of sitting at rest (6×100) 600 kcal
3,446 kcal

Practice Questions
1. Scurvy can be prevented by the intake of :
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B
(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D
2. The richest source of Vitamin A is :
(a) orange (b) apple
(c) egg (d) meat
General Science 62

3. The available source of energy in all living cells are the molecules of :
(a) glucose
(b) proteins
(c) ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
(d) ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
4. Which of the following is essential for the formation of red blood cells?
(a) Vitamin C (b) Folic acid
(c) Calcium (d) Vitamin A
5. Mango contains vitamins :
(a) A and B (b) B and C
(c) A and C (d) B and E
6. Banana fruit contains mainly :
(a) glucose (b) starch
(c) fat (d) proteins
7. Body proteins function is to :
(a) build connective tissue and cartilage
(b) transport oxygen in blood and muscles
(c)
(d) all the above

IAS
catalyze biological reactions as enzymes

N
8. Which of the following is most important for the growth of children up to the age of 14?

9.
(a)
(c)
protein
fat

ETE
A person suffering from beriberi should take :
(a) enpolished rice, green vegetables, yeast
(b)
(d)
vitamin
milk

(b) egg, yolk, fish, green vegetables

(c) citrus fruit, mangoes, grapes
(d) sweet potato, meat and milk
10. Deficiency of iron in human diet causes :
(a) goitre (b) scurvy
(c) anaemia (d) rickets

Respiration
Respiration
All living organisms respire. In fact, respiration is one of the basic characteristics of living
organisms so that if an object does not respire, it is considered non-living. All living organisms
and their component tissues and organs (in case of multicellular organisms) are involved in diverse
activities all the time. For all these activities, energy is required which is made available through
the process of respiration. Not only this, respiration is also the source of cabon-skeletons (small
organic molecules) that are required for the synthesis of other complex biomolecules that make
up the body of the organism.

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

IAS
The living organisms can be broadly classified into two categories depending on their

N
requirement for oxygen (O2) for the process of respiration. Those organisms that require oxygen

E
for their respiration are called aerobes and the process is called aerobic respiration whereas those

ET
organisms that do not require oxygen are called anaerobes and the process referred to us anaerobic
respiration or fermentation.
All eukaryotes (organisms whose body cells have a well-defined nucleus), as a rule, are aerobes.
However, some primitive (unicellular) eukaryotes, like yeasts, can respire anaerobically when
oxygen is not available. Such organisms, that are normally aerobes, are called facultative anaerobes.
Prokaryotes, on the other hand, could be either aerobes or anaerobes.

Respiration in Plants
Like all other organisms, plants also respire. However, unlike most animals, plants do not
have special respiratory systems. Respiration in plants, therefore, occurs in all living cells of their
body, including the underground roots. The oxygen for their respiration diffuses through the
stomata in the leaves or simply through the general cell surface.
Like other organisms, usually carbohydrates are used during respiration in plants. The basic
raw material for the process is the simple sugar glucose. All other forms of carbohydrates are,
therefore, first converted or broken down to glucose which enters an enzymatically controlled
series of reactions, called glycolysis (sugar breakdown).
In anaerobic bacteria and in the facultative anaerobes among eukaryotes, pyruvic acid is further
converted (reduced) to either an acid (lactic acid) or an alcohol (ethyl alcohol). This process is
called fermentation, that is, lactic acid fermentation or alcoholic fermentation. During this process
no ATP is produced. Thus, only 2 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule are produced during
anaerobic respiration.
General Science 64

Among most eukaryotes (except the facultative anaerobes), the pyruvic acid is transported to
the mitochondria where it is completely oxidised to carbon Pyruvic acid dioxide and water,
producing a large amount of energy in the form of ATP. It is during this oxidation within the
mitochondria that oxygen is used up. During this process of aerobic respiration, 36 to 38 ATP
molecules are produced from a glucose molecule, whereas only 2 ATP molecules are produced
through anaerobic respiration. Thus aerobic respiration is comparatively a much more efficient
process of energy transduction and, therefore, all higher organisms respire aerobically.

Respiration-Gaseous Exchange and Energy Production

The complex food molecules, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are enzymatically broken down
into their simplest constituents, viz. glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids and glycerol respectively.
These nutrients, after being absorbed by the cells of the small intestine, eventually reach the various
cells of the body by blood via hepatic-portal and systemic circulation. What is indeed required for
the oxidation of nutrients to produce energy is oxygen. This is where the respiratory system comes
into play.
Breathing is a very important aspect of respiration. It is referred to as the mechanical process
of taking atmospheric air into the respiratory organs such as lungs and giving out CO2 from them.
The oxygen that is inhaled diffuses across the pulmonary alveoli into the blood capillaries and is
then transported by the blood to the site of the tissue cells. It is this oxygen that is utilised to
oxidise completely the various nutrients producing CO2, water and energy. This latter aspect of
respiration is called internal or cellular respiration. On the other hand, the mere exchange of gases

Respiratory Media
IAS
between the lungs and blood is called external respiration.

EN
Oxygen is derived from two distinct sources: free available oxygen from the atmosphere and
oxygen dissolved in the water for aquatic organism.

Respiratory System in Insects

ET
Insects have no concentrated respiratory organs. Instead, insects use a system of tracheae,
thin channels that run through their body, to improve simple diffusion and let air flow more
freely throughout the organism. Spiracles are small holes that open to the outside of the body and
allow air in. These can be found along the abdomen and thorax of the insect body but never on the
head. These can control the amount of air that is let into the insect.

Organization of the Respiratory System in Humans

The respiratory system consists of the following: (i) The nasal cavity in which air' in which the
sense of smell operates; (ii) the nostrils; (iii) the mouth; (iv) the pharynx, a common area in the,
back of the mouth through which air, food and drinks pass; (v) the larynx, or voice box; (vi) the
trachea, an air tube that connects with the bronchi; (vii) the right main bronchus and the left main
bronchus tubes that carry air to and from the lungs; (viii) the bronchioles, branches of the bronchi
which distribute air to the alveoli; (ix) the terminal bronchiole; (x) the respiratory bronchioles; (xi)
the alveolar ducts; (xii) the alveoli, terminal sacs in which gas exchange occurs and (xiii) the
diaphragm.
The right and left bronchioles, terminal bronchroles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts
and alveoli form the right and left lungs, respectively. The trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and
terminal bronchioles make up the conducting zone. The respiratory bronchioles. alveolar ducts
and alveoli make up the respiratory zone. The pulmonary blood vessels generally accompany the
airways and also undergo numerous branchings. The pulmonary circulation has a very low
65 General Science

resistance as compared to the systemic circulation, and thus, all the pressures within the pulmonary
blood vessels are low. Air is moved in and out of the lungs by the movements of the rib cage and
diaphragm, which expand the lungs to draw in air and compress the lungs to drive out air.
Generally, air moves out of the lungs as a result of the elastic recoil of lung tissue.

Functions of the Respiratory System

The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange, in an average resting adult, the
lungs take up about 250 ml of oxygen every minute while excreting about 200 ml of carbon dioxide.
The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows us to speak, or phonate. The
large surface area of the respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes and the respiratory
system includes many mechanisms to defend it and prevent pathogens from entering the body.

Automatic Control of Breathing (in Humans)

Nerves form a breathing control centre in the medulla oblongata of the brain as it sends impulses
to the diaphragm and rib muscles, stimulating them to contract and, thus, making us inhale.
When we are at rest, these nerves send out impulses that result in about 10 to 14 inhalations per
minute. Between inhalations, the muscles relax and we exhale. A Control centre in 'pons' (brain)
modulates the basic rhythm sent by medulla, smoothing out the transitions between inhalations
and exhalations.The medulla's control centre also helps in regulating the carbon dioxide level of
the blood. Sensors of medulla itself detect changes in the pH level (a measure of CO2) of the blood
and cerebrospinal fluid bathing the surface of the brain.

1.
IAS
Practice Questions
Which of the following donot require oxygen for their Respiration
(a) Aerobic

EN (b) Anaerobic

ET
(c) Eukaryotes (d) Prokaryotes
2. Which of the following is the Raw material for the process of Respiration in plants
(a) Carbohydrates (b) Sugar Glucose
(c) Both of these (d) None of them
3. In the process of pyruvic acid is converted to either or an alcohal.
(a) Fermentation (b) Respiration
(c) Aerobic Respiration (d) None of these
4. During Aerobic Respiration how many ATP molecules are produced
(a) 30-34 (b) 39-45
(c) 36-38 (d) 38-40
5. Insects use thin channels for the respiration which are named as
(a) Spiracles (b) Therax
(c) Fracheal (d) Hemolymph
6. Which of the following is not a part of human respiratory system
(a) Nostrils (b) Pharynx
(c) Larynx (d) None of these
7. How much oxygen is inhaled by lungs every minute
(a) 250 ml (b) 200 ml
(c) 150 ml (d) 300 ml
General Science 66

8. How much CO2 is exereted by the human lungs in every minute

(a) 250 ml (b) 200 ml
(c) 150 ml (d) 300 ml
9. Which of the brain controls the Respiratory system in humans
(a) Medulla oblongata (b) Cerebral Penduncle
(c) Middle Peduncle (d) Cerebulum

IAS
EN
ET
67 General Science

Transportation in Plants & Animals

All plants need water. The wilted leaves recover when water is added to the soil, which means
that water has been conducted upward into the leaves. You have also learnt that the leaves for
photosynthesis need water. Likewise, the food produced in the leaves has to be transported to
other parts of the plant including
the stem, the roots flowers and fruits etc. All this transportation is the function of conducting
tissues. Similarly, in animals, the food absorbed by the gut has to be carried to all the body parts,
oxygen absorbed in the lungs has to be transported to every cell of the body, the carbon dioxide
produced in the cells has to be carried to the lungs for elimination, and the poisonous body wastes

S
like urea has to be transported to the kidneys for elimination in urine, and so on. All such functions

A
are the outcome of a transport system.

N I
Mechanisms for movement of molecules

E
Molecules move in and out of a cell through the cell membrane, which forms the boundary of

ET
each cell. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to substances, which means that it permits
entry and exit of certain molecules only. The movement of molecules takes place by diffusion,
osmosis, and active transport

Diffusion
Molecules move out from their region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration. For example, during respiration, oxygen-laden air in lungs being at a higher
concentration moves into blood capillaries having lower concentration of oxygen in them. Such
movement of particles or molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration is termed diffusion.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region having more water molecules to a
region having less water molecules when separated by a semi permeable membrane. Semi
permeable membrane means a membrane, which allows some molecules (e.g. water molecules)
to pass through it but not some other larger molecules. No energy is spent during diffusion or
osmosis.

Active transport
In active transport, molecules have to move (against concentration gradient) i.e., from a region
of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration. Energy is required in active
transport.
General Science 68

Transport of materials in plants

Transport of water
Roots of plants take up water and minerals from the soil. How does this water move up from
roots to leaves for needs like photosynthesis? Tracheids and vessels which are non-living cells of
xylem, transport water picked up by root hairs from soil to the leaves. The upward movement of
water and minerals termed 'ascent of sap' is against gravity and is due to transpiration pull.
Transpiration is the process in which a lot of water evaporates (as water vapour) from pores on
the surface of leaf called stomata. This evaporation creates a vacuum and pulls up water through
the xylem.

Transport of food material

Sugars and other food molecules synthesized in the leaves are transported to other parts of
the plant through phloem. Sieve tubes are living cells of the phloem, which transport food.
Transport of food material from leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation. This food
may be stored in fruits, stem or roots.
Transport of materials in animals
In the body of majority of animals, substances are transported from one part of the body to
another through blood. Thus blood is the "tissue for transport" and circulates throughout the
body. Circulatory system consists of organs, which make blood circulate throughout the body.
Blood transports nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones and waste material from one part of the
body to another.

Human circulatory system

IAS
N
Human circulatory system consists of :

E
ET
(i) centrally located muscular pump called heart, and
(ii) Blood vessels, which are tube-like structures, connected to the heart.
Blood vessels are of three kinds :
l Arteries : Carry blood from heart to various parts of body.
l Veins : Bring blood from various parts of body to the heart.
l Capillaries : Thin vessels between the artery and the vein. The capillaries allow the
exchange of materials between blood and tissues.
Heart
(a) Structure : Heart is a powerful muscular organ lying between lungs in the upper part of
thorax of our body. It is four-chambered- two (right and left) atria (also called auricles), and
two (right and left) ventricles. The heart is made of specialized muscle cells (also called
cardiac muscle fibers), which contract and relax all the time without getting tired. The
contraction and relaxation follows a rhythm called heartbeat to pump blood into the vessels.
Rhythmic heart beat results in the proper transport of substances to the various organs. In
one minute, normal human heart beats about 72 times. Abnormalities in heartbeat can be
seen by taking ECG or Electrocardiography.
(b) Functions of heart : A large vein, the vena cava collects impure or deoxygenated blood
(blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide) through veins from all parts of the body
and empties into the right atrium. At the same time vein from the lungs brings oxygen-
laden blood to left atrium. At this time all the four chambers of the heart are relaxed. Then
the atria contract and impure blood (blood full of carbon-dioxide) from right atrium enters
69 General Science

the right ventricle and purified blood (blood full of oxygen) from left atrium enters the left
ventricle. Valves within the heart prevent blood from flowing back. Next, the ventricles
contract while the atria relax. Blood to be purified is transported to the lungs from right
ventricle through two pulmonary arteries. The oxygen laden blood from the left ventricle
gets pumped into a large artery called aorta. It carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body. You must have noticed that veins bring impure blood to the heart and the arteries
take the pure blood away from the heart. But here are two exceptions - the pulmonary
artery carries impure blood and the pulmonary vein carries pure blood.

Blood
Blood is a connective tissue that circulates throughout the body. It is made up of a fluid medium
called plasma in which float three types of blood cells, called red blood cells, white blood cells and
blood platelets. Blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow.
(a) Red blood cells (RBC or Erythrocytes)
l These are circular in shape, and contain a red coloured pigment called haemoglobin
l No nucleus is present in RBCs
l RBC carries oxygen to tissues and brings back carbon dioxide from tissues
l About 5 million mm3erythrocytes occur in circulating blood
(b) White blood cells (WBC or Leucocytes)
l In the circulating blood 5000 to 7000 mm3 WBCs are present
l
l

I
WBC has irregular shape

AS
Since they carry no pigments, therefore, they so are colourless

They prevent body from infections by eating up germs or by producing antibodies

N
l

E
(c) Blood platelets (Thrombocytes)

ET
l These are very small fragments of cells
l They have no nuclei
l They participate in clotting of blood
Functions of blood : Blood carries nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones and waste
material to the relevant parts of the body. Some medicines when taken in the body are also
distributed through blood.
Blood Groups and Blood Transfusion
You must have heard that blood has to be arranged for a person undergoing a surgery
(operation) or in the case of an accident. This arrangement is to replace blood lost from the patient.
Injecting blood into the body from outside is called blood transfusion. Blood transfusion is
successful only when the blood of donor (who gives blood) and of the recipient (who receives
blood) match. Unmatched blood transfusion causes agglutination (clumping together) of red cells
due to which the recipient may even die. Blood of all human beings belongs to one of four blood
groups named A, B, AB and O. the blood group is inherited from parents.
Lymphatic System
Lymph is also a circulatory fluid and flows in the lymph vessels.
l It is light yellow in colour.
l It always flows only in one direction from tissues to heart.
l Cells called lymphocytes present in lymph eat up germs and prevent body from
infections.
General Science 70

l Lymph carries digested fats from intestine to other parts.

l It returns proteins and fluid from circulation to tissues.
Disorders related to Circulatory System
1. Heart attack : Like all other organs, heart also needs food and oxygen. When arteries
supplying the heart become thick due to age or faulty diet consisting of excessive fatty food,
muscle cells of the heart cannot beat in the proper rhythm. Heart attack occurs which can be
detected in an abnormal ECG and there are methods of treatment.
2. Anaemia : When haemoglobin level falls below a certain point the condition is called anaemia.
It makes the person weak and looks pale and inactive. Iron in the diet helps remove anaemia.
3. Leukemia : This is blood cancer. The bone narrow makes excessive WBCs at the cost of
RBCs.
4. Hypertension : It is high blood pressure and leads to headache, dizziness and fatigue. Normal
blood pressure is 120/80. High blood pressure is caused by anxiety also. Proper diet, exercise,
medicines and tension free mind helps to cure high blood pressure.

Important Points to Remember

l Molecules move in and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis or active transport.
l Diffusion is movement of molecules from region of their higher concentration to the region
of their lower concentration.
l
lower concentration.

IAS
In osmosis, water molecules move from their region of higher concentration to that of their

In active transport, molecules move against concentration gradient. Energy is required for

N
l

E
active transport.

ET
l In plants, water is absorbed from soil by root hairs and reach leaves and other parts through
xylem vessels.
l Tracheids and vessels are cells of xylem. They are non-living.
l Ascent of sap is facilitated by transpiration pull.
l Food in plants is translocated by phloem.
l Sieve tubes, the cells of phloem are living structures.
l In most animals, blood circulates through heart and blood vessels to reach all parts of body.
l Blood flowing through the body transports food, nutrients, oxygen, hormones, metabolic
waste and carbon dioxide.
l Heart in humans is four-chambered, two upper chambers are called atria and lower chambers
are ventricles.
l Heart is made of cardiac muscle fibres.
l Heart pumps blood into blood vessels for transport by relaxing and contracting in a rhythmic
manner called heartbeat.
l Heartbeat is recorded as ECG or Electrocardiogram.
l Of the blood vessels, artery carries blood away from heart, vein carries blood towards heart.
Capillaries are thin blood-vessels between an artery and a vein.
l Blood is made of plasma, a fluid and three types of blood cells called RBC, WBC and blood
platelets (cell fragments).
71 General Science

l RBCs are circular, non nucleated and carry respiratory gases. They contain a red pigment,
haemoglobin.
l WBCs are colourless and of varied shape. They protect the body from infections.
l Blood platelets play a role in blood clotting.
l Blood transfusion can save life when blood loss occurs due to accident or surgery.
l Every human being belongs to one of four blood groups: A, B, AB and O.
l Blood transfusion can be between matching blood groups. O group is universal donor and
AB blood group is universal recipient.
l Lymphatic system is made of lymph vessels in which a colourless fluid called lymph flows.
l Lymph flows only from tissues to heart and serves to transport proteins and digested fat.

Practice Questions
1 Which type of blood vessel has thick walls in order to withstand high pressure?
(a) vein (b) artery
(c) arteriole (d) capillary
2. Use the following characteristics to answer the question: o one-way valves o thin elastic
layer o near skeletal muscle, these characteristics describe which type of vessel?
(a) vein (b) artery

3.
(c) arteriole

IAS (d) capillary

Blood vessels that allow diffusion of gases through their thin walls are the
(a) arteries

EN (b) venules

ET
(c) arterioles (d) capillaries
4. The main function of capillaries is to :
(a) return blood to the heart
(b) prevents the backflow of blood
(c) takes blood away from the heart
(d) exchange nutrients and wastes with tissues
5. Which of the following blood vessels has a thin elastic layer?
(a) Aorta (b) Pulmonary artery
(c) Posterior vena cava (d) Mesenteric capillary
6. Capillary beds are equipped with sphincter muscles in order to :
(a) prevents the backflow of blood
(b) expands and recoil with each heart beat
(c) diverts blood toward areas of increased metabolic activity
(d) hold blood in the beds until nutrient and waste exchange is complete
7. Which of the following best describes a vein?
(a) Thin-walled, elastic, and equipped with valves
(b) Thick-walled, elastic, and equipped with valves
(c) Thin-walled, muscular, and supplied with nerves
(d) Thick-walled, muscular, and supplied with nerves
General Science 72

8. The function of an artery is to :

(a) transport blood toward the heart
(b) transport blood away from the heart
(c) connects the right and left atria directly
(d) carries carbon dioxide to the tissue cells
9. A blood vessel that transports blood out of a capillary bed is a (n) :
(a) vein (b) artery
(c) venules (d) arteriole
10. The most muscular chamber of the heart is the :
(a) left atrium (b) right atrium
(c) left ventricle (d) right ventricle
11. Based on its function, the heart is often referred to as a "double pump". Which of the
following would explain this?
(a) The heart has two sets of valves
(b) The heart is controlled by both nerves and hormones
(c) The heart moves blood through two circulatory pathways
(d) The heart moves blood containing both nutrients and wastes
12.
(a) atria

I S
The structures attached to the atrioventricular valves are called

A (b) pulmonary veins

N
(c) semi lunar valves (d) chordae tendineae
13.
(a)
(b)
ETE
The main function of the valves in the heart is to
prevent back-flow of blood
divide the heart into four chambers
(c) control the volume of blood leaving the heart
(d) control the volume of blood entering the heart
14. Blood leaves the right ventricle via the :
(a) aorta (b) pulmonary trunk
(c) coronary arteries (d) anterior vena cava
15. An irregular heartbeat where contraction of the atria does not always result in contraction
of the ventricles, likely indicates a problem with the :
(a) SA node (b) AV node
(c) AV valve (d) semi lunar valve
16. A condition called tachycardia exists when a person's heart rate is abnormally high. Which
of the following explains how tachycardia may arise?
(a) The Purkinje fibres are over-stimulating the pacemaker
(b) The sinoatrial (SA) node is receiving increased stimulation
(c) There is increased stimulation by the parasympathetic nervous system
(d) Impulses from the sinoatrial (SA) node are not reaching the atrioventricular
(AV) node
73 General Science

17. The atrioventricular (AV) node stimulates the :

(a) aorta (b) Purkinje fibers
(c) sinoatrial (SA) node (d) atrioventricular valves
18. The coordinating structure responsible for an intrinsic heart beat is the :
(a) cerebellum (b) sinoatrial node
(c) chordae tendineae (d) sympathetic nervous system
19. What happens during atrial diastole?
(a) Atria fill with blood (b) Semi-lunar valves close
(c) Ventricles fill with blood (d) Atrioventricular valvesopen
20. Use the following information to answer the question.
1. Systole of the ventricles.
2. Opening of the atrio-ventricular valves.
3. Electricalimpulse sent from the SA node.
4. Atria fill with blood.
The order in which the events above occur during one heartbeat (the cardiac cycle) is :
(a) 2, 1, 3, 4 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(c) 4, 1, 3, 2 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1

S
21. The blood vessels that carry blood to and from the head are the
(a)
(b)
IA
iliac arteries and veins
subclavian arteries and veins

N
E
(c) carotid arteries and jugular veins

ET
(d) anterior (superior) and posterior (inferior) vena cavae
22. The path followed by blood on one circuit through the heart is :
(a) ventricle, atrioventricular valve, semilunar valve, atrium
(b) atrium,atrioventricular valve, ventricle, semilunar valve
(c) atrium, ventricle, atrioventricular valve, semilunar valve
(d) atrium, semilunar valve, ventricle, atrioventricular valve
23. Which of the following is a characteristic of pulmonary circulation?
(a) Blood leaves the heart via the aorta
(b) Blood in the arteries isdeoxygenated
(c) Blood in the veins is travelling to the lungs
(d) Blood in capillaries absorbs high levels of carbon dioxide
24. The blood vessel that carries blood from the lungs to the heart is the :
(a) coronary vein (b) coronary artery
(c) pulmonary vein (d) pulmonaryartery
General Science 74

Answers
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1. (b) 2. (a)
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11. (c) 12. (d)
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13. (a) 14. (b)
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15. (b) 16. (b)
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19. (a) 20. (d)
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21. (c) 22. (b)
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23. (b) 24. (c)
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75 General Science

Excretory System

Excretion, Osmoregulation and Thermoregulation

Excretion, osmoregulation and thermoregulation are three important homeo static processes
occurring in living organisms, helping them to maintain a constant internal environment or steady
state. Osmoregulation deals with how animals regulate solute balance and the gain and loss of
water. Excretion is how they get rid of the nitrogen containing waste product of metabolism, such
as urea. Thermoregulation is how they maintain internal temperature within tolerable range.

Excretion in Plants

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Plants manufacture only as much protein as required to satisfy their immediate demand there

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is never an excess of protein and therefore, very little excretion of nitrogenous waste substance.
Three of the waste substance, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water, produces by certain metabolic

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activities in plants, are raw material (reactants) for other reaction and thus, escape from plants

ET
into the environment by diffusion or transpiration. Aquatic plants lose most of the metabolic
waste by diffusion directly into the water surrounding them. Many organic waste products of
plants are stored within dead permanent tissues such as 'heardwood' of witin leaves or bark,
which are removed periodically

Excretion in Animals
The following structures are used for excretion in different animals:
l The cells surface membrane of unicellular organisms
l The malphigian tubules and tracheae of arthropods,
l The kidneys, liver, gills and skin of fish and amphibian
l The kidneys, livers, lungs ad skin of vertebrates

Excretory system in Humans

The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary or
dangerous materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism
and prevent damage to the body. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of
metabolism as well as other liquid and gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce
metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system; however,
the organs specifically for the excretion process are considered a part of the excretory system. The
excretory system gets rid of waste by urine or "pee".
General Science 76

Component organs
Skin
Excretion by definition is passive and deals with metabolic wastes as filtered by the kidneys.
Though the sweat may contain a trace amount of metabolic wastes, sweating is an active process
of secretion not excretion, specifically for temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore,
its role as a part of the excretory system is minimal at best. Specifically, the skin secretes a fluid
waste called sweat, or perspiration.

Lungs
The lungs and gills of organisms constantly secrete gaseous wastes from the bloodstream as a
regular part of respiration.

Kidneys
In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They grow and can become a painful
irritant that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small enough to be
forced into the urethra.
Kidneys perform several homeostatic functions :
1. Maintain volume of extra cellular fluid
2. Maintain ionic balance in extra cellular fluid
3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extra cellular fluid.
4.
Defecation
IAS
Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.

EN
Organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material (feces) from the digestive tract
via the anus during the process of defecation. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis

ET
in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum.
Undigested food may also be expelled this way; this process is called egestion. These are the
primary excretory organs throwing out excretory products (UREA) in the form of urine.

Ureter
In human anatomy, the ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the
urinary bladder. In the adult, the ureters are usually 25-30 cm (10-12 in) long. In humans, the
ureters arise from the renal pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards
the bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The ureters cross the pelvic brim near the
bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a common
site for the impaction of kidney stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters run
posteriorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis. They then curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder
through the back, at the vesicoureteric junction, running within the wall of the bladder for a few
centimeters. The backflow of urine is prevented by valves known as ureterovesical valves. In the
female, the ureters pass through the mesometrium on the way to the urinary bladder.

Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal
by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor.
Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.
Embryo logically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus and, it is initially continuous
with the allantois. In males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic
77 General Science

symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the rectovesical
excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is
separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children, the
urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.

Urethra
In anatomy, the urethra (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder
to the outside of the body. The urethra has an excretory function in both sexes to pass urine to the
outside, and also a reproductive function in the male, as a passage for semen during sexual activity.

Urine Formation
First, the blood goes through the afferent artery, to the capillaries called glomerulus, to the
Bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule squeezes the blood from its contents-primarily food
and wastes. After the squeezing process, the blood will then come back to get the food nutrients it
need. The wastes will then go to the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, which
will be then secreted out of the body.

Practice Questions
1. Which structure carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body?
(a) ureter (b) urethra
(c) renal pelvis (d) collecting duct
2. Urine is stored in the :
(a) ureter
IAS (b) kidney
(c) urethra

EN (d) urinary bladder

ET
3. Excretion can be defined as the removal of :
(a) toxins from the blood
(b) bacteria from the body
(c) metabolic wastes from the body
(d) excessred blood cells from the blood
4. The function of the ureter is to :
(a) produce urine
(b) reabsorb water
(c) transport urine from the kidney
(d) store urine until it can be released
5. Which of the following is not a function of the kidneys?
(a) Maintaining a constant blood pH
(b) Producing urea from protein metabolism
(c) Removing metabolic wastes from the blood
(d) Regulating the amount of water in the body
6. Which of the following structures would not be considered an organ of excretion?
(a) Skin (b) Liver
(c) Colon (d) Small intestine
General Science 78

7. Production of urea occurs in the :

(a) skin (b) liver
(c) lungs (d) kidneys
8. Which of the following metabolic wastes is excreted by the skin?
(a) Bile (b) Urea
(c) Uric acid (d) Carbon dioxide
9. The composition of the filtrate in the Bowman's capsule is determined by :
(a) pH (b) enzymes
(c) temperature (d) molecular size
10. Movement of fluids from the glomerulus to Bowman's capsule is due to :
(a) osmosis (b) secretion
(c) active transport (d) pressure filtration

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79 General Science

Neurology

Nervous System
The organ system in an animal that serves to coordinate and control the functioning of all
other organ systems in the body is known as nervous system. Nervous system works with the
endocrine system to communicate, integrate and coordinate the functions of various organs and
systems in our body and helps the body to respond to the external stimuli. In humans, the nervous
system has two main divisions:
l The central nervous system (CNS)
l The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is regarded as the 'thinker' or

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'information processor' in the body.

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The peripheral nervous system includes the sensory and motor nerves and connects the central

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nervous system with the sense organs, muscles and glands of the body. The peripheral nervous

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system is regarded as 'actor' or 'performer' in the body.
General Science 80

Nerve cell or neuron

A neuron is the basic unit of nervous tissue. Our nervous system contains about 10 billion
nerve cells, which communicate with each other in a specific manner.

Structure of the neuron

Each neuron has a central area called the cell body or cyton. The cell body has a large central
nucleus and cytoplasm. Several short, thread like branches called dendrites arise from the cell
body. One branch arising out of the cell body is very long in comparison to others. This branch is
called axon or nerve fibre. Axon may or may not be covered by a fatty sheath called myelin sheath.
This covering is missing at intervals. These gaps on the sheath are known as nodes of Ranvier.

Types of neurons
i. Sensory neurons: which transmit impulse from receptor (sense organ) to coordinator (brain
or spinal cord).
ii. Motor neurons: which transmit impulse from modulator to effectors (muscle or glands).
iii. Connecting neurons: which connect sensory and motor neurons, found in the grey matter.

Nerves
Nerves are thread like structures, which emerge from brain and spinal cord and branch out to
almost all parts of the body. The nerves are composed of axons or nerve fibres bundled together
like the strands of an electric cable

Kinds of nerves

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There are three kinds of nerves. These are :
i.

ii.
ETE
Sensory nerves : These nerves contain sensory fibres. Sensory nerves bring impulse from
sense organs to the brain or the spinal cord.
Motor nerves : These nerves contain motor fibres. Motor nerves carry impulse from brain or
spinal cord to the effectors organ like muscle or glands.
iii. Mixed nerves : These nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres and perform a
mixed function.

Functions of the Nervous System

The nervous system functions in a coordinated manner. It receives a stimulus through a receptor
organ like eye, ear, tongue, etc. The stimulus through sensory nerves reaches the brain and spinal
cord, which integrates it and give action. The motor nerves pass on the action to the required
organ (muscle or gland) and this way a response is generated.

Nerve Impulse
What is an impulse?
Let us understand this by an example. Suppose your finger is pricked, you have felt the
sensation. Then your brain senses the prick and generates a response and you withdraw your
hand. This flow of message through the nerve is called impulse. Nerve impulse upon generation
passes along a neuron in only one direction. The neuron is connected to a sensory receptor that
receives the message or stimulus and converts it into electrochemical waves. These electrochemical
waves are carried by the neuron. The stimulus from the receptor organ is received by the dendrites,
conducted to cell body (cyton) of the neuron and finally to the effectors organ.
81 General Science

Synapse
The axon of one neuron is close to the dendrites of cell body of the next neuron. This junction
of two neurons is called synapse. There is a space at the synapse between the end of axon of first
neuron and cell body or dendrite of the next neuron. This is called synaptic cleft. Through the
synapse the impulse passes from one neuron to the next neuron. There are many synapses between
the millions of nerve cells. When the impulse reaches the end of axon of first neuron, a
neurotransmitter (a chemical substance) is released in the synaptic cleft of the synapse, which
helps in passage of nerve impulse from one neuron to the next neuron.
What does a synapse do?
l It allows the information to pass from one neuron to another.
l It ensures the passage of nerve impulse in one direction only.
l It helps in information processing by combining the effects of all impulses received.
l It filters out low-level stimuli.
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord
Brain
The human brain is a highly developed organ situated in the skull. It weighs about 1200-1400g
in an adult. It has three main parts:
l Cerebrum
l Cerebellum
l Medulla oblongata

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(a) Cerebrum : The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part of the brain. Among all
vertebrates cerebrum of humans is most highly developed. It is divided into left and right

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hemispheres by a deep median longitudinal groove. Each hemisphere contains two regions - the

ET
outer region and the inner region. The outer region of cerebrum contains grey matter, which
contains cell bodies of the neuron. The inner region of cerebrum contains white matter, which
contains nerve fibres or axons of the neurons.
The cerebrum performs the following functions :
i. It governs our mental abilities like thinking, reasoning, learning, memorizing and
intelligence.
ii. It controls our will, emotions and speech.
iii. It controls feeling of love, admiration and hatred.
iv. It controls all involuntary functions.
(b) Cerebellum : It is a small area of brain lying below the mid-brain which is under the large
cerebrum. Like cerebrum, it also has grey matter in its outer region and white matter in the inner
region.The cerebellum performs the following functions:
i. It maintains equilibrium (balance) of the body.
ii. It controls posture of the body.
iii. It coordinates muscular movement.
(c) Medulla oblongata : It is the lowermost part of the brain located at the base of the skull.
The medulla oblongata performs the following functions:
i. It controls the internal organs like movement of lungs, heart etc., by regulating
breathing and heart-beat.
ii. It controls vital reflex centres such as cardiac centre, respiratory centre and centres for
swallowing, sneezing, coughing and vomiting.
General Science 82

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long cord that extends from the medulla oblongata and continues
downward inside the vertebral column. Spinal cord has within it a narrow canal and this central
canal of the spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The arrangement of the grey and white
matter is just reversed in the spinal cord.
The grey matter lies on the inner side while the white matter on the outer side.
The spinal cord performs the following functions :
i. It controls the reflexes below the neck region.
ii. It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain.
iii. It conducts motor response from brain to the muscles of trunk and limbs.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system includes nerves that carry impulse to and from the central
nervous system. These nerves are of two types:
l Afferent or sensory nerves, which carry information from sensory receptors into central
nervous system.
l Efferent or motor nerves which carry information from the central nervous system to the
effectors organ.
The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into two systems :

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(a) Somatic nervous system : It receives and processes information from receptors in the skin,

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voluntary muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, tongue, nose and ears and thus gives an organism the
sensation of touch, pain, heat, cold, balance, sight, taste, smell and sound. It also controls voluntary

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actions like movement of arms and legs.

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(b) Autonomic nervous system or visceral nervous system : It consists of a pair of chains of
ganglion (a ganglion is a group of cell bodies of neurons) and nerves found on either side of the
backbone. It is subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It controls the
involuntary actions of the internal organs of the body like heart etc. You will learn more about
autonomic nervous system in higher classes.

Reflex Action and Reflex ARC

There are many actions in our body which are spontaneous and do not require any processing
by brain. These responses are called reflex actions. Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord.
For example, we blink our eyes in response to high beam of light that falls on our eyes. Similarly
we withdraw our hand immediately if we prick our finger or touch a hot object. A reflex action
may be defined as a spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled
by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain.

Components of a reflex arc

A reflex arc has the following components :
i. A receptor or sensory neuron which perceives the stimulus,
ii. A sensory nerve which carries the message from sensory neuron to spinal cord,
iii. A relay or intermediate neuron of spinal cord which transmits the impulse from sensory
to motor neuron, and
iv. Motor nerve which carries the message from spinal cord to effectors organ muscle or
gland.
83 General Science

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What are sense organs?
ET Our Sense Organs

Sense organs are the organs through which we sense or feel change in the external environment.
We all touch, taste, smell, hear and see because of our sense organs. When a sense organ detects a
stimulus it sends messages along the nerves to brain. The brain gives us feelings or sensations.
Different sense organs in our body
Sense Organ Sensitive to stimuli Senses
Skin Pressure, heat and cold, pain Touch
Tongue Chemicals in food and drink Taste
Nose Chemicals in air Smell
Ears Sound and movement Hearing and balance
Eyes Light Sight
Sense of Touch (Skin)
The sense of touch is produced by the ends of nerve cells called nerve endings or receptors
because they receive stimulation from the outside world. These nerve endings are of different
types for different stimulations.
General Science 84

l Touch and pressure : These receptors are concentrated on fingertips. They detect the texture
of objects, whether they are rough, smooth, hard or soft. Touch receptors are attached to
hair.
l Pain : Pain receptors are evenly distributed over the skin.
l Temperature : There are separate cold and heat receptors. These detect changes in
temperature. The fingertips can detect temperature differences as small as 0.50 C. In a human
adult the surface area of the skin is 1.5 to 1.7 sq. meters. The thickness of the skin varies from
about 0.5 to 3 mm. The skin is composed of two distinct layers :
(i) Epidermis, which contains hair, nails, sweat glands, etc.
(ii) Dermis, which is made up of connective tissue mixed with blood vessels and nerves.
Functions of skin
l Skin protects the body from mechanical injuries, bacterial infections, heat and cold.
l Skin is sensory to touch, pain and temperature.
l Skin regulates our body temperature. Excessive heat is lost through evaporation of sweat
otherwise it is conserved by fat and hair in the skin.
l Oily substances are freely absorbed by skin.
l The excess of water, salts and waste products are excreted through the sweat.
l Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin.

Sense of Sight (Eyes)

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Eyes are well-protected organs of our body through which we see. The eyes are lodged within

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the skull. When we close our eyes a layer of skin with hair (eye lashes) in its margin covers each
eye. It is an eyelid. This eyelid protects our eye from an external discomfort. Different parts of the

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eye are cornea, iris, pupil, retina etc.

How do we see?
The light rays enter our eyes through transparent structures (conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous
humour, lens and vitreous humour). The curvature of cornea and lens bend the light rays to form
an image on the retina. The image formed on retina is inverted and real. The nerve impulses are
produced in retina, which are transmitted to the brain (visual area of cerebrum). The brain interprets
the image and the image that wa formed inverted on the retina is viewed or perceived here correct
and upright.

Defects of the eye

(i) Long sightedness or hypermetropia : It occurs when the eyeball is shorter than normal. In
this defect distant objects can be focused properly, but the point of focus for an object close to the
eye is behind the retina.
(ii) Short sightedness or myopia : It occurs when the eye-ball is longer than normal. In this
defect objects close to the eye can be focussed properly, but the point of focus for distant objects is
in front of the retina.

Sense of Hearing (Ears)

Ears help us in hearing different sounds and balancing our body. The air around us is full of
vibrations called sound waves. We have one ear on each side of the head. Ears change vibrations
in the air into nerve impulses, which travel to brain where they are interpreted
85 General Science

Functions of ears
The part, which we call our ear, is a flap of skin in the shape of a funnel. This is the external
ear. This leads to a tunnel - the ear canal, at the end of which is a thin sheet of skin called the
eardrum. Sound waves are collected by the outer ear and directed inside the ear canal, where they
set the eardrum vibrating. The eardrum is connected to the inner ear by three small bones or
semicircular canals called ear ossicles. These are hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup
(stapes). These bones transmit and amplify the vibrations increasing their force by about 20 times.
The ossicles are connected to an oval window. Due to vibrations, oval window moves in and out
causing vibrations through the cochlea. The cochlea contains a carpet of tiny hair like structures,
which are connected to nerves. They are actually sensory cells which help us to hear the sound.

Our ears help us to balance

Our ears tell us if we are standing upright or not. The semicircular canals of our inner ear tell
us to keep balance or to move. The semicircular canals are three tubes full of liquid. When we
move the liquid moves. Sensitive hair cells inside the tubes detect this movement and send impulses
along nerves to the brain. Our brain detects loss of our balance and sends impulses to muscles to
keep us upright.

Deafness-disorder of the ears

The vibrations of the eardrum cause disturbance within the middle ear. This space is linked
with the back of a canal - the Eustachian tube. We know that when the air pressure changes, we
feel a strong sensation in our ears until we open our mouth, and the air in the mouth and the

I S
pressure is equalized. Unfortunately, the Eustachian tube may become a channel for infection.

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This may happen for a brief period during a cold and if neglected the infection may spread to the
middle ear and cause inflammation. The eardrum may become thickened and the little bones may

to the ear nerve.

EN
have their articulations affected. This may cause deafness. Deafness may also be due to the injury

Sense of Taste (Tongue)

ET
You know that your tongue helps you to talk and helps in moving food inside the mouth and
swallowing the food. Tongue is a sense organ, which distinguishes different tastes. Our tongue
contains taste buds. Taste buds are groups of sensory cells. These are sensitive to chemicals, which
must dissolve in saliva, before we can taste them. Taste buds send messages to brain by taste
nerves for analysis, resulting in the sensations. This is why dry food has no taste until we chew it
with saliva.
Sense of Smell (Nose)
We can detect about 3000 different kinds of smells. Smell helps animals to hunt food and find
their way. Smell can also warn if there is certain danger. Our nose is sensitive to smell. Smell is
basically detecting chemicals in the air. The chemicals dissolve in moisture on lining of our nose.
The stimulation of nerve endings in our nose send message to the brain which produces the
sensation of smell. Smell receptors are called olfactory receptors.

Practice Questions
1. Which of the following is controlled by the somatic nervous system?
(a) rate of heartbeat
(b) contraction of skeletal muscles
(c) increased blood flow to muscle tissue
(d) movement of food through the intestines
General Science 86

2. Which of the components of the nervous system has both autonomic and somatic divisions?
(a) Central (b) Peripheral
(c) Sympathetic (d) Parasympathetic
3. The central nervous system includes the :
(a) brain and spinal cord (b) somatic nervous system
(c) cranial and spinal nerves (d) parasympathetic nervous system
4. The somatic nervous system controls :
(a) peristalsis (b) cardiac muscles
(c) smooth muscles (d) skeletal muscles
5. Which of the following is involved in the initiation of a "fight or flight" response?
(a) Thyroid gland (b) Prostate gland
(c) Adrenal cortex (d) Adrenal medulla
6. The part of a sensory neuron that transmits nerve impulses from a receptor to the cell
body is the :
(a) axon (b) synapse
(c) dendrite (d) neurotransmitter
7. What type of neuron transmits an impulse to the central nervous system?
(a)
(c)
Motor
Efferent

IAS (b)
(d)
Sensory
Interneuron
8.

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The type of neuron that can only be found in the central nervous system (CNS) is a(n)

E
ET
(a) interneuron (b) motor neuron
(c) mixed neuron (d) sensory neuron
9. The type of neuron that is found only in the central nervous system is the :
(a) interneuron (b) motor neuron
(c) mixed neuron (d) sensoryneuron
10. Which of the following is responsible for transmitting impulses to the central nervous
system (CNS)?
(a) Effectors (b) Interneurons
(c) Motorneurons (d) Sensory neurons
11. Sensory neurons carry messages to :
(a) glands (b) interneurons
(c) sense organs (d) muscle fibres
12. Sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses in :
(a) long axons (b) short axons
(c) long dendrites (d) short dendrites
13. Which of the following is a characteristic of a resting potential?
(a) secretion of calcium ions
(b) neurotransmitters move into the axon
87 General Science

(c) depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane

(d) a net negative charge on the inside of the axon
14. During which stage of a nerve impulse does the opening of the sodium gates play an
important role?
(a) Recovery (b) Repolarization
(c) Depolarization (d) Resting potential
15. Resting potential in a neuron is maintained by :
(a) osmosis (b) diffusion
(c) pinocytosis (d) active transport

N IA
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89 General Science

Skeletal and Muscular System

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EN
ET

Ultrastructure of Skeletal Muscle Fibre

With the advent of the electron microscope, the ultrastructure of skeletal muscle was properly
understood, A muscle fibre is made up of fine threads called myofibrils, E M reveals that each
myofibril, in turn, is composed of still finer filaments called myofilaments, A skeletal muscle fibre
is a single long, cylindrical, multinucleate protoplasmic thread about 1 to 40 mm long, Each fibre
is enclosed in a close fitting tubular sheath called sarcolemma, Muscle protoplasm is known as
General Science 90

sarcoplasm, It is most abundant in the spaces between clusters myofibrils of around peripherally
located nuclei.
Electron micrographs show that each myofibril is a compound thread made of myfilaments of
two sizes and lengths, Each myofilament consists of long protein molecules of action, or of myosin,
The thicker myosin filaments are confined to the region of dark band, The thinner actin filaments
extend throughout the light band, Each myofibril bears alternate dark and light bands, A dark
band is also called 'anisotropic' or A-disk It is strongly refractile, and appears dark in the living
fibril. It is doubly refractile (anisotropic) to polarized light. It is a property of the myosin of thick
filaments, The middle region of the A-disk is pale, and is called Hi-disk. A light band is also called
isotropic or 'I-disk', It is poorly refractile, and appears pale in the living fibril. Only the thin actin
filaments occur in I-disk, but they continue on and enter the A-disk, A thin Z-membrane bisects
each I-disk. It is a set of threads on which actin filaments are inserted.
l Myofibril : A cylindrical organelle running the length of the muscle fibre, containing
Actin and Myosin filaments.
l Sarcomere : The functional unit of the Myofibril, divided into I, A and H bands.
l Actin : A thin, contractile protein filament, containing 'active' or 'binding' sites.
l Myosin : A thick, contractile protein filament, with protusions known as Myosin Heads.
l Tropomyosin : An actin-binding protein which regulates muscle contraction.
l Troponin : A complex of three proteins, attached to Tropomvosin.
Cross bridges : In the region of the A- band where both thick and thin filaments overlap, each

I S
thick filament is surrounded by six thin filaments, and each thin filament by three thick ones, At

A
higher magnification, in the region of overlap in the A-band, the gap between thick and thin
filaments appears to be bridged by projections at intervals called cross bridge. These are arraged

N
in spiral around the thick filaments.

E
ET
Role of cross bridges : As explained earlier, each cross bridge is a part of a single myosin
molecule. How could cross bridges cause contraction? They are able to oscillate back and forth,
and hook up with specific sites on actin filaments. The bridges enable the thick filaments to pull
the thin filaments by a kind of back and forth (ratchet) action. A single bridge might, thus hook
onto an active site, pull the thin filament a short distance, then release it and again hook on to the
next active site.
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
1. A nervous impulse arrives at the neuromuscular junction, which causes a release of a chemical
called Acetylcholine. The presence of Acetylcholine causes the depolarisation of the motor
end plate which travels throughout the muscle by the transverse tubules, causing Calcium
(Ca+) to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
2. In the presence of high concentrations of Ca+, the Ca+ binds to Troponin, changing its shape
and so moving Tropomyosin from the active site of the Actin. The Myosin filaments can
now attach to the Actin, forming a cross-bridge.
3. The breakdown of ATP releases energy which enables the Myosin to pull the Actin filaments
inwards and so shortening the muscle. This occurs along the entire length of every myofibril
in the muscle cell.
4. The Myosin detaches from the Actin and the cross-bridge is broken when an ATP molecule
binds to the Myosin head. When the ATP is then broken down the Myosin head can again
attach to an Actin binding site further along the Actin filament and repeat the 'power stroke'.
This repeated pulling of the Actin over the myosin is often known as the ratchet mechanism.
91 General Science

5. This process of muscular contraction can last for as long as there is adequate ATP and Ca+
stores. Once the impulse stops the Ca+ is pumped back to the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and
the Actin returns to its resting position causing the muscle to lengthen and relax.
Postulated chemical hypothesis : The physiology of muscle contraction can be explained in
three phases-resting, excitation-contraction coupling, and relaxation. In spite of all the necessary
ingredients, such as actin, myosin, Mg++, and ATP present in the resting phase, the muscle does
not contract. It is so because the myosin bridges can be prevented from combining with actin by
two regulator proteins, troponin and tropomyosin. These proteins are associated with thin actin
filaments. The interactions between these proteins and actin prevent actin from combining with
myosin in resting muscle. Troponin and tropomyosin, thus act as natural inhibitors of the contractile
process. There is evidence that the release of Ca++ ions from sarcoplasmic reticulum can remove
the inhibitory effect of these regulator proteins, and allow the cross bridges of myosin filament to
combine with actin at their active sites to initiate cross bridge activity to result in muscle contraction.
Further details are furnished in the postulated chemical hypothesis

Skeletal System
Skeletal system is instrumental in performing movements such as walking or grasping. The
framework of bones and cartilage that protects our organs and allows us to move is called the
skeletal system.

Functions

(i)

I S
The skeletal system performs the following functions :

A
Support : It provides a framework for the body, supports soft tissues, and makes

N
available a surface for attachment of many bones.
(ii)

(iii)
E
Protection : Many internal organs are protected from injury by the skeletal system e.g.

ET
the brain is protected by the cranial bones, the spinal cord by the vertebrae, and the
heart and lungs by the rib cage.
Movement facilitation : Bones serve as levers to which muscles are attached and they
help produce movement.
(iv) Mineral storage : The bones store minerals- calcium and phosphorus, and these are
distributed to other parts of the body upon demand.
(v) Haematopoiesis : Red marrow in certain bones is capable of producing blood cells, a
process called haematopoiesis or haemopoiesis. Red marrow produces red blood cells,
some white blood cells, and platelets.
Types of Bones
Almost all bones of the body may be classified into four main types on the basis of shape :
(i) Long bones : include bones of the thighs, legs, toes, arms, forearms, and fingers.
(ii) Short bones : e.g. wrist and ankle bones.
(iii) Flat bones : e.g. cranial bones protecting the brain, the sternum and ribs protecting
organs in the thorax, and the scapulas.
(iv) Irregular bones : Such bones include the vertebrae and certain facial bones.
Divisions of the Skeletal System
The adult human skeleton consists of 206 named bones grouped in two principal divisions:
the axial skeleton, and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of bones that lie around
the axis: ribs, breast bone, hyoid bone, bones of the skull, and vertebral column (backbone). The
General Science 92

appendicular skeleton comprises free appendages, which are the upper and lower limbs, plus the
bones called girdles that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Regions of the skeleton No. of bones
Axial skeleton Skeleton
Skull
Cranium 08
Face 14
Hyoid 01
Ears 06
Vertebral column 26
Thorax
Sternum 01
Ribs 24
80
Apendicular skeleton
Pectoral (shoulder)
girdles 02
Clavicle 02
Scapula
Upper Extremities
Humerus (uper arm)
Radius
Ulna (forearm)

IAS 02
02

N
Carpals (wrist) 10

E
Metacarpals 28

ET
(hand/manus)
Phalanges
Pelvic (hip) girdles
Plevic or hip bone 02
Lower extremities
Femur (thigh) 02
Tibia} 02
Fibula
(shank)
Patella (knee cap) 02
Tarsals
Metatarsals (anukle and foot/pes)
Phalanges 126
Total = 206
Bone Movement and the Joints
The skeletal system consists of many separate bones, most of which are held together at joints.
All movements that change the positions of bony parts of the body occur at joints. A joint is a
point of contact between the bones, between cartilage and bones, or between teeth and bones. The
structure of the joint reflects its functioning. Some joints permit no movement, General Science
113 others permit slight movement, and still others afford considerable movement. Structurally,
joints are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.
93 General Science

(i) Fibrous joints : Bones are held by fibrous connective tissue with no synovial (joint) cavity.
These joints include immovable sutures (found in the skull); slightly movable syndesmoses
(such as tibiofibular articulation); and immovable gomphoses (roots of teeth in alveoli of
maxilla and mandible).
(ii) Cartilaginous joints : Bones are held together by cartilage with no synovial cavity. These
joints include synchondroses united by hyaline cartilage (temporary cartilage between the
epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone); and partially movable symphyses united by
fibro-cartilage (the pubic symphysis).
(iii) Synovial joints : All synovial joints are freely movable in selected directions and contain
synovial cavity, articular cartilage, and a synovial membrane. Some joints also have ligaments
holding the bones together. There are six categories of synovial joints :
(a) Hinge or ginglymus joint is one in which the convex surface of one bone fits into the
concave surface of another bone. Movement is primarily in a single plane (monaxial).
Examples are the elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints.
(b) Pivot or trochoid joint is one in which a rounded, pointed, or conical surface of one
bone articulates within a ring formed partly by another bone, and partly by a ligament.
Movement is monaxial. Examples are rotation of the head from side to side, and
movement between the proximal ends of the radius and ulna.
(c) Gliding joint : The articulating surfaces of bone in these joints are usually flat. Only
side-to-side and back-and-forth movements are permitted. Movement is not around

S
an axis (monaxial). Examples are the joints between the carpal bones, tarsal bones, the

(d)
A
sternum and clavicle, and the scapula and clavicle.

I
Ball-and-socket or spheroid joint consists of a ball-like surface of one bone filled into

N
a cup-like cavity of another bone. Such ajoint permits movement in three planes

(e)
E
(triaxial). Examples are shoulder and hip joints.

ET
Saddle or sellaris joint : In this, the articular surface of one bone is saddle-shaped and
the articular surface ofthe other bone is shaped like a rider sitting in the saddle.
Movements are side-to-side and back-and-forth (biaxial). Example is the movement
between the carpal and metacarpal of the thumb.
(f) Ellipsoidal or condyloid joint is one in which oval shaped condyle of one bone fits
into an elliptical cavity of another bone. Movements are side-to-side and back-and-
forth (biaxial). Example is the movement of the wrist.

Endocrine System of Human Body

Gland Location Hormone/s Effect
Anterior lobe
Pituitary/ Hangs below hypothalamus (a) Growth hormone (GH). Acts directly on all tissues and
Hypophysis at the base of brain in also called Somatotrophic influences the growth of long bones,
sphenoid bone hormone (STH) muscles and viscera
(b) Thyroid stimulating hormone Influences the structure and
(TSH) secretory activity of the thyroid
(c) Adreno-corticotrophic Influences the production of
hormone (ACTH) corticosteroids by adrenal cortex
only the hormones involved in
defending the body against
physiological stress
(d) Follicle-stimulating Promotes the growth and
hormone (FSH) maturation of follicles in the ovary,
General Science 94

production of female sex hormone,

estrogen, and maturation of
spermatozoa in the male
(e) Luteinizing horomone (LH) Stimulates interstitial (Leydig) cells
in the testis to produce male sex
hormone, testosterone; causes
ovulation, release of estrogen and
formulation of corpus luteum in
female
(f) luteotrophic hormone Helps to maintain pregnancy, in
(LTH)/prolactin secretion of progesterone, to
stimulate mammary gland to
secretemilk
Middle lobe Melanophore Associated with growth and
stimulating hormone (MSH) development of melanocytes that
give skin its colour
Posterior lobe
(a) Antidiuretic hormone Controls water reabsorption in the
(ADH). also called kidney tubule, thus regulating
Vasopressin water and salt balance of body
(b) Oxytocin fluids Causes uterine contractions
and active expulsion of milk during
and after birth
Hypothalamus Below thalamus and Releasing hormone (RH) for each Production of all the anterior pass

S
connected to pituitary by anterior pituitary hormone pituitary hormones is controlled by

A
hypophyseal stalk at base of GH—RH, TSH—RH, ACTH—RH messages (releasing hormones)
brain

N I FSH—RH, LH—RH and LTH—RH from the hypothalamus, releasing

hormones from hypothalamus to

E
the anterior pituitary via hypophy-

ET
seal portal vessels
Thyroid Base of neck at lower (a) Thyroxine Increases the rate of oxidation of
extremity of larynx glucose releasing energy, i.e.
regulates basic metabolism,
influences heat production and
helps in over coming the effects of
exposure to severe cold, essential for
mentaland physical development
(b) Calcitonine Reduces blood calcium level
Parathyroids Four in number, embedded Parathormone Raises blood calcium level
within the substance of
thyroid gland
Adrenals Seated at the top of each Adrenal cortex
kidney (a) Glucocorticoids Regulate metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats,
help to over come the stress
associated with surgical shock,
pain, extreme emotional distress
and severe cold by elevating blood
glucose due to conversion of protein
in glucose.
(b) Mineralocorticoids Act at kidney tubule to prevent Na+
and H20 to pass in the urine and to
increase K+ excretion
(c) Various sex hormones Act in the usual way
95 General Science

Adrenal medulla Help the body in handling emer

epinephrine gency situations of extreme danger
and norepinephrine or fright by increasing the heart rate,
by raising blood pressure and
byelevating blood glucose level
Pancreas : Islets Islets lie scattered (a) Insulin Lower the blood glucose level
of Langerhans between the pancreatic (b) Glucagon Elevates the blood glucose level The
acini interactions of these two hormones
help maintain blood glucose level at
a steady 100 mg/100 ml
Ovaries Theca interna in Graafian Estrogen Controls the development of
follicle secondary sexual characteristics of
the female, viz. breasts, pubic
hair, deposition of fat on thighs,
enlargement of uterus, vagina,
menstruation and development of
sexual heat
Corpus luteum Progesterone Prepares the inner lining of uterus
(endometrium) for implantation of
young embryo, also maintains it
during pregnancy
Testes Interstitial/Leydig cells Testosterone Controls the development of
located in narrow, angular secondary sexual characteristics of
spaces between seminiferous the male, viz. enlargement of penis
tubules and scrotum, pubic hair, deepening

IAS of the voice and development of

sexual desire (libido)

EN Practice Questions

ET
1. Which of the following is a function of the skeletal system?
(a) Storage of inorganic salts (b) Protection of vital organs
(c) Support (d) All of the above
2. Regulatory functions of the skeletal system include :
(a) Maintaining blood calcium levels
(b) Absorbing the shock of unexpected rapid body movements
(c) Facilitating transmission of nerve impulses
(d) Cushioning abdominal organs such as the kidneys
3. Organic components ofthe matrix of bone include :
(a) Calcium phosphate (b) Collagen fibers
(c) Calcium carbonate (d) All of the above
4. The bones of the limbs are classified as :
(a) Short bones (b) Long bones
(c) Flat bones (d) Sesamoid bones
5. A compound fracture :
(a) is caused by an underlying pathology
(b) results in bone breaking the skin
(c) is a type of incomplete fracture
(d) Never happens
General Science 96

6. The appendicular skeleton consists of :

(a) The bones of the legs
(b) The bones of the hands and feet
(c) The bones that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton
(d) All of the above
7. Which of the following is part of the appendicular skeleton?
(a) The skull (b) The manubrium
(c) The sternum (d) The scapula
8. The divisions of the skeletal system include (the) :
(a) Dorsal and ventral (b) Axial and appendicular
(c) Proximal and distal (d) Cranial, caudal and anterior
9. Most bones in the appendicular skeleton develop from :
(a) Fibrous connective tissue
(b) Hyaline cartilage
(c) The process of endochondral ossification
(d) Both B and C
10. The appendicular skeleton contains _____ bones.
(a) 80 (b) 206

11.
(c) 126

IAS (d) 64
The smooth, rounded, or oval articular process of a bone is termed a :
(a) Crest

EN (b) Ridge

ET
(c) Head (d) Condyle
12. The pituitary gland is located in the :
(a) Cribriform plate (b) Sella turcica
(c) Sphenoid sinus (d) Glenoid fossa
13. Humans have ________ pairs of ribs.
(a) 2 (b) 24
(c) 10 (d) 12
14. The bones that form the palms of the hands are the :
(a) Carpals (b) Tarsals
(c) Metacarpals (d) Metatarsals
15. The ankle contains ________ bones.
(a) Two (b) Five
(c) Six (d) Seven
16. The adult human skeleton consists of :
(a) 204 bones (b) 206 bones
(c) 208 bones (d) 214 bones
17. The total number of ear bones are :
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
97 General Science

18. The only movable bone in the skull is :

(a) maxilla (b) frontoparietal
(c) mandible (d) nasal
19. The shortest bone in the human body is the :
(a) vertebrae (b) stapes
(c) phalange (d) metacarpal
20. While writing, the main bones in the hand that help hold the pen in position are :
(a) carpals (b) metacarpals
(c) phalanges (d) All of these
21. Bones are mainly made up of :
(a) calcium and phosphorus (b) calcium and sulphur
(c) calcium and magnesium (d) calcium and iron

S
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13. (d) 14. (c)
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ET
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17. (c) 18. (c)
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General Science 98

IAS
EN
ET
99 General Science

Reproduction
Types of Reproduction
Living organisms reproduce in tow ways asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves the production of an offspring from body parts other then
reproductive organs. It is a common process of reproduction in lower plants and animals

Basic features of asexual reproduction

(i) It involves only one organism i.e. different sexes are not involved.

IAS
(ii) The cell divisions during this type of reproduction are either mitotic or amitotic.
iii) New individuals produced are genetically identical to the single parent.

N
(iv) It is a fast mode of multiplication.
Sexual reproduction

ETE
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which two sexes, tile male and the female, are
involved. This type of reproduction occurs both in plants and animals.
Basic features of sexual reproduction
(i) It is the production of offspring by the fusion of egg and sperm which are the sex cells
or gametes.
(ii) Upon fertilization, the male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops
into a mature organism.
(iii) It results in the combination of genetic material from two parents.

Reproduction in Plants
Like animals, plants also reproduce both asexually and sexually. A sexual reproduction in
plants is either by fission, budding, fragmentation and regeneration, spore formation or by
vegetative propagation or vegetation reproduction of plant parts. Sexual reproduction is by fusion
of' male and female gametes and it occurs in flowering plants.
Asexual reproduction
1. Fission
Fission is of two types: Binary fission and multiple fission.
Binary fission : In binary fission, two individuals are formed from a single parent. This type
of reproduction is found in organisms like bacteria yeast and Amoeba
General Science 100

Multiple fission : In multiple fission, many individuals are formed from a single parent. This
type of reproduction by multiple fission occurs during unfavourable conditions.
In this type of reproduction, the unicellular organism dc, clops a protective covering called
cyst over the cell. The nucleus of the cell divides repeatedly producing many nuclei. Many daughter
cells are produced within the cyst. The cyst breaks and small off springs are liberated. This type of
reproduction is seen in many algae and in some protozoans, such as the malarial parasite
(Plasmodium)

2. Budding
In this type of reproduction, a bulb-like projection or outgrowth arises from the parent body
known as bud, which detaches and forms a new organism. e. g. Hydra

3. Regeneration or Fragmentation
In this type of reproduction the body of an individual breaks up into two or more parts and
each part develops into a complete individual. Examples: Spirogyra and Planaria.

4. Spore formation
In lower forms of life like the alga, Chlamydomonas, the protoplast or the cell divides to form
4-8 spores. These being motile are termed as zoospores. When spores are released in the
surrounding medium they develop into new plants.

S
5. Vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction in plants

A
Vegetative reproduction (or vegetative propagation) is a form of asexual reproduction in plants

I
in which a bud grows and develop into a new Plant. In this type of reproduction, any vegetative

N
part of the plant body like leaf stem or root develops into a complete new plant vegetative

E
reproduction can take place by two methods-natural and artificial.

ET
(I) Vegetative reproduction by natural methods
This type of vegetative reproduction call involve roots, stem or leaves. Some common modes
of vegetative reproduction are given below:
(i) By roots : The roots of sweet potato and mint bear adventitious buds. When these
roots are planted in the soil, new plants are produced.
(ii) By stem : In many plants the stem develops buds on it. The part of the stem that bears
buds serves as an organ for vegetative multiplication, e.g. the modified parts of stem,
such as runners of grass, suckers of mint and Chrysanthemum, bulbs of onion and
tulip, rhizomes of ginger, corms. of gladiolus and Colocasia and tubers of potato, etc.
(iii) By leaves : In some plants, e.g. in Bryophyllum and Bigonia. adventitious buds are
developed in the margins of their leaves. When the leaf falls on moist soil, these buds
develop into small plantlets, which can be separated and grown into independent
plants
(II) Vegetative propagation by artificial methods
Some plants can be propagated artificially. The methods of artificial propagation include
grafting, layering, cutting and tissue culture.
(i) Grafting : It is the method of obtaining a superior quality plant from two different
plants, taking the root system of one plant and the shoot system of another plant. The
plant whose root system is taken is called stock. The plant whose shoot system is
taken is called scion.
101 General Science

The ends to be grafted of the stock and the scion, are cut obliquely and placed face to
face and are bound firmly with tape. The stock supplies all the desired nutrients to the
scion. This technique has been used in raising superior quality plants of mango, apples,
roses, rubber and citrus.
(ii) Cutting : In some plants like rose, sugarcane, Bougoin villaea. etc. this method is used
quire frequently. Stem cuttings with nodes and internodes are placed in moist soil
which give rise to adventitious roots, and grow into new plants.
(iii) Layering : Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to
the parent plant. The stem or the branch that develops adventitious roots while still
attached to the parent plant is called a layer. It is a means of reproduction in black
raspberries, jasmine (Jasminum), Magnolia etc.
(iv) Tissue Culture : This is a modern technique of vegetative propagation. In this
technique, a small piece of tissue is cut from a plant and is transferred to a container
with nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The tissue utilizes nutrients from the
medium, divides and re-divides, and forms a callus. Small portions of this callus are
transferred to another medium which induces differentiation and plantlets are
produced. These plantlets are transplanted in soil to form an adult plant. Orchids,
Chrysantheunun, Asparagus and many other plants are now being grown by using
plant tissue culture technique.
Sexual reproduction in plants

S
In flowering plants, flower is the reproductive part of a plant. Most flowers have both male

A
and female reproductive organs. A typical flower has four whorls calyx (sepal), corolla (petals),

N I
and androcium (stamens) and gynoecium (capels) The androecium and gynoeciurn are directly
concerned with sexual reproduction.

E
The androecium is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens. Each stamen has anther

ET
and a filament. Each anther possess many pollen grains which are the male gametes in pollen
sacs.
Gynoccium is the female reproductive part of' a flower. The female part contained in this
whorl is called pistil. Each pistil consists of three parts - an upper flat stigma, a medial, long
cylindrical style, and a lower, swollen ovary.
l The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination.
l The style bears the stigma at a suitable position to receive the pollen grains
l The ovary contains ovules that are found attached to the placenta. Ovules are the structures
in which embryo sacs develop, and mature into seeds after fertilization. The arrangement of
ovules in the ovary is called placentation.
Pollination
Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the another to the stigma of a flower.
It is two types:
(i) Self-pollination : if the pollen grains form the anther of a flower are transferred to the
stigma of the same flower, it is termed as self-pollination or autogamy (auto: self;
gamy: marriage) e.g. pea and china rose.
(ii) Cross pollination : If the pollen grains from anther of one plant reach the stigma of a
flower on another plant of the same species, then this is called as cross pollination or
allogamy (also: other: gamy: marriage) Cross pollination has the advantage of
increasing the chances of variations
General Science 102

Fertilization
l After pollination, the pollen grains germinate on the stigma to produce a pollen tube.
l This tube grows down through the style and finally reaches the ovule.
l The ovule contains the egg cell inside the embryo sac.
l The tip of the pollen tube ruptures in the ovule and discharges two male gametes into it.
l One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to form the zygote. This fusion is called
fertilization.
l The other male gamete fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus and forms the endosperm
nucleus.
l The zygote that is formed as a result of fertilization divides several times and gives rise to
an embryo. The endosperm nucleus grows-to form the endosperm of the seed.
Following fertilization, the sepals, petals, style and stigma degenerate and usually fall off. The
ovary wall ripens and forms the pericarp of the fruit. Each ovule develops into a seed. The seed
contains a potential plant or embryo. The whole ovary after fertilization changes into a fruit.

Reproduction in Humans
Male reproductive system
Humans reproduce sexually, Reproductive organs in humans consists of the following organs
a pair of tests a pair of epididymis, a pair of vasa deferentia and ejaculatory duct, a urethra, penis
and necessary glands.

IAS
The testes produce sperms the male gametes. The process of formation of sperms in the testes

EN
of an organism is called spermatogenesis, Each testis contains certain coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules that are actually responsible for the production of sperms. These sperms are

ET
released from the testes and stored in the epididymis until mating. At the time of mating, the
sperms are passed from the epididymis through the "vas deferens" to the ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory duct opens into the urethra. In human males, the urethra is a common passage for
sperms and urine. The urethra passes through an organ called penis, which is the copulatory
organ (organ for transfer of sperms during mating or population) in human. During their passage
from the epididymis to the urethra, the sperms are mixed with certain secretion from the accessory
glands. The sperms along with the secretion form the semen.
During copulation, semen is discharged. The process or discharging of semen is called
ejaculation. In one ejaculation about 200,000,000 (2x108) sperms are discharged.
Female reproduction system
The female reproductive system consists of pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts (or fallopian
tubes), uterus and vagina.
A pair of ovaries lies in the lower part of the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the body.
Ovaries produce ova and secrete female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. The process
of formation of egg in the ovary is known as oogenesis. There is a pair of oviducts or fallopian
tubes in the human female reproductive system. One end of each oviduct is funnel shapped. It
collects the eggs released by the ovary. Both fallopian tubes open into the uterus. The uterus is a
pear-shaped, muscular, thick-walled organ. The lower end of the uterus opens into the vagina the
opens to the outside by a genital opening, Vagina is the organ where the penis is inserted during
coitus for the discharge of semen. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth. In a human female,
the urethra and the genital duct have separate openings.
103 General Science

Puberty
The reproductive organs in human beings become functional at an age of 13-14 years in males
and 12-13 years in case of females. This age is known a puberty. During sexual maturity, hormonal
changes take place in males and females, and under the influence of these hormones secondary
sexual characteristics are developed.
l Development of secondary sexual characteristics in males include deepening of voice,
widening of shoulders appearance of board and moustaches, and growth of axillary and
pubic hair
l Development of secondary sexual characteristics in females include growth of axillary and
pubic hair, widening of pelvis and hip enlargement of breasts and initiation of the menstrual
cycle.
Test tube babies
In some women, the fallopian tube gets blocked, which prevents the ova from being fertilized.
This problem can be overcome by the test tube baby technique.
In this technique, one or more mature ova are sucked from a woman’s ovaries using a special
syringe. The sperms are taken from her husband. These sperms and ova are kept together in a
container for a few hours for fertilization to take place. When a sperm fertilizes an ovum a zygote
is formed, which divides repeatedly to form an embryo. This embryo is then inserted into the
woman’s uterus where is gets implanted and develops into a baby. Fertilization of an egg b a
sperm outside the body of the female is called in-vitro fertilization of IVF.
Twins

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In every reproductive cycle, usually, an ovary releases only one ovum. But, sometimes more

EN
than one egg may be released and fertilized by more than one sperm or an ovum m ay divide into

ET
two or more cells after fertilization which separate and develop as different individuals. This is
how twins, triplets and quadruplets etc. are produced.
(a) Identical twins : When a fertilized egg divides into two independent sets of cells, both of
which continue to divide, two identical embryos are produced from the same egg. The twins
thus produced are identical twins.
(b) Non-identical or fraternal twins : When two eggs are produced at the same time and a
different sperm fertilizes each egg, non-identical or fraternal twins are produced.

Important Points to Remember

l In asexual reproduction only one organism is involved, no gametes are produced and no
fertilization takes place.
l In sexual reproduction both male and female gametes are produced and fertilisation occurs.
l Some methods of asexual reproduction are - fission, budding, fragmentation and spore
formation.
l Some artificial methods of propogation of plants are grafting, cutting, layering and tissue
culture.
l A typical flower has four whorts — calyx, corolla, androceium and gynoecium.
l Each member of the androecium is called stamen and each member of the gynoecium is
called pistil.
l Most animals and some plants reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction involves two main
processes, i.e. meiosis and fertilisation.
General Science 104

l The age of 13-14 years in males and 11-12 years in females is called puberty in human beings.
At this age, sex organs get matured and several secondary sexual characteristics appear in
them.
l Placenta is an association between maternal and foetal tissues meant for physiological
exchange.
l Twins are of two types — fraternal and identical twins.
l Unchecked population control has led to population explosion.
l Fertility control methods can be preventive or corrective. We can control the rising population
by fertility check.
l Diseases that spread through sexual contact are known as sexually transmitted diseases.

Practice Questions
1. In potato, vegetative propagation takes place by :
(a) leaves (b) stem
(c) root (d) seeds
2. Bryophyllum plant reproduces vegetatively by :
(a) leaf bud (b) adventitious buds
(c) root (d) stem

S
3. In the process of grafting, the plant forming the shoot system is known as :

A
(a) scion (b) stock

4.
(c) sucker
Pollen sacs are present in :

N I(d) bulb

5.
(a) thalamus
(c) ovary

ETE (b)
(d)
anther
corolla
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower is :
(a) self pollination (b) ovulation
(c) cross pollination (d) fertilisation
6. In the human female, fertilisation of the ovum takes place in :
(a) vagina (b) ovary
(c) fallopian tube (d) uterus
7. The process of formation of the egg from the ovary is called :
(a) ovulation (b) oogenesis
(c) menstruation (d) spermatogenesis
8. Which of the following is the sperm storage organ in human males ?
(a) Epididymis (b) Penis
(c) Vas deferens (d) Testis

Answer
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105 General Science

Evolution of Life

Theories of Origin of Life

Several attempts have been made from time to time to explain the origin of life on earth. As a
result, there are several theories which offer their own explanation on the possible mechanism of
origin of life. Following are some of them:-
Theory of Special Creation : According to this theory, all the different forms of life that occur
today on planet earth have been created by God, the almighty. This idea is found in the ancient
scriptures of almost every religion
Theory of Spontaneous Generation : This theory assumed that living organisms could arise

IAS
suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-living matter. One of the firm believers in
spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384-322 BC). He believed that dead

N
leaves falling from a tree into a pond would transform into fishes and those falling on soil would

E
transform into worms and insects. He also held that some insects develop from morning dew and

ET
rotting manure.
Theory of Catastrophism (Steady State) : It is simply a modification of the theory of Special
Creation. It states that there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a
catastrophe resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According to this theory, since
each catastrophe completely destroyed the existing life, each new creation consisted of life form
different from that of previous ones. In simple words we can say that there is a steady state means
the number of creatures get originated at an instant, the same number of creatures became dead.
Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia) : According to this theory, life has reached this
planet Earth from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistance spores
of some organisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by Arrhenius (1908)
and other contemporary scientists.
Theory of Cosmic Evolution : This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or Phvsico-
chemical Theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and gradual
process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago. This theory was
proposed independently by two scientists - A.I.Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923 and J.B.S Haldane,
an English scientist, in 1928.
According to this theory,
l Spontaneous generation of life, under the present environmental conditions is not possible.
l Earth's surface and atmosphere during the first billion years of existence, were radically
different from that of today's conditions.
General Science 106

l The primitive earth's atmosphere was a reducing type of atmosphere and not oxidising
type.
l The first life arose from a collection of chemical substances through a progressive series of
chemical reactions.
l Solar radiation, heat radiated by earth and lighting must have been the chief energy source
for these chemical reactions.
Theory of Evolution : Jean Baptiste Lamarck
may be defined as the development of complex or differentiated organisms from pre simple
or less differentiated organisms over a long period of time, In 1809, French, biologist Jean- Baptiste
Lamarck put forth a hypothesis to account fur the mechanism of evolbased his hypothesis on two
conditions: the use and disuse of body parts by an organism passing on of characteristics acquired
by one generation to the next For example, this theory is known as Lamarckism proposes that
initially giraffes were short legged and short as they continued to reach for leaves at increasinlgly
higher level, the size of their necks increased over generations, Although Lamarckism helped
prepare the way for accept concept of evolution. his views on the mechanism of change were
never widely accepted.
The Theory of Evolution : Charles Darwin
In July 1858, British naturalists, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, presented the
outlining their theory of evolution through natural selection at a meeting of the Linnear in London,
In November 1859, Darwin published the Origin of Species by Means of Nations proposing that

IAS
natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from: ones. This hypothesis is
based on their observations and two deductions. which may be as follows :

N
l Observation 1 : On an average, individuals within a population produce more offspring are

l
l
ETE
needed to replace themselves.
Observation 2 : In a population, the number of individuals remains approximately constant'
Deduction 1 : There is a 'struggle for existence' within a population and several individuals
or reproduce.
l Observation 3 : Variation exists within all populations
l Deduction 2 : Individuals showing variations best adapted to their environment have a
advantage' and produce more offsprings than the less well-adapted organisms, Darwin's
'struggle for was popularized the coining of terms such as 'survival of the fittest' and
'elimination.
Mutation Theory of Evolution : Working on evening primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana), Hugo
de Vries came across certain large and discrete variations which were heritable. He called such
variations as mutations and proposed that these mutations were responsible for the origin of new
species, i.e. evolution. Thus he proposed the mutation theory of evolution in 1901. These ideas are
also referred to as neo-Darwinism.
Evidences for Evolution
There has been a general agreement over the last two hundred years or so that life did not
arise the way we see it today. Instead, the earliest life forms were comparatively much simpler
that evolved in more and more complex forms over a long period of time. That this actually happ-
ened has been proved by various evidences, detailed below:
Palaeontological evidence : The study of fossils (Palaeontology) has indicated that the life
forms, both plants and animals, have slowly evolved from simpler to more complex forms. The
107 General Science

oldest fossil-bearing rocks have very few types of fossilized organisms and all of them have simple
structures whereas younger rocks contain a much larger variety offossils with increasingly complex
structures. Through these studies it has been possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history
(phylogeny) of elephant, horse, and man. Archaeopteryx, the fossil form with features of both
reptiles and birds, provides an evidence of how birds might have evolved from reptiles. Likewise,
the discovery of fossils of leafless vascular plants like Rhynia and Hornea indicated how vascular
plants might have evolved from nonvascular plants. Similarly, the fern-like seed plants
(Cycadofilicales) of the late paleozoic era provide evidence of the evolution of seed plants from
fern-like ancestors.
Biogeographical Evidence : The pattern of distribution of plants and animals in different
areas of the world, referred to as biogeography, also provides useful information as evidence for
evolution. It has been observed that the plant and animal species are discontinuously distributed
throughout the world. Often ecological factors determine this distribution but other factors are
also involved as evidenced by the fact that in similar types of climatic conditions different types
of plants and animals are found. Also, related forms are found in widely separated areas.
For example, the occurrence of the giant tortoise (Geochelone elephantopus), the giant aquatic
lizard (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), and the different species of finches (thirteen) on the Galapagos
Archipelago is indicative of evolution of these species indepenent ofthe mainland from which
they separated in the past.
Anatomical Evidence : Anatomical study of plants and animals provides another evidence of

S
evolution having occurred to produce new varieties and species of plants and animals. A

IA
comparative study of the anatomy of non-flowering plants and flowering plants indicates strong
similarities among the members of the same group in comparison with members of the other

N
group. Also, the ferns among the non-flowering plants have been found to have anatomical features

E
closer to the seed plants, especially the seed ferns (Cycadofilicales) and are, therefore, believed to

ET
be the ancestors of seed plants. Likewise, a study of the anatomy of flowers (floral anatomy)
indicates that the various floral structures (sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels) are anatomically
similar to the leaves and, therefore, are believed to have evolved from them whereas the flower as
a whole is considered to be a modified shoot having evolved from the later. Similarly the human
appendix, a vestigial structure, similar to (homologus with) the functional appendix of herbivorous
mammals and the vertebrae of the human coccyx, also a vestigial organ, considered homologous
with the structures of the tail of mammals are strong evidences for evolution of man from other
mammals.
Embryological Evidences : Embryological studies of the various vertebrate groups reveal
striking structural similarities between all these groups, especially during earlier stages of
development. This has led to the formulation of the principle that ontogeny recapitulates
phylogeny, meaning that the developmental stages through which an organism passes repeats
the evolutionary history of the group to which it belongs. In fact, the early developmental stages
of vertebrates are so similar that it is impossible to identify the group simply by examining their
embryos and foetal stages. As development proceeds, there are changes that produce characteristics
of fish, amphibian, reptile, bird or mammal depending upon the parentage of the embryo
suggesting that they had a common ancestor, that is, they all evolved from the same ancestor.
Biochemical Evidence : The development of accurate biochemical techniques over the last 50
years or so has made it possible to analyse the molecular composition of an individual organism
or a species. Such studies during the recent years have indicated molecular homology among
organisms similar to anatomical or embryological homology.
General Science 108

Detailed biochemical analysis of different organisms indicate that there are certain biomolecules
that are found in all living organisms, e.g. cytochromes (respiratory proteins), DNA, RNA, blood
serum proteins (in higher animals), etc. Comparison of their structures from different sources
indicates that species that are closely related have almost identical structures whereas those
distantly related have more differences. For example, the amino acid sequence for cytochrome c
of humans and chimpanzee is identical and differs from the rhesus monkey by only one amino
acid. Similarly, the study of haemoglobin structure in the primate species indicates that humans
and chimpanzee differ the least and gibbon and humans the most (3 amino acids in each of a and
P haemoglobin polypeptides and 2 in the y haemoglobin). Likewise, immunological studies indicate
least differences in the blood serum proteins in humans and chimpanzees, more with Gorilla,
Gibbon, and Baboon in that order and most in distant mammals like cattle and pig.
Evidence from Breeding : Sexual reproduction among plants and animals is one ofthe important
mechanisms for producing variation because it involves meiosis during which there is
recombination of genes bringing about new combinations that are expressed in the form of new
characters. However sexual reproduction is limited between related organisms (forms or varieties
within the same species). As Darwin proposed, nature selects from these different variants the
ones with the most suitable combination of characters for the given environment in due course of
time, the selected form may establish as a new variety or a species.

Evolution of man : Genus Homo

Homo sapiens is the only extant species of its genus, Homo. While some other, extinct Homo

I S
species might have been ancestors of Homo sapiens, many were likely our "cousins", having

A
speciated away from our ancestral line. There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups
should count as separate species and which as subspecies.

EN
Homo habilis and Homo gautengensis

ET
It was considered to be the first species of the genus Homo until May 2010, when a new
species, Homo gautengensis was discovered in South Africa, which most likely arose earlier than
Homo habilis.
Homo habilis lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 myr {million year}. Homo' habilis evolved in South
and East Africa in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, 2.5-2 mm, when it diverged from the
Australopithecines. Homo habilis had smaller molars and larger brains than the Australopithecines,
and made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones. One of the first known hominids, it was
nicknamed 'handy man' by discoverer Louis Leakey due to its association with stone tools.

Homo rudolfensis and Homo georgicus

These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9-1.6 myr, whose relation to Homo
habilis is not yet clear.
l Homo rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested
that this was another Homo habilis, but this has not been confirmed.
l Homo georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between Homo habilis and
Homo erectus, or a subspecies of Homo erectus.

Homo ergaster and Homo erectus

The first fossils of Homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891
on the Indonesian island of Java. He originally named the material Pithecanthropus erectus based
on its morphology, which he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes.
Homo erectus {H erectus} lived from about 1.8 myr to about 70,000 years ago {which would indicate
109 General Science

that they were probably wiped out by the Toba catastrophe; however, Homo erectus soloensis
and Homo floresiensis survived it}. Often the early phase, from 1.8 to 1.25 myr, is considered to be
a separate species, Homo ergaster, or it is seen as a subspecies of Homo erectus, Homo erectus
ergaster.
In the early Pleistocene, 1.5-1 myr, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, some populations of Homo
habilis are thought to have evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these
differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, Homo
erectus. In addition Homo erectus was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright. This was
made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different location of the foramen magnum
{the hole in the skull where the spine enters}. They may have used fire to cook their meat.

Homo cepranensis and Homo antecessor

These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo
heidelbergensis.
l HOMO antecessor is known from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 myr-
500 kyr.
l HOMO cepranensis refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000
years old.

Homo heidelbergensis
Homo heidelbergensis (Heidelberg man) lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago.

IAS
Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.

Homo rhodesiensis and the Gawis cranium

EN
Homo rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000-125,000 years old. Most current researchers
place Rhodesian man within the group of Homo heidelbergensis, though other designations

ET
such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have been proposed.
l In February 2006 a fossil, theGawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species
intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead
ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000-250,000 years old. Only
summary details are known, and the finders have not yet released a peer- reviewed study.
Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example
of a "Bodo man" female.

Neanderthal and Denisova hominin

Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, lived
from 400,000 to about 30,000 years ~o. Evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA indicated
that no significant gene flow occurred between Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, and,
therefore, the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago.
However, the 2010 sequencing of the Neanderthal genome indicated that Neanderthals did indeed
interbreed with anatomically modern human about 45,000 to 80,000 years ago (at the approximate
time that modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed into Europe, Asia
and elsewhere). Nearly all modern non-African humans have 1% to 4% of their DNA derived
from Neanderthal DNA.
In 2008, archaeologists working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia
uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile member of a population now
referred to as Denisova hominins, or simply Denisovans. Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated
in the cave at the same level were carbon dated to a round 40,000 BP (before present).
General Science 110

Homo floresiensis
Homo floresiensis, which lived from approximately 100,000 to 12,000 before present, has been
nicknamed hobbit for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism. Homo floresiensis shares
a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed
a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a Women of about 30
years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. The living woman
was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm3 (considered small for
a chimpanzee and less than a third of the Homo sapiens average of 1400 cm3).

Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens (the adjective sapiens is Latin for "wise" or "intelligent") have lived from about
250,000 years ago to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in
the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in skull expansion and the elaboration
of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from Homo erectus to
Homo sapiens. The direct evidence suggests there were a migration of Homo erectus out of Africa,
then a further speciation of Homo sapiens from Homo erectus in Africa. A subsequent migration
within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed Homo erectus. This migration
and origin theory is usually referred to as the recent single origin or Out of Africa theory. Current
evidence does not preclude some multiregional evolution or some admixture of the migrant Homo
sapiens with existing populations. This is a hotly debated area of paleoanthropology.
Current research has established that humans are genetically highly genous; that is, the DNA

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of individuals is more alike than usual for most species, which may have resulted from their

A
relatively recent evolution or the possibility of a population bottleneck resulting from cataclysmic
natural events such as the Toba catastrophe. Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen,

N
however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental

E
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circumstances. These adapted traits are a very small component of the sapiens genome, but include
various characteristics such as skin color and nose form, in addition to internal characteristics
such as the ability to breathe more efficiently at high altitudes.

Practice Questions
1. Modern man is believed to have appeared on the surface of eart:
(a) 0.1 million years ago (b) 0.3 million years ago
(c) 1.3 million years ago (d) 3.0 million years ago
2. Which of the following theory was not given by Darwin
(a) Struggle (b) Natural selection
(c) Survival for fittest (d) Genetic drift
3. All organisms fall into one of domains that include kingdoms.
(a) six/three (b) six/six
(c) three/three (d) three/six
4. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) Life may have evolved on Mars.
(b) In order for life to evolve anywhere, carbon is required
(c) A large ocean exists under the icy surface of Europa
(d) It IS possible that life may have evolved on some other planet
111 General Science

5. Which of the following is .necessary and sufficient for life?

(a) complexity (b) heredity
(c) growth (d) all of these
6. Which of-the following most accurately describes the origins of life on earth?
(a) Special creation: Life-forms were put on earth by supernatural or divine forces.
(b) Extraterrestrial origin: The earth may have been infected by life from another planet.
(c) Spontaneous origin: Life evolved from inanimate matter to increasing levels of
complexity.
(d) None of these are accurate.
7. Which of the following proposals assumes that the earth had a reducing atmosphere low
in oxygen?
(a) Life evolved deep in the earth's crust.
(b) Life evolved under frozen oceans.
(c) Life evolved at the ocean's edge.
(d) Life evolved at deep-sea vents.
8. Scientists have created synthetic nucleotide-like molecules in the laboratory that are able
to replicate. This seems to support which hypothesis of chemical evolution?
(a) an RNA-first hypothesis
(b)
(c)
a protein-first hypothesis

IAS
a peptide-nucleic acid first hypothesis

N
(d) All of the hypotheses are supported by these results.
9. Match the column :
List - I
A. Jean Bapite Lamarck
B. Charles Darwin
ETE List - II
1.
2.
1822-1884
1834-1914
C. August Weismann 3. 1744-1829
D. Gregor Mendel 4. 1809-1882
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 2 4 3
(b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 3 4 2 1
10. The theory of Survival of the fittest was given by :
(a) Darwin (b) Lamarck
(c) Weismann (d) Herbert Spencer

IAS
EN
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113 General Science

Health and Diseases

Human Health
Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the
general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness,
injury or pain (as in "good health" or "healthy"). The World Health Organization (WHO) defined
health in its broader sense in 1948 as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."
Human Diseases
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to

S
be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external

A
factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune

N I
diseases. In humans, "disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes
pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, and/or death to the person afflicted, or similar

E
problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries,

ET
disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical
variations of structure and function
Illness : Illness and sickness are generally used as synonyms for disease. However, this term
is occasionallv used to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of their disease. In
this model, it is possible for a person to be diseased without being ill (to have an objectively
definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition), and to be ill without being diseased (such as
when a person perceives a normal experience as a medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease
situation in his or her life). Illness is often not due to infection but a collection of evolved responses,
sickness behavior, by the body which aids the clearing of infection. Such aspects of illness can
include lethargy, depression, anorexia, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate.
Disorder : In medicine, a disorder is a functional abnormality or disturbance. Medical disorders
can be categorized into mental disorders, physical disorders, genetic disorders, emotional and
behavioral disorders, and functional disorders.
The term disorder is often considered more value-neutral and less stigmatizing than the terms
disease or illness, and therefore is preferred terminology in some circumstances. In mental health,
the term mental disorder is used as a way of acknowledging the complex interaction of biological,
social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions. However, the term disorder is also
used in many other areas of medicine, primarily to identify physical disorders that are not caused
by infectious organisms, such as metabolic disorders.
Medical condition : A medical condition is a broad term that includes all diseases and disorders.
While the term medical condition generally includes mental illnesses, in some contexts the term is
used specifically to denote any illness, injury, or disease except for mental illnesses. The Diagnostic
General Science 114

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the widely used psychiatric manual that defines
all mental disorders, uses the term general medical condition to refer to all diseases, illnesses, and
injuries except for mental disorders. This usage is also commonly seen in the psychiatric literature.
Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease
except for psychiatric illnesses.
Morbidity : Morbidity (from Latin morbid us, meaning "sick, unhealthy") is a diseased state,
disability, or poor health due to any cause. The term may be used to refer to the existence of any
form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill
patients, the level of morbidity is often measure U scorlngsvstems.
Co morbidity is the simultaneous presence of two medical conditions, such as a person with
schizophrenia and substance abuse.
In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity rate can refer to either the incidence
rate, or the prevalence of a disease or medical condition. This measure of sickness is contrasted
with the mortality rate of a condition, which is the proportion of people dying during a given time
interval.

Annexure I : Diseases caused by Bacteria

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115 General Science

Annexure II : Diseases caused by Protozoas

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Annexure III: Diseases caused by Fungi
General Science 116

Annexure IV : Diseases caused by Worms

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117 General Science

Annexure V : Some plant diseases and their causative agents

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General Science 118

Annexure VI : Diseases Caused by Virus

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119 General Science

Practice Questions
1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below:
List-I (Disease) List-II (Crop)
A. Black rust 1. Rice
B. Stem rot 2. Mustard
C. White rust 3. Potano
D. Early blight 4. Wheat
A B C D
(a) 1 3 4 2
(b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 2 1 4 3
2. Which of the following diseases affect wheat? Select the correct answer using the codes
given below:
1. Ergot 2. Fire blight
3. Flag smut 4. Karnal bunt
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
3.

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Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below:
List-I (Pest)
I List-II (Crop)
A. Shoot fly

EN 1. Wheat

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B. Army worm 2. Apple
C. Wooly aphid 3. Potato
D. Whit grubs 4 Sorghum
A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3
(b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 3 1 4 2
(d) 4 3 2 1
4. Xerophthalmia is caused by the dietary deficiency of
(a) Protein
(b) Vitamin A
(c) riboflavin
(d) unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids
5. HIV positive infections that are occurring every day in the world are around
(a) 6,000 (b) 60,000
(c) 600,000 (d) 1,000,000
6. Haemophilia is a hereditary disease carried by
(a) females and expressed by females
(b) females and expressed by males
General Science 120

(c) males and expressed by females

(d) males and expressed by males
7. The neerotic ring spot disease of stone fruits (cherry, peach, plum etc.) is caused by
(a) A bacterium (b) fungai infection
(c) molybdenum deficiency (d) virus
8. Which of the following plant diseases is caused by a virus?
(a) Aster yellows (b) barley yellow dwarf
(c) curly top of sugar beets (d) all the above
9. The witchweed disease of plants like sugarcane and is caused by
(a) bacterial infection (b) an angiospermie parasite
(c) virus (d) none of the above
10. Which of the following plant diseases is not a bacterial disease?
(a) brown not of potatoes (b) citrus canker
(c) heart rot of beets (d) red stripe of sugarcane
11. Which of the following is a bacterial disease?
(a) early blight of potatoes (b) loose smut of wheat
(c) red rot of sugarcane (d) red stripe of sugarcane
12.
A. Black heart
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Match the following diseases with the plants affected

A 1. Peas
B.
C.
Red rot
karnal bunt
EN 2.
3.
Wheat
Sugarcane

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D. powdry mildew 4. Potatoes
A B C D
(a) 1 2 4 3
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 2 1 4
(d) 2 1 3 4
13. Ergot is a fungal disease of cereals. Which of the following is the correct sequence of host
preference by the pathogen:
(a) Ray > Oat > Wheat > Barley
(b) Wheat > Barley > Oat > Ray
(c) Barley > Oat > Rye > Wheat
(d) Rye > Barley > Wheat > Oat

Agriculture
Agriculture is the largest private enterprise in India and has great importance in the Indian
economy. About 70 percent of the total population of the country depends on agriculture for a
living statistacally, the agricultural sector contributes to approximately.
l 15% of India's GDP
l 10% (Provisional) of total exports
l 58% of the work force was provided employment in this sector
l 43% of India's geographical area is used for agricultural activity.
Factors strengthening India's Agriculture Sector
(i)

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Extensive land and water resources.
(ii) Significant public investment in agricultural research development, extension and

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infrastructure.

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(i)
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(iii) Government supports in subsidies and output Prices.

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Kharif Crops : These crops are also called the summer crops. They are sown before the
onset of the rainy season from may to July and harvested after the rains in september and
October Rice and millets are major Kharif Crops.
(ii) Rabi Crops : Also called winter crops, they are sown in the beginning of the winter season
from October to December and harvested before the summer season from February to April
wheat barley and ailseed (mustard) are Rabi crops.
(iii) Zaid Crops : These Crops are grown for the short period, after the harvest of Kharif and
Rabi Crops. The crops sown in February to April and harvested by June and July are called
Zaid Rabi Crops. Green Vegetables are main Crops of this season. Zaid Kharif Crops are
sown in September and harvested in November and December Oil seeds and pulses are
major crops for this season.
(iv) Food Crops : The crops which serve as food for man are called food crops and the sub
categories for food crops are food grains, pulses, oilseeds and beverages.
(a) Food Grains : Most important food grains in India are rice, wheat, maize, jowar and
bajra.
(b) Pulses : Important pulses in India are gram, mung urad and masur
(c) Oilseeds : Seeds from which oil is expelled are known as oilseeds like mustard,
rapeseed Toria, groundnut, linseed and castor.
(d) Beverages : Most important beverages crops of India are tea and coffee.
General Science 122

(v) Subsistence Crops : Crop which are grown by the farmers for their own consumption are
known as subsistence crops. Rice in west Bengal is an example of subsistence crops.
(vi) Commercial Crops : Crops grown mainly for the market and only a small portion of the
product is consumed by the formers are known as commercial crops like cotton. Sugarcane
etc.
(vii) Plantation Crops : Crops which are planted once and provides yield for a number of years
Examples of such type of crops are tea, coffee, rubber, coconut and spices.
(viii) Spices : Crops like pepper, cardamom, red chillies and turmeric etc.
(ix) Fibre Crops : These crops yield fibres that are used for making textiles or packaging material.
These crops are also known as cash crops. Most important fibre crops are jute and cotton.
(x) Fodder Crops : Crops which are used as cattle fodder. Berrum is an example of such a crop.
Types of Cultivation : Following type of cultivation system aprall in India
(i) Sedentary type : In this type of cultivation same land is cultivated year after year under this
system
(ii) Shifting cultivation : In this type, the land is abandoned after a cultivation of few years.
This type of cultivation is common in tribal regions of Madhya Pradesh Chattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh and the north eastern region.
(iii) Terrace Framing : This is a practice of mountains and hilly areas. Step like terreces are cut

depends upon the steepness.

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on the mounted in slopes to obtain narrow strips of land for cultivation width of terraces

Agricultural regions

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1. Temperate Himalyan Region : This region is further divided into two sub regions.
(i) The eastern Himalayan Region : This region is wet and the rainfall here is 250cm
Including upper assam, Sikkim and Mishmi Hialls.
(ii) The Western Himalayan Region : Western Himalayan region is climatically dry, and
this includes Kulu, Kangra and Kashmir valleys, and Garhwal, Kumaon and Simla
hills. Horticultural crops of apples, almonds and apricots are important in the highland
areas. In relatively lower parts and on gentler slopes are cultivated the crops such as
potato, maize and paddy.
2. Northern Dry (or Wheat) Region : This region has a rainfall of less than 75 cm and the soils
are alluvial and sandy. Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and western
Madhya Pradesh are included in this region. Wheat, maize and cotton are the chief crops.
Sugarcane and rice are grown in irrigated areas.
3. Eastern Wet (or Rice) Region : This is the area of more than 150 cm rainfall. Soil is alluvial
in some parts and deltaic In others. This region includes West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh. Tamil Nadu. Chhattisgarh and the states of the northeast
including Assam, Meghalaya. Manipur, Tripura and Mizorarn. Rice is the staple crop of
this region Other crops include tea jute and sugarcane.
4. Western Wet Region or Malabar Region : This region includes Kerala. Karnataka and
adjoining parts with more than 200 cm rainfall, This is the region of laterite and lateritic
soils. Plantation crops and rice are dominant crops. This region produces coconut, cashewnut,
areanut, rubber, pepper and cardamom. Rice is the dominant food crop of this region also.
123 General Science

5. Southern Region or the Millet Region : Receiving an annual rainfall of 50 to 100cm. this
region includes parts of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, western Tamil Nadu, eastern
Maharashtra, south Gujarat and parts of Karnataka. The southern extreme part of Uttar
Pradesh also comes under this region, Soils in this part are partly black and partly lateritic
and red soil. Jowar, bajra, cotton, ragi, grouudnur and tobacco are the chief crops of this
region. Much of the production of citrus fruits also comes from this region.
Important Crops
1. Rice : Growing best in areas of warm, humid climate, rice requires temperaturs between 200
and 350 C and well distributed rainfall of about 100 cm or irrigation facilities. The soil should
be fertile. Delta and valley soils are most suitable. Major rice-producing states are West
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar and Tamil Nadu. Punjab and Haryana
produce a surplus of rice.
2. Wheat : The ideal temperature for its cultivation is about 150 to 200 C Wheat requires a
moderate amount rainfall of 25 to 75 cm and can be grown even in dry areas with the helps
of irrigation Well-drained loam and clayey soils are ideal. The major wheat producing states
are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Sonalika, Kalyan Sona
and Sherbat are some of the high yielding varieties of wheat.
3. Maize : Ideal temperature for the crop is about 350 C. It requires about 75 cm of rainfall and
thrives best on fertile alluvial and red soils having good drainage. the highest concentration
of this crop is found in Uttar Pradesh Bihar, Rajasthan, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh.
4.

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Bajra : It is an important millet crop grown in India thrives in areas of warm dry climate. It
requires annual rainfall of about 45 cm and temperature ranging between 250 and 300 C this

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crop is grown generally on poor soils. Sandy loans with good drainage are ideal. Rajasthan,

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Gujarat, Maharashtra an Haryana are the chief producers of bajra.

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5. Jowar : This crop require modeate rainfall of 30 to 1200 cm and high temperature ranging
from 200 to 320 C. Both excessive moisture and prolonged drought are harmful. Well drained
light soils are ideal. The leading producers are Maharashtra, Karnataka Madhya Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh.
6. Barley : The geographical conditions required for its cultivation at similar are those for
wheat, it has more tolerance for adverse environmental conditions. The major producers
are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. This is grown mainly as a dry crop.
7. Sugarcane : Sugarcane requires continuously warm temperature of about 250 C and frost is
fatal to the crop. It requires a rainfall 100 to 150 cm or assured irrigation facilities. It is soil
exhaust crop and thus needs regular application of manure of fertilizer. The most important
producers of sugarcane are Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra, Tamil nadu, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
8. Cotton : The greatest concentration of the crop occurs in areas with precipitation between
50 to 80 cm and temperatures between 200C and 350C. Cotton can be grown in drier areas
too with the helps of irrigation. The deep and medium black soil of the deccan and Malwa
plateaus is considered ideal. The largest producers of cotton are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Pubjab, haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
9. Jute : needs a Warm, humid climate with temperature of 25° to 35°C and rainfall of 100 to
200 cm. Rich delta and alluvial soils that receive fresh silt regularly are most suitable. The
chief jute-producing states are West Bengal, Assam. Bihar. Orissa and Tripura.
10. Oilseeds : The leading producers of groundnuts are Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
General Science 124

Pradesh, of soybeans Madhya Pradesh, of mustard and rapeseed Rajasthan and of sunflower
Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Coconuts are grown in the southern coastal
region in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Gujarat is the leading
producer or castor seed and Chhattisgarh of linseed.
11. Pulses : Mainly dry crops they are grown in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Punjab and Haryana in the north and Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in the south. Gram is
one of the leading crops of this group. Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are important
producers of gram.
12. Tea : It is grown mainly on hill slopes where heavy precipitation occurs-more than 150 cm
of rainfall - and average temperatures are between 24° and 35°C. Standing water is harmful
for this plant. The largest producers of tea in India are Assam and West Bengal followed by
the Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu) region in the south. Some tea cultivation is done in the hills of
the western Himalayas in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
13. Coffee : it needs protection from the direct rays of the sun. It is normally cultivated 900 to to
1800 metres above sea level. Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh produce.
almost the entire coffee grown in India.
14. Rubber : Rubber requires high temperatures of around 35°C and more than 200 cm rainfall.
Kerala is the largest producer, accounting for more than 90 per cent of total production
followed by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
15. Silk : Although India produces many varieties of raw silk, the 'mulberry' and 'tassar' are

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the most Important. The chief producers are Karnaraka, Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh
and Assam. Bihar leads in the production of tassar silk.

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16. Tobacco : Tobacco requires temperatures of 15° to 400C and rainfall of over 50 cm or irrigation

E
facilities. Fertile soils with good drainage are ideal as it is an exhaustive crop. The major

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producers of tobacco are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Bihar.
Crop Producing Areas
Apples Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
Arecanut Kerala, Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Mahrasthra, Tamil Nadu
Banana Gujarat. Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Cardamom Karnataka, Sikkim, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Cashewnut Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
Castor Seed Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
Chillies Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
Cloves Kerala
Cocoa Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Ginger Kerala, Meghalaya
Grapes Mahrashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
Hemp Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
Lac Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh
Linseed Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
Mango Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
Oranges Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Sikkim
Pepper Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Pineapples Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tripura
125 General Science

Poppy Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab

Ragi Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Saffron Jammu & Kashmir
Temperate fruits Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
Turmeric Andhra Pradesh, Orissa

Previous Year's Questions

1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below :
List-I (Board) List-II (Headquarters)
A. Coffee Board 1. Bengaluru
B. Rubber Board 2. Guntur
C. Tea Board 3. Kottayam
D. Tobacco Board 4. Kolkata
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 1 4 3 2

IAS
N
2. Consider the following statements :
1.

2.
Prices for 32 crops.
E
The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices recommends the Minimum Support

ET
The Union Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution has launched
the National Food Security Mission.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. Though coffee and tea both are cultivated on hill slopes, there is some difference between
them regarding their cultivation. In this context, consider the following statements :
1. Coffee plant requires a hot and humid climate of tropical areas whereas tea can be
cultivated in both tropical and subtropical areas.
2. Coffee is propagated by seeds but tea is propagated by stem cuttings only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. The approximate representations of land use classification in India is :
(a) Net area sown 25%; forests 33%; other areas 42%
(b) Net area sown 58%; forests 17%; other areas 25%
(c) Net area sown 43%; forests 29%; other areas 28%
(d) Net area sown 47%; forests 23%; other areas 30%
General Science 126

5. Following are the characteristics of an area in India :

1. Hot and humid climate
2. Annual rainfall 200 cm
3. Hill slopes up to an altitude of 1100 metres
4. Annual range of temperature 150 C to 300 C
Which one among the following crops are you most likely to find in the area described
above?
(a) Mustard (b) Cotton
(c) Pepper (d) Virginia tobacco
6. In India, during the last decade the total cultivated land for which one of the following
crops has remained more or less stagnant?
(a) Rice (b) Oil seeds
(c) Pulses (d) Sugarcane

Answer
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1. (b) 2. (b)
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3. (a) 4. (b)
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5. (c) 6. (c)
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7. (b) 8. (a)

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127 General Science

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Chemistry
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General Science 128

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129 General Science

Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science in which we study the properties, composition and structure-
of materials (all, without any exception) ill the world around us.
Inorganic Chemistry : This mainly deals with the study of all the elements and the properties,
preparation and applications of their compounds.
Organic Chemistry : Although carbon ranks seventeenth in the order of abundance in the
earth's crust, it forms the largest number of compounds, next to hydrogen. Organic Chemistry
deals with all aspects of carbon and its compounds.
Physical Chemistry : The theoretical and mechanical aspects of chemical reactions are dealt

S
within the-study of physical chemistry.

A
Biochemistry : This branch of chemistry involves the study of chemical changes and reactions

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occurring within living systems and in life processes.
Analytical Chemistry : The study elf constituents and their identification in chemical substances

ETE
is studied in Analytical Chemistry. These studies can either be qualitative or quantitative in nature.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
Chemicals playa major role in agriculture, mainly in the development of fertilizers and
pesticides. Chemicals used for different processes in agriculture are called agrochemicals.

Chemical Control
It is the best method for ensuring that a farmer's work is not wasted. Pesticides are chemicals
which are applied to crops, e.g. DDT and malathion. They are subdivided according to function:
Insecticides kill those insects which attack growing and harvested crops, livestock, buildings
and man himself. These pests cause damage either directly by feeding or indirectly by transmitting
diseases. They also cause physical damage
Herbicides have a lethal action on plant life and are therefore used to discourage weed growth
without damaging the crop.
Fungicides control parasitic and-saprophytic fungi which live at the expense of growing and
stored crops. The close
Nematicides clear the soil of parasitic eelworms which feed on growing crops. These
microscopic pests attack the root system. They can be controlled by fumigation. Nematicides often
act by mode of the vapour spreading through the soil to reach the invading eelworms.
Molluscicides kill slugs and snails and are usually active after ingestion. The chemical is often
mixed with an attractive bait such as bran which the slug or snail eats.
General Science 130

Fertilizers
Plants, besides needing water and sunlight also require nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and
potassium for growth. The substances added to the soil to make up the deficiency of these essential
elements are known as fertilizers, these are either natural or synthetic (chemical). For a chemical
fertilizer, the following requirements should be met:
(i) It must be sufficiently soluble in water
(ii) It should be stable so that the element in it may be available for a longer time
(iii) It should contain nothing injurious to plants
Phosphatic Fertilizers All naturally occurring phosphates are orthophosphates, the most
abundant of these being rock phosphate which is mostly consumed by the fertilizer industry in'
the manufacture of 'superphosphate of lime triple superphosphate and nitrophos combined
phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizer.
Nitrogenous Fertilizers Plants need nitrogen for rapid growth and to increase their protein
content. For this reason, nitrogenous fertilizers become more important.

MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
Chemicals used to treat different diseases-e-their structures, synthesis, toxicity, pharmacological
effects and activities are all studied medicinal chemistry.

Drugs

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A drug is a compound that is given 10 a person or an animal to prevent or cure a disease or to
elicit some unusual or specific physiological effect.
Common Drugs

EN
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Analgesics These are drugs used for relieving pain, aspirin, paracetamol and some other
antipyretics act as analgesics. Certain narcotics (which produce sleep and unconsciousness) are
also used as analgesics, e.g. morphine, marijuana, codeine and heroin.
Antibiotics These are chemotherapeutic substances which are obtained as metabolic products
from some specific organisms (bacteria, fungi and moulds) and can be used to kill or inhibit the
growth of other microorganisms. Antibiotics discovered was penicillin by Alexander Fleming in
1929. It is a very effective drug for pneumonia, bronchitis, sore throat, etc.
Chloromycetin (or chloroamphenicol) is a broad spectrum antibiotic, isolated from a
Streptomyces species. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and hence can be given
orally in case of typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, certain forms of urinary infection, meningitis and
pneumonia. Chloramphenicol is obtained synthetically and not by fermentation.
Antidepressants These act on the central nervous system and produce a feeling of well-being
and self-confidence and may improve working efficiency of persons in depressed moods.
Sulpha Drugs like sulphanilamide, sulpha-diazine. sulphaguanidine and sulphacctamide act
against microorganisms like antibiotics and have been used in place of them. Discovered in 1935
by Domagk in Germany,
Antipyretics Antipyretics are substances used to bring down body temperature during high
fever. Their administrator often leads to perspiration. Common examples are aspirin, phenacetin,
paracetamol and novalgin (or analgin)
Chlorine is used for making water fit for drinking at a concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 parts per
million (ppm). Low concentrations of sulphur dioxide are used for sterilizing squashes for
131 General Science

preservation. Commonly used antiseptic- Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpeneol in a

suitable solvent. Bithional is added to soap to impart antiseptic properties, it also reduces
undesirable odour.
Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Germicides Germicides are substances that kill or destroy
various germs, fungi and viruses. They are of two types:
Antiseptics are chemicals that prevent growth of microorganisms or kill them, but are safe to
be applied to living human tissues. They can be applied on wounds, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces.
Disinfectants kill microorganisms but they are not safe for contact with living tissues. They
are applied to inanimate objects like instruments, floors, drains and public bathrooms.
Tranquilizers Tranquilizers are drugs used for the treatment of mental diseases. They act on
the higher centres of central nervous system. They are constituents of sleeping pills. These are
also called psychotherapeutic drugs. Powerful tranquilizer. It is obtained from the well known
Indian medicinal plant, Rauwolfia serpentine and its chemical name is reserpine. Extracts of
Hashish and Charas also fall in this category of drugs.
Food Chemistry

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General Science 132

Electrochemistry
It is concerned with the relation between electrical energy and chemical change. It includes
the study of formation and behavior of ions is solution. An ion is an electrically charged.
Electrolysis
The process of decomposition of an electrolyte (a compound formed by electrovalent bonds)
by the passage of an electric current through its molten state or its aqueous solution is called
electrolysis and the experimental arrangement used for this purpose is called an electrolytic cell.

Applications of Electrolysis
(i) Electroplating
(ii) Electrorefining
(iii) Electroprinting
(iv) Electrometallurgy
(v) Industrial Preparations
Matter and its Nature
Matter can be seen, tasted, smel of felt. Matter
can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only
be changed from one form to another. A substance
(another term loosely used for matter) is a
material, all parts of which are chemically

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identical and all samples of which have the same
composition.

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Symbols of Important Elements

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Elements Symbols Lithium Li
Aluminum AI Magnesium Mg
Antimony Sb Manganese Mn
Argon Ar Mercury Hg
Barium Ba Neon Ne
Boron B Nickel Ni
Bromine Br Nitorgen N
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Carbon C Platinum Pt
Chlorine Cl Phosphorus P
Chromium Cr Potassium K
Cobalt Co Radium Ra
Copper Cu Silicon Si
Fluorine F Silver Ag
Germanium Ge Sodium Na
Gold Au Sulpher S
Helium He Thrium Th
Hydrogen H Tin Sn
Iodine I Tungsten WQ
Iron Fe Uranium U
Lead Pb Zinc Zn
133 General Science

Elementary Particles of Matter

1. Electron : In the year 1897 the British scientist J. J. Thomson had discovered the electron in
the form of cathode Rays. Electron has a negative charge of 1.6x10-19 coulomb. Its mass is
9.1x10-31 kg. it rotates around the nucleus. It is a permanent elementary particle.
2. Proton : In the year 1919 Rutherford had discovered the proton by bombarding the alpha
particles on Nitrogen Nucleus. It has a positive charge of 1.6x10-19 coulomb. It’s mass is
1.6x10-27 kg. It is used in Artificial Transmutation.
3. Neutron : Neutron was discoved by chadiwick in 1932 as when he bombarded alpha –
particle on Berelium This penetrating power is maximum. This particle is used in the
treatment of cancer and in nuclear fission.
4. Positron : Positron was discovered by Anderson in 1932. The value of its mass and charge is
equal to that of electron. It is also known as the anti-article to electron. It is a positively
charged elementary particle.
5. Neutrino : This Particle was discovered by Pauli in the year 1930. It is a massless neutral
Particle. It’s anti Particle. It’s anti particle is known as Anti- Neutrino.
6. K – Meson : The particle was discovered by Yukawa in the year 1935. These Particle are of
three types Neutral. Negative and positive their mass is 274 times that of electron. These are
the Temporary particles their life time is of 10-8 seconds
Bohar’s Atomic Mode :

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In atomic physics, the Bohr Model, introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, depicts the atom as a

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small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around
the nucleus similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction,

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rather that gravity. This was an improvement on the earlier cubic model (1902), the plum-pudding

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model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and the Retherford model (1911). Since the Bohr model
is a quantum –physics based modification of the Rutherford model, many sources combine the
two, referring to the Rutherford-Bohr model.
Important Concepts:
Radioactivity : The process in which any substance emits invisible rays of high energy,
spontaneously by itself is called Radioactivity. Such a substance is said to be radioactive. The
process was discovered by professor Henry Becquerel in 1896.
Half Life : Due to radioactive dicay the radioactive material disintegrates by itself. So the time
period after which a substance remains half of its original value is known as the half life of that
substance.
e. g. the half life of 84Po214 is 10-4 second
Half life of an isotope of Uranium is 4.5x109 years
Atomic Number : The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element’s
atomic number. In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how many
protons are in one atom of that element. It is denoted by Z.
Atomic Mass (Mass Number) : The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or
nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an
atomic nucleus.
Isotopes : Elements having same atomic number but different mass number are known as
isotopes. Following are the characteristics of isotopes.
General Science 134

All isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.

The physical properties of the isotopes are different. The densities, melting points and boiling
etc., are slightly different.
Some important facts:
1. Out of all the elements Lead (Pb) has highest number of isotopes.
2. Out of all the elements Hydrogen is the only element whose all isotopes have different
names.
Isobar : These are the elements having same atomic number but different mass number.
Examples: (I) 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40
(ii) 7N14, 6C14
1. All isobars of an element have different chemical properties.
2. The physical properties of the isotopes are identical.
Isotones : Two nuclides are isotones if they have the same neutron number N, but different
proton number Z. For example, boron-12 and carbon-13 nuclei both contain 7 neutrons, and so are
isotones. Similarly S-36, Cl-7, Ar-38, K-39, and Ca40 nuclei are all isotones of 20.
Isoelectronic: Two or more molecular entities (atoms, Molecules, or ions) are described as
being isoelectronic with each other if they have the same number of electrons.
Examples : The N atom and the 0+ radical ion are isoelectronic because each has five electrons
in the outer electronic shell. Similarly, the cat ions K+, and Sc3+, the anions Cl_, S2- and P3- are all
isoelectronic with the Ar atom

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Valency The valency depends on the number of electrons present in the valence or outermost

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orbit of an atom. In some cases, valency is equal to the number of electrons in the valence orbit of

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the atom, while in other it is equal to 8 minus valence electrons.

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Sodium (2, 8, 1) has valency 1 and chorine (2, 8, 7) also has valency 1, i.e. (8-7)
Oxidation
Oxidation is a process in which a substance adds on oxygen or loses hydrogen. The current
definition of oxidation is the process in which a substance loses electrons.
Reduction
Reduction, on the other hand, is a process in which a substance adds on hydrogen or loses
oxygen. In modern terms, reduction is the process in which a substance gains electrons.
Acids
Acids are substance containing hydrogen. In aqueous solution they form hydrogen ions (H+).
Some important acids are sulphuric acid hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid and oxalic acid.
Bases
Bases are substance which contain hydroxyl groups and form hydroxyl ions (OH) in solution.
Some important bases are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and
ammonium hydroxide.
Natural sources of Carbonic Acids
Acid Natural Sources
Farmic Acid Redant, scorpions
Citric acid sour fruits
135 General Science

Benjoic acid grass, leaves

Acetic acid In Fruits, Juices
Tarteric acid Tamarind
Lacic acid In milk
Glutamic acid In wheat
PH Value : This is the number which represents the acidity or basicity of the substances.
Acid : PH value less than 7
Base : PH value more than 7 and less than or upto 14
Substance PH Value
Lemon 2.2-2.4
Beer 4.0-5.0
Human urine 5.5-7.5
Alcohol 2.8-3.8
Vinegar 2.4-3.4
Tomato Juice 4.0-4.4
Coffee 4.5-5.5
Human saliva 6.5-7.5
Human Blood

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Liquid Fuels These are basically mixtures of several hydrocarbons. During combustion, they

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form carbon dioxide and water. Liquid fuels are obtained as different fractions.
Gaseous Fuels These have several advantages over solid and liquid fuels. These can be easily

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supplied through pipe lines within cities and over long distances from one city to another. They
do not leave ash on burning and have high content of heat. The main gaseous fuels are liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG, mainly a mixture of propane and butane and used in homes for cooking),
water gas (CO + H2), producer gas (CO + N2), semi-water gas, coal gas (mixture of hydrogen,
methane, ethylene, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide) and natural gas
(mixture of methane (-75%), ethane H 0%), propane (-7%) and butane (-2%) with traces of higher
hydrocarbons obtained from oil wells, above petroleum).
Rocket Fuels
Liquid Propellants Fuels like alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, kerosene oil, hydrazine
and hydrides of boron are used as liquid propellants. The liquid propellants generally give a
higher thrust than solid propellants and the thrust can be controlled by monitoring the flow of the
propellant. Liquids such as methyl nitrate, nitromethane, hydrogen peroxide, etc. are also used as
liquid propellants.
Solid Propellants Solid fuels, like polybutadiene and acrylic acid are used along with oxidi
ers, such as aluminium perchlorate, nitrate or chlorate. Magnesium or aluminium is used to bum
solid propellants because of their high combustion temperature. Such propellants are called
composite propellants. Another type of solid propellant is a double-base propellant, which mainly
consists of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose.
Hybrid Propellants Hybrid rocket propellants usually consist of a solid fuel and a liquid
oxidizer and the more common composition is N2O4 and acrylic rubber.
General Science 136

Russian rockets use liquid PROTON propellant which consists of kerosene oil and liquid
oxygen. Saturn Booster (American rocket) derives its thrust from a combination of kerosene oil
and liquid oxygen. SL V - 3 and ASL V rockets of India use composite solid propellants. The PSL
V -rocket uses solid propellant in the first and third stages, and liquid propellants consisting
ofN2H4 and dimethyl hydrazine (DMH) and N2H4 and monornethyl-hydrazine (MMH) in the
second and fourth stages, respectively.
PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS
Petroleum or rock oil (petra-rock and oleum- oil) usually floats on a layer of salt water, deep
below the rocks and has a layer of natural gas upon it. Natural gas contains about 80% methane
and 10% ethane, the remaining 10% being a mixture of higher gaseous hydrocarbons. Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG).
Refining of Petroleum The refining of crude oil involves separation into fractions with different
boiling points. The distillation of petroleum is carried in tubular furnace with a tall steel
fractionating column. The fractionating column consists.
Uses of Various Fractions
(a) Gaseous Hydrocarbons This fraction is mainly used as industrial or domestic fuel.
(b) Petroleum Ether It is used as solvent in perfumery and also for drycleaning clothes.
(c) Gasoline This fraction, when obtained directly from refining process is called straight run
gasoline, commonly known as petrol. Crude petroleum contains only a small percentage of

e.g. kerosene or diesel oil.

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this low-boiling fraction. Its yield is therefore, increased by cracking of high boiling fractions,

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(d) Kerosene Kerosene was the most important petroleum product for almost fifty years since

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crude oil was first processed. Although it has now lost its leading place to gasoline, it is still

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in considerable demand. It is used in lamps, burners (stoves), and turbojet aircraft. It is also
subjected to the process of cracking to meet the increasing demand for gasoline.
(e) Diesel oil or Gas Oil This fraction is used as fuel for diesel engines, for industrial heating
(hence also called furnace oil) and as a feed stock for cracking processes where it is converted
to high grade gasoline.
(f) Lubricating oils and Greases As the name indicates, they are chiefly used for lubrication.
Lubricating greases are semi-solid substances made by thickening lubricating oils with soaps,
clays, silica gel or other thickening agents.
(g) Paraffin Wax It is used in making candles, shoe-polish, floor polish, waxed paper, etc. White
petroleum jelly (vaseline) is a paraffin wax with little oil content and is a major constituent
of many ointments and cosmetics.
(h) Asphalt and Coke These are dark semisolid or solid residues ofthe distillation process.
They are used for roofing, road building, making underground cables, battery boxes and
electrodes, etc.
Allotrapes of Carbon
Allotropy may be defined as the property by virtue of which and element may exist in two or
more forms having different physical, but similar chemical properties. The various forms are
called allotropes or allotropic modifications of the element.
Diamond I is the purest allotrope of carbon and occurs abundantly in certain mines in South
Africa which provide nearly 95% of the diamonds mined in the world.
137 General Science

Graphite It is found mainly I Ceylon Siberia, Italy and India. It is also known as black lead or
plumbago and is manufactured by heating a mixture of powdered coke (amorphous carbon) with
sand in an electric funnace for 24-30 hrs. The process is known as Acheson Process. Graphite is
soft and greasy to touch and can mark paper black. It is used a s lubricant in industries. It consists
of sheets of carbon atoms in planes joined by covalent linkages.
IRON AND STEEL
Iron is not found free in the natural form. It is extracted from its ores, haematite and iron
pyrites. Commercial iron is known in the following three forms:
(i) Cast iron or Pig iron
(ii) Wrought iron
(iii) Steel
The three forms differ from one another mainly in their carbon content.
(i) Cast iron contains 2-4.4% carbon along with silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and
manganese.
(ii) Wrought iron is the purest form and contains only up to 0.25% carbon along with
traces of other impurities.
(iii) Steel contains 0.25%-2% carbon and varying amounts of other elements.
Cast iron is first extracted from iron ore. It is then used for the manufacture of wrought iron
and steel. Depending upon the carbon content and other metals present in it, different varieties of

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steel are classified as chrome steel, tungsten steel, stainless steel, managenese steel and nickel

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steel. Stainless steel contains 18% chromium and nickel.

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Important Points to Remember

Element
Oxygen
Hydrogen ETE
Elements Present in Human body
Percentage
65
10
Calcium 2
Potessium 0.35
Sodium 0.15
Magnesium 0.05
Carbon 18
Nitrogen 3
Phosphorous 1
Sulphur 0.25
Chlorine 0.15
Eron 0.04
Compostion of Earth
Most Abundant Elements (% by weight) in Earth’s Crust (rocks)
Element Weight (%)
O 46.6
Sl 27.7
Al 8.1
General Science 138

Fe 5.0
Ca 3.6
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 2.1
Ti 0.44
H 0.14
P 0.2
Mn 0.1
Most Abundant Species in Sea Water (percentage of total species)
Solute Percentage
Chloride Cl- 55.05
Sodium Na+ 30.61
2-
Sulphage SO4 7.68
Magnesium Mg2+ 3.69
Calcium Ca2+ 1.16
Potassium K+ 1.10
Bromide Br- 0.19
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of three gases nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Their

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abundance, by volume, is 78.09%, 20.9% and 0.93%, respectively. Carbon dioxide forms about
0.03% of the atmosphere, ozone exists mostly at the outer atmospheric level, where it helps in the

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absorption of ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun.

ETE Chemicals in Daily Life

Everything around us is composed of chemical elements. Elements are the basic building
blocks of our lives. Elements combine with one another in different proportions to form everything
from the air that we breathe, to the wood that we use to build our homes, to our own bodies. Our
bodies use different chemical elements for different functions. For instance, our bodies use calcium
to build strong bones and fluorine makes our teeth healthier. As our bodies consume these elements
through daily functioning, we have to replace them in order to stay healthy and strong. The
greatest source of these elements is through the food we eat. Because some of us do not always eat
the right foods, we sometimes have to take dietary supplements, such as vitamins, to assure that
we maintain the proper chemical balance in our bodies. Some of the major elements that our
bodies use to function properly are described in the following paragraphs. Some surprising minor
elements are also described.

Aluminum (AI)
Until recently, aluminum was thought to be useless to life processes. It is now thought to be
involved in the action of a small number of enzymes. For a technical explanation: "it may be
involved in the action of enzymes such a succinic dehydrogenase and d-aminolevulinate dehydrase
(involved in porphyrin synthesis)." I have no idea what that means. Even if this element is necessary
for some life function, the amount necessary is greatly exceeded by our incidental intake through
our drinking water, food, deodorants and some antacids. Aluminum is relatively benign, and it is
used in food additives and indigestion pills. It has been linked to Alzheimer's disease and the
body has a hard time ridding itself of excess aluminum. Aluminum is somewhat more toxic to
plants.
139 General Science

Arsenic (As)
Despite Arsenic's reputation as a highly toxic substance, this element may actually be necessary
for good health. Studies of animals such as chickens, rats, goats and pigs show that it is necessary
for proper growth, development and reproduction. In these studies, the main symptom of not
getting enough arsenic was retarded growth and development. It is suspected, but not known,
that arsenic is necessary. It is thought to be necessary for the functioning of the nervous system
and for people to grow properly. Since arsenic is present in our food and water, all humans have
some arsenic in their bodies and a deficiency of this element in humans has apparently never
been observed. An arsenic trioxide has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration to
treat a rare and deadly form of leukemia called acute promyelocytic leukemia, or APL.

Boron (B) - a micronutrient

At first, boron may seem like an unimportant, uncommon and boring element. But boron is
actually required by the body in very small amounts, and is necessary for good health. Though it
is commonly known that calcium builds strong bones, boron is also important. Bones are not just
the dead, white, stone-like things we see on skeletons. In our bodies bones are constantly breaking
down and being rebuilt. They also have a constant blood supply and are very much "alive". Without
small amounts of boron, bones would slowly break down and become brittle. This element is also
necessary to allow the brain to function properly. In fact, boron can increase mental alertness.
According to a series of studies recently conducted by the US Department of Agriculture, low
boron intakes by humans caused decreased brain activity. The studies showed that people on low

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boron diets also had lower brain performance on attention and short-term memory tests. Our

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bodies also need boron in very small amounts to allow calcium, magnesium and phosphorus to
function properly. So in a sense, boron is also necessary for many other body functions and we
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Bromine (Br)
This is another element that is probably not necessary for good health and no deficiency of
this element has ever been documented. Bromine is suspected to be an essential trace element in
red algae and possibly humans. No specific role for this element in human health has been
identified. Bromine is found in the mollusk pigment "royal purple", but its purpose in that pigment
is not known.

Cadmium (Cd)
There are mixed opinions on cadmium. While it is definitely believed to not be essential for
plant and animal life processes, some believe cadmium is a trace element with some necessary
role in life processes, although its need and uses are not currently understood. It is thought to be
involved with the metabolism its status as an essential trace element remains unclear.

Calcium (Ca) - a macronutrient

Calcium is an extremely important element in the human body. It is one of the most abundant
elements in our bodies and accounts for 2 to 3 pounds of our total body weight. Most of us know
that calcium is important in building and maintaining strong bones and teeth, but it is also
important for many other things. It helps control things like muscle growth and the electrical
impulses in your brain. This vital element is also necessary to maintain proper blood pressure and
make blood clot when you get cut. Calcium also enables other molecules to digest food and make
energy for the body. Increasing calcium intake in our diet is believed to lower high blood pressure
and prevent heart disease. It is also used to treat arthritis, when we don't get enough calcium,
General Science 140

many things happen in our bodies. It is possible to get leg cramps, muscle spasms, our bones may
become brittle and even we may even have an increased risk of getting colon cancer. Also, when
we don't get enough calcium in our diets, our bodies will actually use the calcium that we have
stored in our bones. This makes the bones thinner and more brittle. In growing children and
teenagers the bones may not develop fully and the person can enter adulthood with brittle bones.
Further calcium deficiency can lead to serious problems. Therefore, it is extremely important to
get enough calcium in your diet. Unfortunately, that is not always easy to do. Most Americans
don't get enough from their diets. But eating a good balanced diet, including drinking milk on a
daily basis, should get you enough calcium.

Carbon (C) - a macronutrient

The element carbon is perhaps the single most important element to life. Virtually every part
of our bodies is made with large amounts of this element. The carbon atom is ideal to build big
biological molecules. The carbon atom can be thought of as a basic building block. These building
blocks can be attached to each other to form long chains, or they can be attached to other elements.
This can be difficult to imagine at first, but it may help to think about building with Legos. You
can think of carbon as a bunch of red legos attached together to form one long chain of legos.
Now, you can imagine sticking yellow, blue and green legos across the tops of the red (carbon)
legos. These other colors represent other elements like oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen. As you
stick more and more of these yellow, blue and green legos to the red chain, it would start to look
like a skeleton of legos with a "spine" of red legos and "bones" of yellow, blue and green legos.

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This is a lot like the way that big molecules are made in the body. Without carbon, these big

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molecules could not be built. Now, virtually every part of your body is made up of these big

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molecules that are based around chains of carbon atoms. This is the reason we are known as
"carbon based life forms". Without carbon, our bodies would just be a big pile of loose atoms with

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no way to be built into a person.

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Chlorine (CI) - a micronutrient
Anyone who has ever swallowed a mouthful of water at a swimming pool would probably
tell you that chlorine is one of the most unpleasant things they have ever swallowed and they
wouldn't mind if they never ingest chlorine ever again. This element, however, is actually essential
for humans to live - we would die without it. Chlorine is found throughout the body; in the blood,
in the fluid inside cells and in the fluid between cells. Along with sodium and potassium, chlorine
carries an electrical charge when dissolved in body fluids. This is why these elements are termed
"electrolytes". The electrical charge that these elements carry is what allows nerve cells to work.
Chlorine also works with potassium and sodium to regulate the amount of fluids in the body and
to regulate pH in the body. This vital element also helps muscles flex and relax normally. Stomach
acid is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine (hydrochloric acid, or HCI). Logically, chlorine is
extremely important in allowing us to digest our food properly and to absorb the many other
elements that we need to survive. Excessive vomiting can lead to a serious loss of chlorine in the
body. This can lead to a dangerous imbalance of pH in the body, which can cause muscle weakness,
loss of appetite, dehydration and coma. It is easy to get enough chlorine from natural, unprocessed
foods, and deficiencies of this important element are rare. Most Americans, however, consume
massive amounts of salt in their diet. Table salt is a compound of sodium and chlorine (sodium
chloride, or NaCI). This means most of us get much more chlorine than we really need.

Chromium (Cr)
When we think of chromium, our brains may generate images of everything from the shinny
finish on our first bicycle to the brilliant chrome rally wheels on the '66 Mustang GT. The last
141 General Science

thing that comes to mind is a substance that we actually need to eat in order to stay healthy.
Chromium, in fact, is an element that is essential to good human health. It does many important
things in the body. Most significantly, it is a vital component of a molecule that works with insulin
to stabilize blood sugar levels. In other words, it helps our bodies absorb energy from the food we
eat and stabilizes the level of energy that we feel throughout the day. Our bodies need sufficient
quantities of chromium to make many of the large biological molecules that help us live. This
vital element can also help increase muscle mass while reducing fat mass in our bodies. It helps
cells, such as heart muscle cells absorb the energy they need to work properly. Unfortunately, it is
often difficult to get enough chromium in our diets. People who exercise frequently have especially
high demands for this element. Scientists estimate that 90% of all Americans don't get enough
chromium from their diet. Foods that are high in chromium include whole grain breads, brown
rice, cheese and lean meats. Chromium is also in many (but not all) multi-vitamins and
supplements, but the body absorbs chromium much better from food.

Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt is another element that is necessary for good human health. While cobalt has no specific
function by itself, it forms the core of vitamin 8-12. Without cobalt, Vitamin 8-12 could not exist.
The body uses this vitamin for numerous of purposes. 8-12 is necessary for the normal formation
of all cells, especially red blood cells. Vitamin 8-12 also helps vitamin C perform its functions, and
is necessary for the proper digestion of the food that we eat. Additionally, vitamin 8-12 prevents
nerve damage by contributing to the formation of the protective sheath that insulates nerve cells.

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A deficiency of vitamin B-12 can cause our red blood cells to form improperly. This can prevent

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our red blood cells from carrying enough oxygen from our lungs to the different parts of our

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bodies, thus causing a condition called anemia. Symptoms of anemia include loss of energy, loss
of appetite, and moodiness. 812 deficiency can also cause nerve cells to form incorrectly, resulting

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in irreversible nerve damage. This situation is characterized by symptoms such as delusions, eye

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disorders, dizziness, confusion and memory loss. Unlike other B complex vitamins, vitamin B-12
can be stored in the body. Because of this, it is very easy to get enough of this important vitamin
in your diet. Deficiencies of 8-12 are rare in young people, but do occasionally occur in adults due
to digestive disorders or poor absorption by the digestive system. Strict vegetarians are also at
risk of B-12 deficiency, because vegetables do not contain this important vitamin. B-12 is only
found in animal sources such as red meat, fish, eggs, cheese and milk. Fortunately for vegetarians,
you can also get plenty of vitamin B-12 from most multi-vitamin pills.

Copper (Cu) - a micronutrient

Copper is an element that is very important for our good health. Actually, that may be
understating the true importance of this element. Copper is critically important for dozens of
body functions. To begin with, copper is a major component of the oxygen carrying part of blood
cells. Copper also helps protect our cells from being damaged by certain chemicals in our bodies.
Copper, along with vitamin C, is important for keeping blood vessels and skin elastic and flexible.
This important element is also required by the brain to form chemicals that keep us awake and
alert. Copper also helps your body produce chemicals that regulate blood pressure, pulse, and
healing. Current research is looking into other ways copper can affect human health, from
protecting against cancer and heart disease, to boosting the immune system. General symptoms
of not getting enough copper in your diet include anemia (a condition in which your blood can't
supply enough oxygen to your body), arthritis (painful swelling of the joints}, and many other
medical problems. Copper can be found in dried beans, almonds, broccoli, garlic, soybeans, peas,
whole-wheat products, and seafood. Unfortunately, many people do not get enough copper in
General Science 142

their diets. Also, eating food rich in fructose (sugars in fruit, and cornstarch) and taking mega-
doses of vitamin C for long periods of time can keep your body from absorbing the copper in your
food. This lack of copper intake by your body can cause the medical problems mentioned above,
or it can even affect your life span.

Fluorine (F)
Fluorine is an element that the body uses to strengthen bones and teeth. This element differs
from the other elements that the body needs because we get most of it from the water that we
drink, not from the food that we eat. The form of fluorine that normally exists in nature, fluoride,
is actually added to most drinking water supplies. In areas where fluoride is added to the drinking
water, children get up to 70% fewer dental cavities than in areas where the drinking water is low
in fluoride. As you may have noticed, it is also added to most brands of toothpaste for its ability to
fight cavities. But this important element is also valuable because it helps the body strengthen the
bones in your body. Fluoride is the most important trace element affecting bones and teeth. In
fact, fluoride is the only element known to single-handedly stimulate bone growth. Fluoride,
along with large quantities of calcium, is a large part of what makes your bones strong. When the
body does not receive enough fluoride, bones start to loose calcium, and then become weak and
brittle. Fortunately, it is easy for us to get enough fluorine because of the fact that it is added to our
drinking water. Other good sources of this key element include seafood, teas and toothpaste.

Germanium (Ge)
Germanium is a trace element that some believe is highly beneficial to good human health. In

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fact, germanium has many important medicinal properties. In the body, germanium attaches itself
to oxygen molecules. This has the unexpected effect of making our bodies more effective at getting

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oxygen to the tissues in our body. The increased supply of oxygen in our bodies helps to improve

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our immune system. It also helps the body excrete harmful toxins. The increased supply of oxygen

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in our bodies caused by germanium has many other exciting effects as well. Taking germanium
supplements is effective in treating arthritis, food allergies, elevated cholesterol levels, high blood
pressure, and even cancer. Germanium can also be used to control pain in the human body. Perhaps
the most exciting thing about germanium is that it can stimulate the human immune system to
fight cancer cells. This is exciting for two reasons. First, and most obvious, it helps fight cancer -
one of the most deadly diseases in the world. But more importantly, it is not toxic to human cells.
In fact, germanium is completely harmless to human cells, even cancer cells. Since it works by
stimulating our immune system, which fights the cancer, it doesn't damage the rest of the body
like many other cancer treatments. Testing of new cancer treatments with germanium are underway
and perhaps we will soon see new, less damaging, cancer treatments using the element germanium.

Hydrogen (H) - a macronutrient

It would be virtually impossible to understate the importance of this element to human life.
First of all, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O). We can survive years, or at least
months without getting most of the other elements that we need to survive. We can survive weeks
without food, but we would die after only a few days without water. Water is incredibly important
in our bodies. In fact, almost of our bodies are made of water. It dissolves other life-supporting
substances and transports them to fluids in and around our cells. It is also a place in which important
reactions take place in our bodies. Chemically, water is a remarkable substance and it's many
unique attributes make life possible. Hydrogen is obviously a critical component of water and
minute chemical bonds called "hydrogen bonds" are what give water many of its unique attributes.
Also, hydrogen is practically always bound to the carbon that our bodies are constructed of. Without
this arrangement, our bodies would be little more than a pile of atoms on the ground. Stomach
143 General Science

acid is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine (hydrochloric acid, or HCl). Logically, hydrogen is
extremely important in allowing us to digest our food properly and to absorb the many other
elements that we need to survive. Finally, many chemical reactions that make life possible involve
the hydrogen ion. Without this unique and important element, we simply couldn't exist.

Iodine (I)
Iodine is an element that is required in very small amounts by the human body. You are
probably l ready aware of some of the uses of this element. Iodine is found in a purple solution
that we often put in scrapes and cuts to help our wounds heal faster by preventing them from
getting infected. Also, backpackers and campers often add iodine to river and lake water to make
it safe to drink. But the most important thing about iodine is that it keeps our thyroid gland
healthy. Most of the iodine in our bodies is stored in this organ, located in the base of your neck.
The thyroid gland uses iodine to make chemicals that affect our growth, the way we development
and how we burn the energy that we get from the food we eat. If we don't get enough iodine in
our diets, we can expect to have a loss of energy and to gain weight. lodine is found in large
amounts in seafood, sea vegetables (for example, kelp), dairy products and iodized salt (table
salt). It is easy to get enough of this element in your normal diet, and you probably get more than
enough if you eat salty foods (with iodized salts, not salt substitutes) like potato chips or French
fires.

Iron (Fe) - a micronutrient

The element iron has many functions in the body. This element is used by the body to make

IAS
tendons and ligaments. Certain chemicals in our brain are controlled by the presence or absence
of iron. It is also important for maintaining a healthy immune system and for digesting certain

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things in the food that we eat. In fact, plays a vitally important part of how our body obtains

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energy from our food. The iron we obtain from our diet is an essential part of hemoglobin - the

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part of our blood that carries oxygen. Iron is essential for blood to work efficiently. If we don't get
enough iron in our diets, our blood won't carry enough oxygen to our bodies and we can feel
tired, have decreased alertness and attention span and our muscles may not function properly.
This type of iron deficiency is not uncommon among athletes, especially long distance runners.
This is frequently the cause of fatigue among these athletes. If the lack of iron in our bodies is
severe, we can get "iron deficiency anemia", which essentially means that our blood won't carry
enough oxygen to our bodies so we can function normally. Iron deficiency anemia is probably the
most common nutritional disease in the world, affecting at least five hundred million people.
Fortunately, it is easy to get enough iron in your food, if you eat a balanced diet. Many foods
contain iron, and eating a wide range of foods can help most people meet their needs for this
important element.

Magnesium (Mg) - a macronutrient

Magnesium is an element that is required by our bodies for numerous different functions. We
need it for the proper growth, formation and function of our bones and muscles. In fact, magnesium
and calcium even control how our muscles contract. Magnesium prevents some heart disorders
and high blood pressure. Higher intake of magnesium is also associated with improved lung
function. Our bodies use it to help convert our food into energy and it helps our bodies absorb
calcium and potassium. This important element also helps our brains function normally.
Magnesium even helps to prevent depression. Magnesium is essential in allowing your body to
control insulin levels in your blood. This means that it is very important in the amount of energy
that your body has to operate. It is suspected that taking extra magnesium might be beneficial for
those suffering from fatigue. Taking extra magnesium is helpful for treating some medical
General Science 144

conditions. Magnesium is sometimes injected into patients' veins in emergency situations such as
an acute heart attack or acute asthma attack. In non-emergency situations, magnesium is sometimes
given to asthma sufferers in a pill form. It relaxes the muscles along the airway to the lungs, which
allows asthma patients to breathe easier. Magnesium is effective in treating numerous heart /
lung diseases and has been used for over 50 years. Foods high in magnesium include fish, dairy
products, lean meat, whole grains, seeds, and vegetables.

Manganese (Mn) - a micronutrient

Manganese is actually an extremely important element that the body uses for a variety of
things. For instance, we use it to make chemicals that help us digest the food that we eat. Manganese
also supports the immune system, regulates blood sugar levels, and is involved in the production
of energy and cell reproduction. This important element is also important for bone growth.
Additionally, manganese works with vitamin K to support blood clotting. Working with the B-
complex vitamins, manganese helps to control the effects of stress while contributing to ones
sense of well being. Though it is extremely rare in humans, it is suspected that not getting enough
manganese can cause poor bone formation, affect our fertility and the ability for our blood to clot.
Birth defects can possibly even result when an expecting mother doesn't get enough of this very
important element. Some researchers are also looking into a link between poor manganese intake
and higher skin cancer rates. The fact that manganese is so important to humans, yet deficiencies
in humans are so rare, may indicate that humans have evolved ways to make sure that we don't
ever run out of this element in our bodies. As is the case with most, if not all, elements, we can

S
easily get enough manganese from a good balanced diet. Foods high in manganese include

A
avocados, berries, nuts and seeds, egg yolks, whole grains, green leafy vegetables and legumes

I
(such as peanuts, peas and beans).

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Molybdenum (Mo) - a micronutrient

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Molybdenum (pronounced mo-Iyb-den-um) is necessary for good health, though in extremely
small amounts. Molybdenum is found in all tissues of the human body, but tends to be the most
concentrated in the liver, kidneys, skin and bones. It is required for the proper function of several
chemicals in the human body. Some of these chemicals have the very important job of allowing
the body to process the iron and nitrogen in our diets. Molybdenum is believed to be important in
helping our cells grow. Also, small amounts of dietary molybdenum have been credited with
promoting healthy teeth. Some evidence suggests that molybdenum might reduce the risk of
some types of asthma attacks. A deficiency of molybdenum in our diets can cause mouth and
gum disorders and can contribute to getting cancer. A diet high in refined and processed foods
can lead to a deficiency of molybdenum, resulting in anemia (lack of oxygen in the blood), loss of
appetite and weight, and stunted growth in animals. The amount of molybdenum in plant foods
varies significantly and is dependent upon the mineral content of the soil that the plants were
grown in. Nevertheless, the best sources of this mineral are beans, legumes (peanuts and peas),
dark green leafy vegetables, and grains. Hard tap water can also supply molybdenum to the diet.

Nickel (Ni)
Nickel is known to be an essential trace element for several species of animals. Experimental
research shows that when chickens and rats are fed a diet that lacks nickel, they develop liver
problems. If they are fed a normal diet, the symptoms do not appear. Animals are not the only
ones that need this element to function properly. Bacteria use nickel to make special chemicals
called enzymes. These enzymes are necessary for bacteria to function properly. Though many
scientists suspect that nickel is necessary for good human health, it has not been proven. People
145 General Science

with certain liver and kidney diseases are known to have low levels of nickel in their bodies. Also,
excess nickel in the body is associated with a high incidence of heart disease, thyroid disease and
cancer. In both of these cases, the significance of the amount of nickel in the body is unknown.
Some scientists think that nickel affects hormones, cell membranes and chemicals called enzymes.
Whatever the case, nickel certainly appears to affect human health, even though we do not know
exactly how. Good sources of nickel include chocolate, nuts, fruits and vegetables. Meats are
typically low in this interesting element.

Nitrogen (N) - a macronutrient

Nitrogen is another important element. It plays an important role in digestion of food and
growth. As you may know, almost 80% of the air we breathe is made up of nitrogen. But humans
cannot use the nitrogen in the air we breathe, that nitrogen is in the wrong form. We have to get
nitrogen, in a different form, from the food that we eat. Fortunately, there is plenty of nitrogen in
food to nourish our bodies. Nitrogen is found in large amounts in all kinds of food. Spaghetti,
salads, breakfast cereal, hamburgers and even cookies have lots of nitrogen in the form that our
bodies need. When your body digests this food and makes it into energy, the first step is to remove
nitrogen atoms from the molecules in the food. While your body is busy digesting the rest of this
food and making it into energy, these nitrogen atoms are already being used to help you grow.
One specific time that this is especially important is during pregnancy. When a woman is pregnant,
the nitrogen removed from food during digestion is needed to help the fetus to grow properly. By
term, the mother and infant will have accumulated over a pound of nitrogen. It is also worth

S
noting that in the plant kingdom, nitrogen is one of the 3 main elements that make plant life

A
possible. (Potassium and phosphorus are the other two, and you may hear them referred to

I
collectively as N-P-K whenever talking about key plant nutrients.)

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Oxygen (O) - a macronutrient

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It may seem obvious that people need to breathe oxygen to survive, but plants need this element
too. Many people think plants "breathe" carbon dioxide and "exhale" oxygen. But in reality, plants
also "breathe" oxygen at certain times. Without oxygen, plants could not survive. Without plants,
we wouldn't have food to eat. It is also worth mentioning that water is a compound of hydrogen
and oxygen (H20) and that water is absolutely necessary for virtually all life as we know it. Water
is incredibly important in our bodies. In fact, more than 50% of our bodies are made of water. It
dissolves other life-supporting substances and transports them to fluids in and around our cells.
It is also a place in which important reactions take place in our bodies. Many people consider
water to be the "blood of life". When you consider the full importance of oxygen, it becomes clear
that this versatile element is the single most important substance to life.

Phosphorus (P) - a macronutrient

Phosphorus is one of the most abundant minerals in the human body, second only to calcium.
This essential mineral is required for the healthy formation of bones and teeth, and is necessary
for our bodies to process many of the foods that we eat. It is also a part of the body's energy
storage system, and helps with maintaining healthy blood sugar levels. Phosphorus is also found
in substantial amounts in the nervous system. The regular contractions of the heart are dependant
upon phosphorus, as are normal cell growth and repair. Since phosphorus is found in almost all
plant and animal food sources, a deficiency of this mineral is rarely seen. However, phosphorus
deficiency can and does occur, particularly in people who take certain types of antacids for many
years. Since phosphorus is important in maintaining the body's energy system and proper blood
sugar levels, it should seem logical that not getting enough of this mineral will affect the energy
General Science 146

level in the entire body. Indeed, feeling easily fatigued, weak and having a decreased attention
span can be symptoms of mild phosphate deficiency. It is also worth noting that in the plant
kingdom, phosphorus is one of the 3 main elements that make plant life possible. (Potassium and
nitrogen are the other two, and you may hear them referred to collectively as N-P-K whenever
talking about key plant nutrients.) The human body must maintain a balance between magnesium
phosphorus, and calcium.
Excess intake of phosphorus can occur in people with diets high in processed foods, soft drinks,
and meats, leading to osteoporosis. The Recommended Dietary Allowances for phosphorus is 300
milligrams for infants and between 800 and 1,200 milligrams for adults. It is estimated that
Americans ingest on average between 1,500 and 1,600 milligrams of phosphorus per day, almost
twice the recommended amount. Foods highest in phosphorus include asparagus, brewers yeast,
dairy products, eggs, fish, dried fruit, meats, garlic, legumes, nuts and seeds, and whole grains.
Many antacids, which are widely used for treatment of peptic ulcer disease, gastritis (heart burn)
and acid reflux, contain magnesium and aluminum, both of which bind to phosphate, preventing
its absorption into the body.

Potassium (K) - a macronutrient

The element Potassium is an extremely important element in the human body. Our bodies are
made up of millions of tiny cells, such as brain cells, skin cells, liver cells etc. These cells make up
the different organs in our bodies, such as the brain, skin, or liver. Potassium is extremely important
to cells, and without it, we could not survive. Cells are the small building blocks of the human

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body. In order to work properly, cells need to let things enter and leave them. Cells have many

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ways by which they can control what (and how much) enters and leaves. Most of the ways that
cells do this requires potassium. In fact, without potassium, cells loose control of what can enter

EN
and leave them. As you can imagine, this could be very bad. Imagine a nerve cell in your finger
for a moment. Normally, it doesn't really do very much. But when you touch something, it sends

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messages down a chain of many nerves to your brain that help you determine what it is that you
just touched. When a nerve cell does this, it actually pumps out chemicals, which give the message
to the next nerve cell and eventually to the brain. Potassium helps control the release of those
chemicals. Without potassium, the nerve cell couldn't send those messages to your brain. But it is
not just nerve cells that depend on potassium. Most, if not all, of our cells depend on it. Just think
of it for a minute. Every time you flex your muscles, blink your eyes, yawn in chemistry class, eat
lunch, or do anything, you are using potassium. This element is indeed a very important element
in our bodies. It is also worth noting that in the plant kingdom, potassium is one of the 3 main
elements that make plant life possible. (Nitrogen and phosphorus are the other two, and you may
hear them referred to collectively as N-P-K whenever talking about key plant nutrients.)

Selenium (Se)
Despite selenium's reputation as a toxic heavy metal, this element is actually very important
to good human health. Selenium is an important part of a molecule in the body that protects blood
cells from certain damaging chemicals. Together with vitamin E, selenium helps our immune
system produce antibodies, which is obviously an immensely important task. Selenium helps
keep the pancreas and heart functioning properly. This remarkable element is also needed to
make our tissues elastic. Imagine, for instance, if our skin wasn't elastic; we'd have loose skin
draping all over our bodies. It may be cool to have loose clothes draping all over our bodies, but
people might make fun of you if you had that much loose skin. A deficiency of this vital trace
element has been linked to the development of leukemia, arthritis, and other diseases. Researchers
have also found that the lower the concentration of selenium in the blood stream, the higher the
147 General Science

risk of developing many types of cancer. In fact, some researchers tout selenium as being a powerful
cancer-preventing substance. High selenium intake has also been correlated with a dramatically
lower incidence of heart disease. The amount of selenium in food is dependent on the amount of
the element in the environment where the food is from. Fish, grains and brazil nuts are considered
to be good dietary sources of selenium. However, in the current global marketplace it is difficult
to know whether the food you eat comes from selenium-rich or selenium-poor growing areas. As
with virtually all elements, it is easy to get enough selenium from a well balanced diet.

Silicon (Si)
If we reflect upon what we all know about silicon for a moment, some of us may recognize
silicon as being the key component of sand. Others may think of computer chips; and there is no
doubt a few that think of breast implants. Few of us would consider that silicon is something our
bodies actually need to be healthy. Silicon is indeed a very common mineral that is required by
our bodies. We use it, along with calcium, to grow and maintain strong bones. It is also important
to the formation of connective tissues, like ligaments and tendons. Silicon is also important for the
growth of hair, skin and fingernails. Unfortunately, despite the fact that silicon is important to the
human body, there is comparatively little being done to learn more about why and exactly how it
is important for good health. It is possible that silicon is influential in preventing veins and arteries
from getting hard and stiff, though there is no clear understanding of how this element affects
artery hardening. Also, it is known that silicon reduces the effectiveness of aluminum in the body.
It has been suggested that silicon may be able to delay or prevent Alzheimer's disease. But once

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again, it is unclear how silicon may affect this degenerative disease of the brain. A form of silicon

A
is actually a home remedy for problems with weakening bones, painful joints and aging skin,

N I
though there is no clear evidence that it actually helps such conditions. Generally it is quite easy
to get plenty of silicon in a normal diet and deficiencies are extremely rare. Foods rich in silicon

Sodium (Na) E
include whole grain breads and cereals, alfalfa, beets, bell peppers, beans and peas.

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Sodium is an element that is vital to human life. Together with potassium and chlorine, it
forms a very important part of blood plasma. Without sodium, our cells could not get the nutrients
they need to survive. Sodium also allows our bodies to maintain the right blood chemistry and
the correct amount of water in our blood. This element also allows our muscles to contract normally.
Furthermore, our bodies need sodium to digest the food that we eat. Normal functioning of our
nervous system also depends on this important element. Having the proper amount of sodium in
our blood is so important that our bodies have special ways to maintain the right levels of this
important element. For instance, if you eat a bag of salty potato chips (salt is actually a compound
of sodium and chlorine), your body will soon sense that there is too much sodium in your body.
Your body's first response will be to become thirsty. When you drink water, the sodium in your
blood becomes diluted and then your kidneys can remove the excess sodium that you consumed
when you ate the salty potato chips. The foods that most Americans eat are very high in salt
content (i.e. potato chips, French fries and popcorn). Salt is really a compound of sodium and
chlorine. Therefore, most Americans consume far more sodium than our bodies actually need
and it is uncommon that someone would not get enough of this element. One situation that a
sodium deficiency can occur, however, is when you sweat a large amount from playing sports or
exercising extensively. Your sweat contains a lot of sodium and if you sweat enough, you will
loose too much sodium. This can lead to dehydration, weakness and mental confusion. Many
athletes drink sports drinks that contain a lot of sodium, like Gatorade, to prevent this from
happening.
General Science 148

Sulfur (S) - a macronutrient

S is an important element that is used in small amounts to help construct virtually all parts of
the human body. Sulfur helps protect the cells in our bodies from environmental hazards such as
air pollution and radiation. Consequently, sulfur slows down the aging process and extends our
life span. Also, sulfur helps our liver function properly, helps us digest the food that we eat and
then turn that food into energy. Sulfur is also important for helping our blood clot when we cut or
bruise ourselves. Additionally, sulfur is an important part of vitamin B1 and insulin. Interestingly,
sulfur is also an important part of a substance that keeps your skin supple and elastic. If you don't
think that is important, just imagine trying to get a date to the homecoming dance with stiff, loose
skin hanging all over your body. Fortunately, there is plenty of sulfur in the food that we eat and
it is easy to get enough of this important element in our daily diets. There is no need to worry
about getting too much sulfur in your diet. If you get more than your body needs, you just excrete
it in your urine. Foods that have a lot of sulfur include meats, fish, dairy products, eggs and garlic.

Tin (Sn)
Tin is possibly an essential element for animals, but no specific role for tin in human health
has been identified. Some scientists suspect that extremely small quantities of tin are necessary
for some species of animals, such as rats, to grow and develop correctly. Some nutritional
supplement retailers suggest that a deficiency in tin can cause baldness in humans, but that has
not been proven. Actually, no specific function of any kind for tin has been identified in humans.

Titanium (Ti)

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Very little has been written on the biological role of titanium. Titanium has no known biological
use in humans, although it is known to act as a stimulant. In some plants, titanium is used in

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chemical energy production. Titanium is used in prosthetics because it won't react with the

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blologtcai tlssues in the body.

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Tungsten (W)
Opinions are mixed about the need for tungsten in plant and animal life processes, although it
has been proved to be necessary for certain bacteria. This element has a small function in biological
processes. Tungsten is used by certain non-oxygen consuming bacteria in extremely hot ocean
environments, such as in hot ocean sediments and deep-sea ocean vents. The bacteria in these
environments use tungsten to produce special chemicals called enzymes, which are necessary for
certain life processes. Exactly how tungsten is used by these unique and interesting bacteria is
quite complex and beyond the scope of this discussion. It is not known if humans need tungsten
for good health. Tungsten is thought to be used by a small number of enzymes in a fashion similar
to molybdenum. Here's how it might be important. The enzymes described above are in a class of
enzymes that perform important tasks for human health. However, the enzymes in this class that
humans use incorporate molybdenum, not tungsten, into their structures. Some sources indicate
that tungsten is important to humans. But their reasoning is faulty: (a) tungsten is in some of the
enzymes of enzyme class "x" (b) some enzymes of class "x" are important to human health (c)
therefore, tungsten is important to human health.

Vanadium (V)
Vanadium has recently been declared by some scientists to be essential for good human health.
It is believed that vanadium is involved in helping the body convert some foods into energy. It
has also been suggested that diabetics may benefit from vanadium when trying to stabilize blood
sugar levels. This element is also thought to help bones and teeth form properly. There is not a
great deal of scientific knowledge as to the exact importance of vanadium. Actually, no specific
149 General Science

symptoms of vanadium deficiency have been identified in human beings. It is possible that not
getting enough of this element may affect the body's ability to control blood sugar levels and
contribute to developing diabetes or hypoglycemia (abnormally low blood sugar levels). Some
scientists suspect that a deficiency of this mineral may increase the chance of getting kidney and
heart disease. Some research has also shown that vanadium may slow the growth of tumors and
provide protection against the development of breast cancer. But more research is clearly needed
to determine its exact role in human health. As is the case with most, if not all, of the biologically
important elements, it is easy to get enough of this element from a healthy, balanced diet. Good
sources of vanadium include seafood, mushrooms, olives, whole grain breads, carrots and vegetable
oils.

Zinc (Zn) - a micronutrient

Zinc has been recognized as an essential trace element for plants, animals and humans for
more than 70 years. Though the average adult body only contains between 2-3 grams of zinc (a
paperclip weighs about one gram), this element has some very important functions. Zinc is involved
in well over one hundred different reactions in the body. Some of these reactions help our bodies
construct and maintain DNA, the molecule that controls how every single part of our bodies is
made and works. Zinc is also needed for the growth and repair of tissues throughout our bodies.
This extremely important element is used to form connective tissue like ligaments and tendons.
Teeth, bones, nails, skin and hair could not grow without zinc. Zinc is widely considered by
doctors to be one of the most important elements to a healthy immune system. This unique element

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is essential for the creation, release and use of hormones in the body. It helps developing fetuses

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grow correctly and our brains to work right. Additionally, our senses of sight, taste and smell

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depend on this element. Not getting enough zinc can have serious effects on our health. Some of

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the symptoms of zinc deficiency include hair loss, mental apathy and damage to reproductive

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organs. Decreased growth rate and impaired mental capacity are other symptoms. Additionally,

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you can loose most of your senses of taste and smell, develop mental disorders and men can even
become impotent without enough zinc. Many factors affect how well our bodies absorb zinc in
the food we eat, and at times it can be difficult to get enough zinc - even from a well balanced diet.
Good sources of zinc include whole wheat bread, seafood and other animal meats.

Aluminum
Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main
source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning
industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).

Antimony
Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element,
but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants
as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.

Asbestos
Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are
flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn,
cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement
pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products,
paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must
protect against fibers becoming airborne.
General Science 150

Basalt
Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in
highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.

Barium
Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive
in oil-well- drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and
glass manufacturing.

Beryllium
Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear
defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium
salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a
beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.

Bismuth
Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth
alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts,
and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced
toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering.
Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-
Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.

Boron

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Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is

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used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents.
Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and

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various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for
abrasives and cutting tools.

Bromine
Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded
gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations.
Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element.

Cadmium
Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is
obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)

Calcium
The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It
used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber,
for the production of lime, and as crushed stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium
are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-
bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium
magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal
is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought
to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On
a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined,
and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year.
151 General Science

Cement
Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is a mixture of powdered
lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic
cement) or as a binding material in concrete".

Chromium
Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super
alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,AI,FeSO4

Clays
There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are
used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor
and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing,
absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.

Cobalt
Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with
steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal
include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments,
porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (CO3S4), Cobaltite
CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)l-xSx.

Copper

IAS
Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing

N
materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer

E
and general products; coins; and jewelry.

ET
Diamond
Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools
and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used
for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.

Diatomite
Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons
made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of
drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals
and environmental cleanup technologies.

Dolomite
Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine
environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture,
chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractory, and environmental
industries.

Feldspar
Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain
and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing
materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.
General Science 152

Fluorite
Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics,
optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of
bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes,
emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Garnet
Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives
used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral
that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks".

Germanium
"Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper
ores". Applications include use in fiber-optic components, which are replacing copper in long-
distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.

Gold
Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots.
It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the
electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

Granite

I S
Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for

A
monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad
ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.

Graphite

EN
ET
Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener
and for brake linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production comes
from Korea, India, and Mexico.

Gypsum
Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement
manufacture, and for agriculture.

Halite
Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as food
preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric
acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides,
mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and
scientific equipment for optical parts.

Iodine
Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized
salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.

Iron Ore
Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such
as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The
Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.
153 General Science

Lead
Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding,
ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from
Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.

Limestone
A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the
same composition CaCO3. Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of
the construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and
in fluxes, glass, refractory, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.

Lithium
Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers,
defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency
communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.

Magnesium
Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers,
animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine {Fe, Mg}
2SiO4, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg (CO3)2.

Manganese

IAS
Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore
minerals Braunite (Mn, Sih03, Pyrolusite Mn02, and Psilomelane BaMn9O S*2H2O.

Mercury

EN
ET
Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic
production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments
{thermometers and thermostats}.

Mica
Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is
used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in well drilling mud and
lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.

Molybdenum
Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels {9%}, cast irons {7%}, and chemical
lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts,
construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as pure metal molybdenum is used as filament
supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting
temperature (2,623°C).

Nickel
Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace
industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.

Phosphate rock
Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate
fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals
General Science 154

for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North
Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These
elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements.
Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial
plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals;
and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.

Potash
Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element
potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts. Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the
chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.

Pyrite
Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets
of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.

Quartz
Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst,
citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate

I S
electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators,

A
and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractory,
and precision instruments.

Sandstone

EN
ET
Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete,
railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.

Silica / Silicon
Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics,
abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint,
and as a thermal insulator.

Silver
Silver is used in photography, chemistry, electrical and electronic products (because of its
very high conductivity), fine silverware, electroplated wire, jewelry, coins, and brazing alloys
and solders.

Strontium
Photo luminescent exit signs use a class of newly developed phosphorescent pigments that
are based on strontium oxide aluminates chemistry.

Sulfur
Sulfur is of importance to every sector of the world's manufacturing processes, drugs, and
fertilizer complexes. Sulfur is used as an industrial raw material through its major derivative,
sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid production is the major end use for sulfur. Most sulfur goes into fertilizer;
oil refining is another major use as well as a source of sulfur.
155 General Science

Talc
The primary use for talc is in the production of paper. Ground talc is used as filler in ceramics,
paint, paper, roofing, plastics, cosmetics, and in agriculture. Talc is found in many common
household products, such as baby (talcum) powder, deodorant, and makeup. Very pure talc is
used in fine arts and is called soapstone. It is often used to carve figurines.

Tin
Tin is used in the manufacture of cans and containers, electrical equipment, and chemicals.

Titanium
Titanium is a metal used mostly in jet engines, airframes, and space and missile applications.
In powdered form, titanium is used as a white pigment for paints, paper, plastics, rubber, and
other materials.

Trona
Trona is used in glass container manufacture, fiberglass, specialty glass, flat glass, liquid
detergents, medicine, food additives, photography, cleaning and boiler compounds, and control
of water pH. Trona is mined mainly in Wyoming.

Tungsten
Tungsten is used in steel production, metalworking, cutting applications, construction electrical
machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, light bulbs, carbide drilling equipment,

Uranium
IAS
heat and radiation shielding, textile dyes, enamels, paints, and for coloring glass.

EN
Uranium is a radioactive material used in nuclear defense systems and for nuclear generation

ET
of electricity. It also used in nuclear-medicine x-ray machines, atomic dating, and electronic
instruments.

Zeolites
Some of the uses of zeolite minerals include aquaculture (for removing ammonia from the
water in fish hatcheries), water softener, catalysts, cat litter, odor control, and removing radioactive
ions from nuclear plant effluent.

Zinc
Zinc is used as protective coating on steel, as die casting, as an alloying metal with copper to
make brass, and as chemical compounds in rubber and paint. Additional uses include galvanizing
iron, electroplating, metal spraying, automotive parts, electrical fuses, anodes, dry-cell batteries,
nutrition, chemicals, roof gutters, cable wrapping, and pennies. Zinc oxide is used in medicine,
paints, vulcanizing rubber, and sun- block lotions.

Zirconium
Zirconium is a metal recovered from zircon. "Zircon is used in mineral form in refractory
products, where it is valued for its high melting temperature of 2,550°C. Some zircon is processed
by chemical leaching to yield elemental zirconium. The best known use for zirconium metal is in
nuclear reactors, where zirconium contains the fuel".
General Science 156

Practice Questions
1. The element not present in fertilisers is
(a) nitrogen (b) hydrogen
(c) chlorine (d) phosphorus
2. Cooking gas is a mixture of
(a) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(b) butane and propane
(c) methane and ethylene
(d) carbon dioxide and oxygen
3. The Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI, India) is located in
(a) Allahabad (b) Lucknow
(b) Delhi (d) Bangalore
4. The first metal to be used by man was
(a) aluminium (b) copper
(c) Silver (d) Iron
5. The gas used in fire extinguishers is
(a) Nitrogen (b) sulphur dioxide

6.
(c) carbon dioxide
An antipyretic is a drug that
IAS (d) hydrogen

(a)

N
Lowers body temperature

E
ET
(b) raises body temperature
(c) kills microbes
(d) is used in viral attacks
7. The metal generally mixed with’ gold’while making ornaments is
(a) zinc (b) iron
(c) silver (d) copper
8. The number of isotopes in which hydrogen exists are
(a) 1 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 2
9. Washing soda is
(a) sodium cholride (b) hydrated sodium carbonate
(c) sodium bicarbonate (d) calcium carbonate
10. The main chemical substance present in, the bones and teeth of animals is
(a) sodium chloride (b) sugar
(c) calcium phosphate (d) calcium sulphate
11. DDT is the name of a chemical that can be usded as a/an
(a) Antiseptic (b) Insecticide
(c) Antibiotic (d) fertiliser
157 General Science

12. The greatest number of compounds are formed by the element

(a) hydrogen (b) carbon
(c) oxygen (d) nitrogen
13. Gasoline is the name given to the same substance as
(a) diesel oil (b) petrol
(c) natural gas (d) crude oil
14. Diamond is chemically
(a) a mixture of metal carbonates
(b) pure carbon
(c) a pure form of sand
(d) a mixture of calcium and magnesium phosphates
15. Cooking gas supplied in cylinders by gas agencies is in the form of
(a) liquid (b) gas
(c) solid (d) a solution
16. The gas used for inflating balloons is
(a) Nitorgen (b) Hydrogen
(c) helium (d) Air
17.
(a) carbon dioxide

I S
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is

A (b) helium
(c) nitrogen

EN (d) oxygen

ET
18. Half life of radioactive substance is 60 rnin: during 3 hrs, the fraction of total no. of atoms
that would ‘have decayed would be
(a) 12.5% (b) 25%
(b) 8.5% (d) 87.5%
19. The elements present inthe largest amounts in rocks and minerals is
(a) silicon (b) cabon
(c) hydrogen (d) gold
20. The nature of saliva is
(a) neutral (b) acidic
(c) basic (d) amphoteric
21. Haemoglobin is
(a) the colouring matter of leaves of plants
(b) the colouring matter of blood
(c) a compound present in milk
(d) a compound that transmists signals to the brain
22. Chemically, dry ice is
(a) ice formed from pure distilled water
(b) solid carbon dioxide
General Science 158

(c) solid sulphur dioxide

(d) ice kept at sub-zero temperatures
23. A gas which is not present in normal samples of air is
(a) neon (b) cholrine
(c) carbon dioxide (d) helium
24. The purity of primary gold is
(a) 32 carat (b) 24 quartz
(c) 24 carat (d) 22 carat
25. Pencil 'lead' is made up of
(a) graphite (b) charcoal
(c) lead oxide (d) lampblack
26. The acid present is lemons and oranges is
(a) acetic acid (b) hydrochloric acid
(c) citric acid (d) oxalic acid
27. A mixture of two or more metals is called by the general name
(a) amalgam (b) alkali metal
(c) noble metal (d) alloy
28.
(a) antiseptic
IAS
A drug that prevents infection and decay is called a/an
(b) antimalarial drug
(c) gemicide

EN (d) analgesic

ET
29. Product gas chemically consists of
(a) CO + H2 (b) CO+N2
(c) CO2+N2 (d) CO2+H2
30. Water for civil supplies is commonly purified by
(a) chlorination (b) distillation
(c) filtration (d) decantation

Answers
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1. (c) 11. (b) 21. (b)
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2. (b) 12. (b) 22. (b)
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3. (c) 13. (b) 23. (b)
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4. (b) 14. (b) 24. (c)
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5. (c) 15. (a) 25. (a)
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6. (a) 16. (c) 26. (c)
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7. (d) 17. (c) 27. (d)
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8. (c) 18. (d) 28. (a)
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9. (b) 19. (a) 29. (b)
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10. (c) 20. (b) 30. (a)
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159 General Science

A
Physics
I S
EN
ET
General Science 160

Physics
Physical Quantities, Standards and Units
Physical quantities may , in general, be divided in two classes (1) Scalar Quantity, (2) Vector
Quantity.
Scalar Quantity : A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude.
Vector Quantity : A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Unit: A unit determines the measure of any physical quantity. There are seven basic physical
quantities whose units are considered as the basic units. All these quantities form a system which
is known as International System of Units abbreviated as SI.

1960.

IAS
This system was developed in the General Conference on Weights and Measures in the year

Physical Quantity

EN Unit Symbol Year of Adoption

ET
Length metre m 1960
Mass kilogram kg 1960
Time second s 1948
Electric Current ampere A 1987
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K 1967
Luminous Intensity candela Cd 1967
Amount of Substance mole mol 1971

Mechanics and Properties of Matter

Motion : When a body changes its position with respect to any other object or body as the
time goes on, then it is said that the body is in the motion. Motion is of two types:
(i) Translational (linear) Motion.
(ii) Rotational (spin) Motion.
Concepts in Motion
Speed : The rate at which a moving body is covering the distance, is known as speed.

Speed = Distance travelled

Time taken
Velocity : The rate of distance covered in a specified direction is known as the velocity.
Acceleration : The rate of change of the velocity is called the acceleration.
161 General Science

Change in speed
Acceleration =
Time taken
Change in speed/Velocity
Acceleration =
Time
Acceleration Due to Gravity : This acceleration taken by the Force which always attracts
is caused
any object towards the centre of the earth. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) on the
surface of the earth is about 9.8 m/s2/
Graphs : There are three types of graphs
(i) Displacement/distance — Time Graph
(ii) Velocity/Speed — Time Graph
(iii) Acceleration — Time Graph
Displacement Time Graph

➤
l The slope of this graph gives the value of velocity at that particular

Displacement
instant
l Straight line in Displacement—Time graph represent the uniform
velocity.
Velocity Time Graph Time
➤

➤
l The slope of this graph represents the acceleration at that
particular instant.

Velocity
S
l The area under the graph represents the value of displacement.
Different Velocity Time Graphs

N IA Time
➤

E
➤

ET
v v v
Co
on ns
ti tan
l era tR
Constant Velocity
A cce eta
ta nt r da
ns tio
Co n

➤ ➤ ➤
t t t
➤

v v
Irregular Bounce
One Bounce

➤ ➤
t t

Acceleration—Time Graph

l The area under the curve will represent the velocity

Force : The word Force generally denotes a push or pull, but we can define the force in another
manner as well. Before that we must be known to the state of any object. There are two type of
state for any object (i) State of Rest, (ii) State of Motion.
General Science 162

Now the force can be defined as “A cause due to which a body changes its shape, size, state or
direction.”
Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law : “Every object continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion until and unless
no external force is applied on the object.”
Second Law : This law states that “the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional
to the applied unbalanced force.”
F = ma Momentum = Mass × Velocity
Third Law : This law states that “to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
examples of third law are Rocket Propulsion, Jet engine, etc.
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation : It states that every particle in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. In equation form, the
gravitational force
m1m2
F =G
r2
Pressure : Pressure is defined as force acting per unit area
Force
Pressure =

IAS Area
The SI unit of pressure is newton per metre squared or pascal.

N
Atmospheric Pressure : The air surrounding the earth is called the atmosphere. Air has weight

E
and therefore exerts pressure not only on the earth’s surface but on all objects on the earth. In fact,

ET
human beings and other animals are living at the bottom of an ocean of air which exerts enormous
pressure. This pressure is not felt because the blood exerts almost same pressure from inside but
in opposite direction which balances atmospheric pressure.
Work, Power and Energy
Work : A work is said to be done when a force produces motion and is measured by the
product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
Power : Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. The unit of energy also is joule (J).
Kinetic Energy : The energy possessed by an object due to its motion is called kinetic energy
and is described by the expression

KE = 1 mv 2
2
Potential Energy: The energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position is called potential
energy and is described by the expression
PE = mgh
Matter and Its Properties
States of Matter : Matter commonly exists in three states: the solid state, the liquid state and
the gaseous state. In all states the molecules are perpetually moving. In a solid, molecules vibrate
about fixed positions. Molecules in a liquid also vibrate but simultaneously they move freely
163 General Science

throughout the material. In a gas the molecules are much further apart than in solids and liquids
and move at high velocities.

Molecular Properties of Matter

(i) Diffusion : Diffusion is the mixing up of molecules of different gases, liquids and even
solids. When a bottle of perfume is opened in one corner of a room, its molecules mix with
molecules of air and smell soon spreads even to the far corner of the room. The diffusion in
liquids is not as fast as in air.
(ii) Surface Tension : The force that causes the surface of liquids to behave as a thin, elastic
film is known as surface tension.
(iii) Capillarity : If a clean glass tube having a small inside diameter (called a capillary tube) is
dipped in water, the water rises in the tube. This phenomenon is called capillarity.
(iv) Viscosity : Viscosity describes a fluid’s internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is another
molecular property of fluids (gases and liquids). It is measured in terms of the coefficient of
viscosity, h. Its SI unit is pas (Pascal second). Liquids have higher coefficients of viscosity
than gases. Some liquids are more viscous than others. For example, honey is more viscous
than water.
Elasticity
Elasticity (or stretchiness) is the inherit property of a body by which the body tries to regain its
original shape after removal of any deforming force acting on it. Example : An eraser coming back

Some Important Definitions

IAS
to its normal shape after being pressed.

(i)
body.

EN
Deforming Force : A force that changes or tends to change the physical dimensions of a

ET
(ii) Restoring Force : It is an internal force which tries to regain its original dimensions after
removal of any deforming force.
(iii) Elastic Body : A body that has property of elasticity.
(iv) Inelasticity (Plasticity) : An inherit property of a body which does not regain its original
shape after removal of any deforming force.
Stress : It is force acting per unit area on a body.

Stress = F
A
Strain : It is the ratio of the elongation of the material due to the deforming force ( ∆ L) to the
original length of the substance (L)

Density and Relative Density

Density : The mass per unit volume of a substance is called its density.
Mass
Density =
Volume
The SI unit of density is kilogram per metre cubed.
Density of water is 1,000 kg/m3 (or 1 g/cm3). The densities of some of the common substances
General Science 164

are listed in the following table:

Substance Density in kg/m3
Alcohol 790
Aluminium 2,700
Copper 8,900
Gold 19,300
Lead 11,300
Mercury 13,600
Platinum 21,500
Steel (varies) 7,800
Turpentine 870
Water 1,000
Wood (varies) 700
Relative Density : The relative density (RD) of a substance is the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of water. Relative density has no unit. From the table of densities we find
that the RD of mercury is 13.6 and that of turpentine 0.87.
Archimedes’ Principle : This principle states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed
in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

S
Law of Floatation : Illustrates the law of floatation which states: A floating body displaces

A
equal to its own weight the fluid in which it floats.

N I
Bernoulli’s Theorem : When a fluid flows from one place to another without friction, its total
energy (kinetic + potential + pressure) remains constant.

ETE
An important corollary of this theorem is: pressure in a fluid decreases with increased velocity
of the fluid.

HEAT
Definitions
l The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
l A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some
standard value.
l A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed
in terms of units or degrees designated on a standard scale.
l A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical system, to
transfer heat energy to another physical system.
l Any of various standardized numerical measures of this ability, such as the Kelvin,
Fahrenheit, and Celsius scale.
Temperature Scale
Celsius Scale, Centigrade Scale, International Scale (oC) : A temperature scale that defines
the freezing point of water as 0 degrees and the boiling point of water as 100 degrees.
Fahrenheit Scale (oF) : A temperature scale that defines the freezing point of water as 32 degrees
and the boiling point of water as 212 degrees.
Absolute Scale, Kelvin Scale (K) : A temperature scale that defines absolute zero as 0 degrees;
water freezes at 273.16 degrees and boils at 373.16 degrees.
165 General Science

Rankine Scale (Ra) : A scale of absolute temperature in Fahrenheit degrees; the freezing point
of water is 491.69 degrees and the boiling point of water is 671.69 degrees.
Reaumur Scale (Re) : A temperature scale on which water freezes at 0 degrees and boils at 80
degrees.
Conversion of Temperatures
C-0
/100 = F-32/180 = K-273/100 = Re-0/80 = Ra-491.67/180

Transmission of Heat
There are three ways of transmission of heat : (i) conduction, (ii) convection, and (iii) radiation.
Conduction : The transfer of energy, such as heat, through a substance. In heat conduction,
energy is transferred from molecule to molecule by direct contract; the molecules themselves do
not necessarily change position, but simply vibrate more or less quickly against each other.
e.g.,
l Touching a stove and being burned,
l Ice cooling down your hand,
l Boiling water by thrusting a red-hot piece of iron into it, etc.
Convection : The process of heat transfer through a gas or liquid by bulk motion of hotter
material into a cooler region.

S
e.g., Hot air rising, Cooling, and falling (convection currents).

radiation.

N IA
Radiation : The process, in which heat transfer is done without any medium, is known

E
e.g.,

ET
l Heat from the sun warming your face,
l Heat from a light bulb,
l Heat from a fire, etc.
Some Important Concepts
Internal Energy : Matter is composed of continually moving molecules. The total kinetic and
potential energy of these molecules is termed as the internal energy.
Newton’s Law of Cooling : The rate at which a body loses heat is directly proportional to the
difference between its temperature and surrounding temperature.
Latent Heat : The amount of heat required to produce a change of phase is called latent heat,
and hence, latent heat of sublimation, melting and vaporization exist.
Specific Heat : The heat capacity, or the measure of the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree is known as specific heat.
Vibration and Waves
Simple Harmonic Motion : When any object is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position,
it will oscillate about its equilibrium position. Such type of motion is called simple Harmonic
Motion (SHM).
Oscillations : Oscillations are repeated motion back and forth past a position of equilibrium.
There are three main type of oscillations.
(a) Free Oscillation : SHM with a constant amplitude and period and no external
influences.
General Science 166

(b) Demped Oscillations : SHM but with a decreasing amplitude and varying period
due to external or internal damping forces.
(c) Forced Oscillations : SHM but driven externally.
Waves
Wave Motion : Wave motion is a mechanism by which energy is transferred from one place
to another without the transfer of matter. Waves are divided into following types :
(i) Longitudinal Waves : If the vibration of particles is parallel to the direction of motion,
the wave is known as a longitudinal waves.
(ii) Transverse Wave : The vibrations of particle are perpendicular to the wave motion,
the wave is known as transverse wave.

IAS
EN Longitudinal Wave

ET
Transverse Wave
Diffraction : Deviation of waves from the corners or edges is known as diffraction.
Interference : The point where the crests or troughs of two different waves with the same
frequency, pass at the same time is known as Interference.
Additional Information Regarding Wave Application
Amplitude Modulation (AM) : It is a form of modulation used for radio transmissions for
broadcasting and two way radio applications. In amplitude modulation the amplitude has been
modulated leaving its frequency unaffected. The signal is received at the receiver end amplified
and converted to a sound wave.
Frequency Modulation : Only the frequency of the carrier wave is modulated increasing and
decreasing at same rate as the impressed audible signal frequency. Since electrical disturbances in
the atmosphere affect only the amplitude and not the frequency of the modulated wave, FM
transmission is noise free.
WBFM : Wide Band Frequency Modulation.
167 General Science

NBFM : Narrow Band Frequency Modulation.

Radar : Radio detection and ranging employs high frequency radio waves for detecting objects
like ships and aeroplanes.
Microwave Owen : As the name suggests, a microwave oven cooks food using microwaves.
Microwaves are generated in the oven at a frequency of about 2450 MHZ by means of magnetron.
Computed Tomography : Computed Tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method
employing tomography. It generates a three dimensional image of the inside of an object from a
series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation.
Radar : Radio detection and ranging employs high frequency radio waves for detecting objects
like ships and aeroplanes.
Important Terms Related to Waves
Amplitude : The maximum distance travelled by the vibration of a wave.
Wavelength : The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs.
Frequency : No. of oscillations or vibrations in one second.
Time Period : Time taken by the wave in the completion of one oscillation is known as time
period.

Description Wavelength Frequency

gamma rays 1 Ao (10-10 m) 1018 HZ
X-Rays
Ultraviolet
IAS 1 nm (10-9 m)
1 µ m (10-6 m)
1017 HZ
1014 HZ
Visible light

EN 10-4 m 1012 HZ

ET
Infrared 1 cm 1010 HZ
Microwaves 1m 108 HZ
TV, FM 1 km 105 HZ
Sound Waves : Sound waves are produced by the vibration of material objects, thus we can
say that the sound waves are a type of energy which are transformed from mechanical energy.
Sound waves are of following three types:
1. Audible Waves : Those mechanical waves which has minimum frequency of 20 Hz and
maximum of 20,000 Hz.
2. Infrasonic Waves : Those sound waves which has frequency less than 20 Hz and are not
audible to human beings, e.g., Waves generated inside the earth during the earthquake.
3. Ultrasonic Waves : The sound waves having frequency more than 20,000 Hz are known as
ultrasonic waves. Some animals like dog, cat, bat, dolphin can hear these sound waves.
SONAR : Sound Navigation Ranging is the method with the help of which the depth can be
estimated and the distance between the objects can be calculated. In SONAR ultrasonic waves are
used.
Characteristic of Sounds
1. Sound : Sound is a type of longitudinal wave and can travel only in a medium. Sound can
not travel in vacuum as there is no medium.
2. Loudness : The loudness of a sound is related to the energy of the waves and depends on
amplitude. The relative loudness of a sound is measured in decibels.
General Science 168

3. Pitch and Frequency : The pitch (shrillness) of a sound depends on its frequency. A sound
of higher frequency has a higher pitch. The pitch of woman’s voice is higher than that of a
man.
4. Speed of Sound : Speed of sound depends on the medium through which it is passing, and
that’s why the speed of sound is different for different medium. In any medium the speed
of sound depends mainly on elasticity of the medium and density of the medium.
l Greater the elasticity of the medium greater will be the speed of sound.
l Greater the density of the medium greater will be the speed of sound.
Medium Speed of Sound in m/s at 0oC
CO2 260
Air 332
o
Steam (100 C) 405
Alcohol 1213
Hydrogen 1269
Mercury 1450
Water 1493
Sea Water 1533
Iron 5130
Glass 5640

S
Aluminium 6420
l

IA
On increasing the temperature of medium the speed of sound will also increase. On
increasing the temperature by 1o the speed of sound will increase by 0.61 m/s.

N
There is no effect of change in pressure.

E
l

ET
l Speed of sound is more in humid air.
l Speed of sound is different in different gases. Lighter the gas greater will be the speed
of sound.

LIGHT
Light is the form of energy which causes the sensation of vision. Self-luminous objects, such
as the sun and the stars, are sources of light. Some living creatures, such as glow-worms or
hatchetfish, are also self-luminous. The electric lamp and candle are examples of artificial luminous
sources.
Most objects are non-luminous and can be seen only when a source of light is present. Planets
and their satellites, which receives light from sun, are examples of non-luminous objects.
Ray and Beam of Light : The direction of the path taken by light is called a ray, which is
represented by a line with an arrow on it. A number of rays constitute a beam of light. A beam of
light may be converging, diverging or parallel.
Eclipses : The moon is seen because it reflects the sun’s light. An eclipse of the moon (lunar
eclipse) occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon and prevents some of the
light from the sun from reaching the moon. In other words, the earth casts its shadow on the
moon.
The solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth.
Reflection : When light is incident upon a surface, part of it is reflected. But certain surfaces
like mirrors and polished metals reflect almost all the light incident upon them.
169 General Science

Curved Mirrors : There are two types of curved spherical mirrors, concave and convex.
l Large concave mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes for observing and
photographing distant stars and other heavenly bodies.
l A concave mirror is used as a shaving or make-up mirror.
l Small concave mirrors are used by dentists for examining teeth.
l A type of concave mirror is the parabolic mirror. Parabolic mirrors are used in search
light and headlamps of cars.
A convex mirror always produces virtual images. These images are erect and smaller than the
objects. Convex mirrors are very convenient for use as rear view mirrors in vehicles because they
have the advantage of a wide field of view.
Inclined Mirror : When an object is placed between two inclined mirrors, several images of
the object are formed. The number of images depends on the angle between the mirrors and can
be determined by using the following formula

AS
Number of images =

I
360
Angle between mirrors
-1

N
Thus, if an object is placed between two mirrors inclined at 90o, there will be a total of three

E
images. In the case of parallel mirrors, there will be an infinite number of images.

ET
Kaleidoscope : The kaleidoscope is a toy in which multiple images are formed by two strips
of plane mirrors placed at an angle of 60o inside a tube. Small, bright-coloured glass pieces are
scattered on a groundglass plate at the bottom of the tube. When viewed from the other end of the
tube, beautiful symmetrical patterns, formed by the coloured glass pieces and their five images,
are seen.
Refraction
Light bends when it passes obliquely from one medium to another. This is called refraction of
light.
General Science 170

Atmospheric Refraction : The density of the atmosphere surrounding the earth decreases
with increasing altitude. Thus if light enters the atmosphere from outside, it encounters layers of
air of increasing density and, therefore, bends gradually producing a curved path.
It is due to refraction, produced by the earth’s atmosphere, that the sun is visible for several
minutes after it has set below the horizon. Thus atmospheric refraction tends to lengthen the day.
When the sun (or moon) is near the horizon, it appears elliptical. The twinkling of stars can
also be partly attributed to atmospheric refraction.
Mirage : One of the most interesting effects of atmospheric refraction occurs in the mirage,
which is usually associated with hot deserts. The air in the desert is hot near the ground and cools
rapidly with height. Cold air is denser than warm air and has therefore a greater refractive index
as light passes from colder air to warmer air, it bend away from the normal and thus two light ray
bends in a concave upward trajectory.
Total Internal Reflection : Light can always pass from one medium to an optically denser
medium but it cannot always pass into a rarer medium. If the angle of incidence of light in the
denser medium is greater than a particular angle (known as the critical angle for that medium),
the light is not at all refracted into the rarer medium but is totally reflected. This is known as total
internal reflection.
An interesting use of the total internal reflection is in optical fibres, which are fine strands of
high quality glass.
Dispersion : White light consists of seven colours—violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange,

IAS
and red. These colours are called the spectrum of the white light. Violet has the minimum wavelength
(or maximum frequency) and red the maximum wavelength (or minimum frequency). In a vacuum,

N
all these colours travel with the same speed but in a transparent medium they have different

E
speeds.

ET
The Rainbow : The most spectacular illustration of dispersion is the rainbow. When the sun
shines soon after a shower of rain, a rainbow is seen in the sky opposite the sun.
Lenses
Lenses are used in nearly all optical instruments that produce images, e.g., cameras, projectors,
telescopes, microscopes, etc. Lenses are also used in spectacles to correct defects of vision. Lenses
are made mostly of common glass. There are mainly two types of lenses: (i) convex or converging
and (ii) concave or diverging.
(a) Convex
171 General Science

(b) Concave

Colour of Objects
We see objects because of the light they reflect. Most of the objects around us reflect only part
of the light that is incident upon them and it is the reflected part which gives the objects their
colour. Red, green and blue are called primary colours. Others are called complementary or secondary
colours.
Colour Television
Additive colour mixing is used in colour television. Light from the scene to be televised is
split up in red, green and blue components with the help of dichroic mirrors in the TV camera.
Conventional TV sets have cathode ray tube (CRT) display. These sets are not only bulky, they
consume lot of power and also the quality of the picture is not good. Nowadays LCD and Plasma
TVs are increasingly in demand.

IAS
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying text,

N
images, and moving pictures. It is used as monitors for computers, televisions, instrument panels,

E
and other devices such as aircraft cockpit displays.

ET
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TVs; 32’’ inches
or more. Many tiny cells between two panels of glass hold a mixture of noble gases. The gas in the
cells is electrically turned into a plasma which then excites phosphors to emit light. Plasma displays
are bright, have a wide colour gamut, and can be produced in fairly large sizes, up to 150 inches
diagonally. The display panel is only about 2.5 inches thick, while the total thickness, including
electronics, is less than 4 inches.
Colour Triangle

Red

Magenta
Yellow

White

Blue Cyan Green

Eye
Figure shown here is a simplified diagram of the human eye. The light entering the eye is
focused by the eye-lens to form an image on the retina. In front of the eye lens is the coloured part
General Science 172

of eye, called the iris, which automatically adjusts the size of the pupil (the circular opening or
diaphragm in the iris through which light passes) to the intensity of light falling on it. In bright
light the iris automatically shuts tighter, reducing the amount of light entering the pupil. This
protects the retina from getting damaged.

IAS Human Eye

When a person enters a dark room after being in bright light, he is not able to see clearly for a
while because the iris is unable to dilate the pupil immediately.

EN
The ability of the eye-lens to focus objects at different distances onto retina is called its power

ET
of accommodation. Accommodation is achieved by the ciliary muscles which alter the thickness
and curvature of the eye-lens thereby changing its focal length.
Persistence of Vision : The sensation of light on the retina, as interpreted by the brain persists
for a fraction of a second after the source of light or an image is removed. This is called persistence
of vision.
Defects of Vision : A normal eye should be able to have a clear vision of objects from infinity
(the far point) down to about 25 cm (the near point).
A person suffering from long sight (hyper-metropia) can clearly see objects at infinity but
cannot see near objects clearly. This defect is caused by the eyeball being too short and can be
corrected by wearing converging lenses.
In the case of a person suffering from short sight (myopia), the eye ball is too long and distant
objects are focused in front of the retina. This defect can be corrected by wearing diverging lenses.
Mypopia
Nearsightedness, also called myopia is common name for impaired vision in which a person
sees near objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred. In such a defective eye, the
image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself. Consequently,
a nearsighted person cannot focus clearly on an object farther away than the far point for the
defective eye.
Causes : This defect arises because the power of the eye becomes great due to the decrease in
focal length of the crystalline lens. This may arise due to either
173 General Science

(i) excessive curvature of the cornea, or

(ii) elongation of the eyeball.
Correction : This defect can be corrected by using a concave (diverging) lens. A concave lens
of appropriate power or focal length is able to bring the image of the object back on the retina
itself.

Hypermetropia

I S
Far-sightedness, also called hypermetropia, common name for a defect in vision in which a

A
person sees near objects with blurred vision, while distant objects appear in sharp focus. In this
case, the image is formed behind the retina.

EN
Causes : This defect arises because either

ET
(i) the focal length of the eye lens is too great,
(ii) the eyeball becomes too short, so that light rays from the nearby object, say at point N,
cannot be brought to focus on the retina to give a distinct image.
Correction : This defect can be corrected by using a convex (converging) lens of appropriate
focal length. Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply the additional focusing power required
for forming the image on the retina.
General Science 174

Presbyopia
Presbyopia, progressive form of far-sightedness that affects most people by their early 60s.
The power of accommodation of the eye decreases with ageing. Most people find that the near
point gradually recedes.
Cause and Cure : It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the crystalline lens. Simple reading eyeglasses with convex lenses correct most cases
of presbyopia. Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people
often require bi-focal lenses. In the bi-focal lens, the upper portion of the bi-focal lens is a concave
lens, used for distant vision. The lower part of the bi-focal lens is a convex lens, used for reading
purposes.
Astigmatism
Astigmatism, a defect in the outer curvature on the surface of the eye that causes distorted
vision. In astigmatism, a person cannot simultaneously focus on both horizontal and vertical
lines.
Causes : This defect is usually due to the cornea that is not perfectly spherical. Consequently,
it has different curvatures in different directions in vertical and horizontal planes. This results in
objects in one direction being well-focused, while those in a perpendicular direction not well
focussed.
Correction : This defect can be corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented
to compensate for the irrgularities in the cornea.
Optical Instruments
1.
IAS
Lens Camera : Basically a camera consists of lightproof box with a lens system in front and

of a number of lenses.
EN
photographic film at the back. The lens system, which converges light on to the film, consists

ET
Compound Microscope : A microscope is an instrument used for magnifying very small
objects. A compound microscope consists of two short focal-length converging lenses; the
objective and the eye-lens. The objective, which is placed close to a well-illuminated small
object, produces a real and enlarged image. This image acts as an object for the eye-lens
which produces a further enlarged virtual image.
3. Telescope : A telescope provides angular magnification of a distant object, and therefore
produces an effect as if the object were either larger or closer to the eye.
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
A laser is an optical device that produces an intense beam of coherent monochromatic light. A
laser is not a source of energy. It is simply a converter of energy taking advantage of stimulating
emission to concentrate a certain fraction of energy (commonly 1%) into radiation of a single
frequency, moving in a single direction. Like all devices, a laser can put out on more energy than
is put in.
Although Albert Einstein gave the idea of laser (without using this acronym) in 1917, scientists
began work on the idea only in 1950. American scientist Gordon Gould suggested the name Laser
in 1957. The first working laser was built in 1960 by the American scientist, Theodore Maiman.
Practical Lasers and their Applications
Ruby Laser : Also known as crystal laser, it gives a mono-chromatic coherent light in pulses.
Helium-neon Laser : Unlike the pulses from a ruby laser, a helium-neon laser produces a
175 General Science

continuous beam. This is the laser whose red beam is used in the check-out counters of shops and
supermarkets to read barcodes.
Chemical Laser : Chemical lasers are efficient and can be very powerful, one chemical laser
in which hydrogen and fluorine combine to form hydrogen fluoride has generated an infrared
beam of over 2 MW.
Dye Lasers : Dye lasers use dye molecules. By proper tuning, a dye laser is capable of yielding
and desired wavelength in its range.
Carbon Dioxide Gas Lasers : These lasers of about 100W output emit infra red beam and are
helpful in surgery. More powerful CO2 lasers are used industrially for the precise cutting of almost
any material including metals.
Tiny Semiconductor Lasers : These lasers process and transmit information. In a CD player a
semiconductor laser reads data codes as pits. Semiconductor lasers are ideal for fibre optic
transmission lines. Several thousand telephone conversation can be carried by a single fibre cable.
By contrast, no more than 32 conversations can be carried at the same time by a pair of cables.
Semiconductor lasers are used in laser printers.
Excimer Laser : Excimer lasers are powered by a chemical reaction involving an excited dimer
which is a short-lived dimeric or hetero-dimeric molecule formed from two species (atoms), at
least one of which is in an excited state.

Basics of Electricity

IAS
Current (I) : Current is the quantity of electrons passing a given point. The unit of current is
the Ampere. One ampere is 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 electrons passing a point in one second.

N
Electrical current flows from a region of high charge or potential to a region of low potential.

E
Voltage (V or E) : Voltage is electrical pressure or force. Voltage is sometimes referred to as

ET
Potential. Voltage Drop is the difference in voltage between the two ends of a conductor through
which current is flowing.
Power (P) : The work performed by an electrical current is called Power. The unit of power is
the Watt.
Resistance (R) : A material's opposition to the flow of electric current is known as resistance.
The unit of resistance is the Ohm.
Load : An electric load is the power requirement of any device (e.g., a motor, a light bulb or a
LED, etc.) to convert electric energy into light, heat or mechanical energy.
Ohm’s Law : A set of rules that show the relationship among current, voltage, power and
resistance. Given any two of the above, one is able to calculate the other two using the following
formulas:
E=I×R
I=E/R
R=E/I
P=E×I
Alternating Current : An electric current that repeatedly changes its direction or strength,
usually at a certain frequency or range of frequencies is known as alternating current. The term is
also used to describe alternating voltages. Power stations generate alternating current because it
is easy to raise and lower the voltage of such current using transformers; thus the voltage can be
raised very high for transmission (high voltages lose less power as heat than do low voltages),
General Science 176

and lowered to safe levels for domestic and industrial use. In North America, the frequency of
alternation of the direction of flow is 60 Hz. In other parts of the world it is 50 Hz, in India it is 110
Hz.
Direct Current : Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current
is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric
machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also
flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.
The electric charge flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC).
Breadboard : Breadboards are useful solder less prototyping boards that allow you to test out
circuits quickly.
Cables : Wires and cables are used to carry an electrical current. Most wire is protected by an
insulating covering of plastic or rubber. A wire can be either solid or stranded. Cables have one or
more conductors and more insulation than ordinary wire.
Diodes : A diode is an electronic device that allows current to flow through it in one direction
only. It is a one-way turnstile for electrons. There are many different classes of diodes for many
different purposes:
l Small signal diodes
l Rectifiers (power) diodes (e.g., in power supplies)
l switching diodes
l
l
Zeners

IAS
Light Emitting Diodes (LED).
The following concentrates on the usage of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) in electronic circuits.

EN
Never use a LED without a current limiting resistor in a circuit. In most cases it will explode if you

ET
do. R is resistance in Ohms, E is the supply voltage and I is the LED current in mill Amperes (mA).
Capacitors : Capacitors are electronic devices that store electrons. The simplest capacitor is
two conductors separated by an insulating material called dielectric. The minus side of the capacitor
is charged with electrons. These electrons in the charged capacitor will gradually leak through the
dielectric until both conductor plates have an equal charge. The capacitor is then discharged. The
ability to store electrons is called capacitance. Capacitance is specified in Farads. Once a capacitor
has reached its maximum charge, it blocks DC voltage. This is used in electronic circuits to allow
an alternating current (AC) signal to flow through a capacitor while it blocks DC. Sometimes
capacitors are also used as smoothing or filtering device. Putting a capacitor across the plus and
minus pole of a component filters out voltage spikes. Yet another use of capacitors makes use of
their ability to store charge for high-speed use. This feature is applied for example in a photo
flash.
Attention : Capacitors can store a charge for a considerable time after the power to them has
been switched off. This charge can be extremely dangerous. A large electrolytic capacitor charged
to only 5 to 10 volts can melt the tip of a screwdriver placed across its terminals. Never touch the
terminals of high voltage capacitors, such as used in TV sets or in a photoflash. These charges can
be lethal.
Transistors : A transistor can be used as a switch and signal amplifier. It is an electronic
device with three contacts: the emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). A very small current on the
transistor’s base can control a much larger current flowing through a passage between collector
and emitter.
177 General Science

Basics of Magnetism
Magnetic Field
A magnetic field consists of imaginary lines of flux coming from moving or spinning electrically
charged particles. Examples include the spin of a proton and the motion of electrons through a
wire in an electric circuit. What a magnetic field actually consists of is somewhat of a mystery, but
we do know it is a special property of space.

Magnetic Field or Lines of Flux of a Moving Charged Particle

Names of Poles : The lines of magnetic flux flow from one end of the object to the other. By
convention, we call one end of a magnetic object the N or North-seeking pole and the other the S
or South-seeking pole, as related to the Earth’s North and South magnetic poles. The magnetic
flux is defined as moving from N to S.
Magnets : Although individual particles such as electrons can have magnetic fields, larger

AS
objects such as a piece of iron can also have a magnetic field, as a sum of the fields of its particles.

I
If a large object exhibits a sufficiently great magnetic field, it is called a magnet.

EN
Magnetic Force : The magnetic field of an object can create a magnetic force on other objects
with magnetic fields. That force is what we call magnetism. When a magnetic field is applied to a

ET
moving electric charge, such as a moving proton or the electrical current in a wire, the force on the
charge is called a Lorentz force.
Attraction : When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force
that attracts the poles together. Force attracts N to S. Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic
materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

Repulsion : When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force
pushes them apart.
General Science 178

Force pushes magnetic objects apart Magnets can also weakly repel diamagnetic materials.
Magnets : A magnet is an object or material that attracts certain metals, such as iron, nickel
and cobalt. It can also attract or repel another magnet. All magnets have North-seeking (N) and
South-seeking (S) poles. When magnets are placed near each other, opposite poles attract and like
poles repel each other. Various electrical devices make use of magnets.
Types of Magnets
Permanent Magnets : A permanent magnet is one that will hold its magnetic properties over
a long period of time.
Magnetite : Magnetite is a magnetic material found in nature. It is a permanent magnet, but
it is relatively weak.
Alloys : Most permanent magnets we use are manufactured and are a combination or alloy
of iron, nickel and cobalt. Rare-earth permanent magnets are a special type of magnet that can
have extreme strength.
Temporary Magnets : A temporary magnet is one that will lose its magnetism. For example,
soft iron can be made into a temporary magnet, but it will lose its magnetic power in a short
while.
Electromagnet : By wrapping a wire around an iron or steel core and running an electrical
current through the wire, you can magnetize the metal and make an electromagnet. If the core is
soft iron, the magnetism will diminish as soon as the current is turned off. This feature makes

I S
electromagnets good for picking up and dropping objects. Typically DC electricity is used, but

A
AC current will also result in an electromagnet.
Properties of Magnets : Magnets always have two poles, come in various shapes, and attract
or repel other magnets.

EN
ET
Names of Poles : All magnets have a North-seeking pole (N) and South-seeking pole (S). In a
compass, the side marked (N) will point toward the Earth’s North magnetic pole. Thus, it is called
the “North-seeking pole.” Also note that the Earth’s North magnetic pole is not the same thing as
the North Pole. They are actually several hundred miles apart.
Various Shapes : The magnet can be made into various shapes. The bar magnet is the most
common configuration. Magnets also can be square, spherical, shaped like a horseshoe, and even
shaped like a donut. If you put an iron plate across the N and S poles of a horseshoe magnet,
which would essentially “short circuit” the effect of the magnetism, such that its strength would
not be very great. As soon as the plate was removed, the magnet would regain its full strength.
That method is sometimes used in magnets that are temporary to help keep their magnetic
properties for a longer time.
Cutting a Magnet : An interesting characteristic of magnets is that when you cut a magnet
into parts, each part will have both N and S poles.
Applications
Creating a Magnet : You can magnetize a piece of steel by rubbing a magnet in one direction
along the steel. This lines up the many of the domains or sections of aligned atoms in the steel,
such that it acts like a magnet. The steel often won’t remain magnetized for a very long time,
while the tune magnet is “permanently” magnetized and retains its strength for a long time. If
you use soft iron or steel, such as a paper clip, it will lose its magnetism quickly. Also, you can
disorient the atoms in a magnetized needle by heating it or by dropping the needle on a hard
object.
179 General Science

Compass : The first true application of a magnet was the compass, which not only helps in
navigation by pointing toward the North magnetic pole, but it is also useful in detecting small
magnetic fields. A compass is simply a thin magnet or magnetized iron needle balanced on a
pivot. The needle will rotate to point toward the opposite pole of a magnet. It can be very sensitive
to small magnetic fields.
Magnets are found in loudspeakers, electrical motors and electrical generators.

Astronomy and Astrophysics

Astronomy and Astrophysics deals with studying and understanding all large scale objects.
Astronomers look at all things from the planets in our own solar system to galaxies like the one
we live in, and even at the entire universe itself.
Astrophysics : Astrophysics is the application of physical law and theorems to the information
gathered by observing extraterrestrial objects. This can be used to predict the existence of unseen
objects, and the future motion and evolution of observed objects.
Astronomy : Astronomy is the study and measurement of the physical properties of
extraterrestrial objects. This aids in the development of physical law and theorems which can be
applied to the large scale world (i.e., planets, stars, galaxies and the universe as a whole). Following
are the types of astronomy.
Solar and Near-Earth Astronomy : Solar and near-Earth astronomy is conducted by observing
different electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun, the atmosphere, and the space between
the Earth and the Sun.

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Microwave Astronomy : Microwave astronomy involves looking at high-energy radio waves.

N
Microwaves are useful, as they allow us to look at what the universe was like right at its birth. As

E
microwaves are hard to observe from the ground, space-based telescopes are used. There have

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been a number of probes launched to map the entire sky in the microwave band and each probe
having progressively better resolution.
Infrared Astronomy : Infrared astronomy is the detection and study of the infrared radiation,
or heat energy, emitted by objects in the universe. All astronomical objects have heat, so all objects
emit infrared (IR) radiation. This makes IR astronomy the study of just about everything in the
universe.
Short Wavelength Astronomy : Short wavelength astronomy looks at the highest energy (and
shortest wavelength) forms of electromagnetic radiation. The bands looked at range from ultraviolet
(UV) to gamma rays. To make things hard for astronomers, the majority of these forms of radiation
are some of the more difficult to observe from earth, as the gasses in our atmosphere prevents
these from reaching ground. As such, these telescopes are almost exclusively in space-based
observatories.
Optical Astronomy : Optical astronomy provides both the most breath-taking images we see
and the most basic information we know about our solar system, the Milky Way, and all the
galaxies surrounding us.
Radio Astronomy : Radio astronomy is the most accessible form of ground-based astronomy,
as the atmosphere is almost completely transparent at most radio wavelengths. This means that
almost all of the radio waves aimed at the earth make it to the ground. Unlike optical astronomy,
the sun being up generally does not affect the observations. This means that radio observatories
can operate 24 hours a day.
Universe : The universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including
General Science 180

all matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies. The sun is another star in the galaxy of 10,000
stars. There are thousands of million of galaxies in this universe and each has its own star system.
The universe is expanding and galaxies are moving apart from each other.

Our Galaxy
Type SBc (barred spiral galaxy)
Diameter 100,000-120,000 light-years
Thickness 2,000 light-years
2 Dimensional Volume 7.85 trillion square light-years
Number of stars 300 ± 100 billion
Oldest known star 13.2 billion years
Mass 2-3× 1042 kg
Sun’s distance to Galactic Centrer 27,200 ± 1,100 light-years
Sun’s galactic rotation period 250 million years (negative rotation)
Our Solar System
Sun : The Sun is the Solar System’s star, and by far its chief component. Its large mass (332,900
Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core great enough to sustain nuclear
fusion, which releases enormous amounts of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic
radiation, peaking in the 40-700 nm band we call visible light.

I S
Mercury : Mercury (0.4 AU from the Sun) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest

A
planet in the Solar System (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and it’s only
known geological features besides impact craters are lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced

EN
by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury’s almost negligible atmosphere consists of
atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind.

ET
Venus : Venus (0.7 AU from the Sun) is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses), and like
Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of
internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety
times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures
over 400oC, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Earth : Earth (1 AU from the Sun) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one
known to have current geological activity, and is the only place in the Solar System where life is
known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the
only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth’s atmosphere is radically different
from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free
oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the
Solar System.
Mars : Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It
possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly
0.6 per cent that of the Earth’s). Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as 'Olympus Mons'
and rift valleys such as 'Valleys Mariners', shows geological activity that may have persisted until
as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has
two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) though to be captured asteroids.
Jupiter : Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put
together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter’s strong internal heat creates a
number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red
181 General Science

Spot. Jupiter has 64 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show
similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest
satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
Saturn : Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities
to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and as Jupiter magnetosphere. Although Saturn
has 60% of Jupiter’s volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses, making it the
least dense planet in the Solar System. The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock
particles. Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of
geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan, the second-largest moon in the
Solar System, is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial
atmosphere.
Uranus : Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely
among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It
has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus
has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda.
Neptune : Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent
to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter
or Saturn. Neptune has 13 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers
of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied
in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans, which are in 1:1 resonance

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with it.
Asteroids

N IA
Asteroids are metallic, rocky bodies without atmospheres that orbit the Sun but are too small

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to be classified as planets, known as “minor planets,” tens of thousands of asteroids congregate in

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the so-called main asteroid belt: a vast, doughnut-shaped ring located between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter from approximately 2 to 4 AU (186 million to 370 million miles/300 million to 600
million kilometers). Gaspra and Ida are main belt asteroids. It is estimated that the total mass of
all asteroids would comprise a body approximately 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) in diameter—less
than half the size of the Moon, known asterodis range in size from the largest—Ceres, the first
discovered asteroid in 1801—at about 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) in diameter down to the size of
pebbles. Sixteen asteroids have diameters of 150 miles (240 kilometers) or greater. The majority of
main belt asteroids follow slightly elliptical, stable orbits, revolving in the same direction as the
Earth and taking from three to six years to complete a full circuit of the Sun.
Meteors : Meteors come from streams of particles that travel around the sun in defined orbits
known as meteoroid. The visible path of a meteoroid that enters Earth’s (or another body’s)
atmosphere is called a meteor, or colloquially a shooting star or falling star.
Comets : A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when close enough to the Sun,
displays a visible coma (a thin, fuzzy, temporary atmosphere) and sometimes also a tail. These
phenomena are both due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of
the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are
composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. Comets have been observed
since ancient times and have traditionally been considered bad omens.

* AU → Astronomical unit
1 AU = 1.496×108 km (distance between earth and sun)
General Science

Our Solar System

Name of Average Distance Diameter Time of Spin Time to Gravity Average Contents of Known moons
Planet from Sun on Axis Orbit Sun (Earth = 1) Temperature Atmosphere
(a day) (a year)

ET
Mercury 36,000,000 miles 4878 km 59 days 88 days 0.38 –183oC to 427oC Sodium, helium none
o

E
Venus 67,000,000 miles 12,014 km 243 days 224 days 0.9 480 C Carbon Dioxide (96%) None
Nitrogen (3.5%)
Earth 93,020,000 miles 12,756 km 23 hrs, 56 mins 365.25 days 1 14oC Nitrogen (77%) 1

N
Oxygen (21%)
Mars 141,700,000 miles 6794 km 24 hrs, 37 mins 687 days 0.38 –63oC Carbon Dioxide (95.3%) 2

I
Argon
Jupiter 483,500,000 miles 142,984 km 9 hrs, 55 mins 11.86 yrs 2.64 –130oC Hydrogen 64

A
Helium
Saturn 888,750,000 miles 120,536 km 10 hrs, 39 mins 29 yrs 1.16 –130oC Hydrogen, Helium 62
Uranus

Neptune
1,740,200,000 miles

2,797,770,000 miles
51,118 km

49,532 km
17 hrs, 14 mins

16 hrs, 7 mins
S
84 yrs

164.8 yrs
1.11

1.21
–200 C

–200oC
o
Hydrogen, Helium
Methane
Hydrogen, Helium
27

13
182
183 General Science

Satellites
Satellites orbiting the earth or space probes which leave the earth are used for various purposes
of importance to mankind
Astronomy satellites Hubble Space Telescope
Atmospheric Studies satellites Polar
Communications satellites Anik E
Navigation satellites Navstar
Reconnaissance satellites Kennan, Big Bird, Lacrosse
Remote Sensing satellites Radarsat
Search and Rescue satellites Cospas-Sarsat
Sapace Exploration satellites Galileo
Weather satellites Meteosat
Geostationary Satellite : A geostationary satellite is an earth-orbiting satellite, placed at an
altitude of approximately 35,800 kilometers (22,300 miles) directly over the equator, that revolves
in the same direction the earth rotates (west to east). At this altitude, one orbit takes 24 hours, the
same length of time as the earth requires to rotate once on its axis. The term geostationary comes
from the fact that such a satellite appears nearly stationary in the sky as seen by a ground-based
observer.
Polar Satellite : A polar satellite is a satellite which passes above or nearly above both poles

IAS
of the celestial body (usually a planet such as the Earth) on each revolution. It therefore has an
inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees to the equator. Except in the special case of a polar

N
geosynchronous satellite, a satellite in a polar orbit will pass over the equator at a different longitude

E
on each of its orbits.

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Cryogenic Engine : A cryogenic engine (or cryogenic rocket motor) is an essential last stage
of a vehiclefor launching geostationary satellite. It uses hydrogen as its fuel, which is the fuel
having highest energy output per kilogram of its weight.

Computers and Information Technology

Computer
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or “data.” It has the ability
to store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and
browse the internet. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database management,
presentations, games, and more.
Hardware : Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the
computer monitor or keyboard.
Software : Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. It is what
guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task. Some examples of software are web
browsers, games, and word processors such as Microsoft Word.

Computer Architecture
A typical computer system mainly consists of:
l An input device
l An output device
l Central processing unit (CPU)
General Science 184

Input Device
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer, the most common input
devices are as follows:
l Keyboard
l Mouse
l Optical mark reader (OMR)
l Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
l Optical character reader
Output Device
Any device that outputs information from a computer is called, an output device. Generally
the most information from a computer is output in either a visual or auditory format, the most
common output devices are as follows:
l Monitor or Graphic VDU (visual display unit)
l Speakers
l Printers
l Plotters
CPU
CPU is the abbreviation for central processing unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central
processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where

AS
most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element

I
of a computer system. Two typical components of a CPU are the following:
l

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The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
The control unit (CU) which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and

ET
l
executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
Internet : The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks to serve billions
of users worldwide. It is a network of networks consists of millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range
of information resources and services.
History of Internet
l 1960 AT&T introduces the dataphone and the first known MODEM.
l 1961 Leonard Kleinrock publishes his first paper entitled “Information Flow in Large
Communication Nets” is published May 31, 1961.
l 1962 Leonard Kleinrock releases his paper talking about packetization.
l 1962 Paul Baran suggests transmission of data using fixed size message blocks.
l 1962 J.C.R. Licklider becomes the first Director of IPTO (Information Processing Techniques
Officer) and gives his vision of a galactic network.
l 1964 Baran publishes reports “On Distributed Communications.”
l 1964 Leonard Kleinrock publishes his first book on packet nets entitled “Communication
Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Design.”
l 1965 Lawrence G. Roberts with MIT performs the first long distant dial-up connection
between a TX-2 computer in Massachusetts and Tom Maril with a Q-32 at SDC in California.
l 1965 Donald Davies coins the word “Packet.”
185 General Science

l 1966 Robert Taylor joins ARPA and brings Larry Roberts there to develop ARPANET.
l 1967 Donald Davies creates 1-node NPL packet net.
l 1967 Wesley A. Clark suggests use of a minicomputer for network packet switch.
l 1968 Doug Englebart publicly demonstrates Hypertext on December 9, 1968.
l 1968 The first Network Working Group (NWG) meeting was held.
l 1968 Larry Roberts publishes ARPANET program plan on June 3, 1968.
l 1968 First RFP (Request for proposal) for a network goes out.
l 1968 UCLA is selected to be the first node on the Internet as we know it today and serve as
the Network Msmnt Center.
l 1969 Steve Crocker releases RFC #1 (Request for comments) on April 7, 1979 introducing
the Host-to-Host and talking about the IMP software.
l 1969 UCLA puts out a press release introducing the public to the Internet on July 3, 1969.
l 1969 On August 29, 1969 the first network switch and the first piece of network equipment
(called “IMP”, which is short for Interface Message Processor) is sent to UCLA.
l 1969 CompuServe, the first commercial online service, was established.
l 1970 Steve Crocker and UCLA team releases NCP (Network Control Program).
l 1971 Ray Tomlinson sends the first e-mail, the first messaging system to send messages
across a network to other users.
l
l

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1972 First public demo of ARPANET.
1972 Norm Abramson’ Alohanet connected to ARPANET: packet radio nets.
l

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1973 Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn design TCP during 1973 and later publish it with the

ET
help of Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December of 1974 in RFC 675.
l 1973 ARPA deploys SATNET (Satellite Network) the first international connection.
l 1973 Robert Metcalfe creates the Ethernet at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
l 1973 The first VoIP (Voice over IP) call is made.
l 1974 A commercial version of ARPANET known as Telenet is introduced and considered
by many to be the first Internet Service Provider (ISP).
l 1978 TCP splits into TCP/IP driven by Danny Cohen, David Reed, and John Shoch to support
real-time traffic. This allows the creation of UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
l 1978 John Shoch and Jon Hupp at Xerox PARC develop the first worm.
l 1981 BITNET (Because It's there Network) is founded.
l 1983 ARPANET standardizes TCP/IP.
l 1984 Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel introduce DNS.
l 1986 Eric Thomas develops the first Listserv.
l 1986 NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) is created.
l 1986 BITNET II is created.
l 1988 First T-1 backbone is added to ARPANET.
l 1988 Bitnet and CSNET (Computer Science Network) merge to create CREN (Corporation
for research and educational networking).
l 1990 ARPANET replaced by NSFNET.
General Science 186

l 1990 The first search engine Archie, written by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan, and Mike Parker
at McGill University in Montreal Canada is released on September 10, 1990.
l 1991 Tim Berners-Lee introduces WWW to the public on August 6, 1991.
l 1991 NSF (National Science Foundation) opens the Internet to commercial use.
l 1992 Internet Society formed.
l 1992 NSFNET upgraded to T-3 backbone.
l 1993 The NCSA (National Centre for Supercomputing Application) releases the Mosaic
browser.
l 1994 Netscape (Mosaic Communications Corporation) is found by Marc Andreesen and
James H. Clark April 4, 1994.
l 1994 Mosaic Netscape 0.9, the first Netscape browser is officially released October 13, 1994.
This browser also introduces the Internet to Cookies.
l 1994 WXYC (89.3 Fm Chapel Hill, NC UA) becomes first traditional radio station to announce
broadcasting on the Internet November 7, 1994. WXYC is currently known as WCAR.
l 1994 Tim Berners-Lee establishes and heads the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) in
October 1994.
l 1995 The dot-com boom starts.
l 1995 The SSL (Secure Socket Layer) protocol is developed and introduced by Netscape in
February 1995.
l
l

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1995 On April 1, 1995 the Opera browser is released.
1995 The first VoIP software (Vocaltec) is released allowing end users to make voice calls
over the Internet.

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ET
l 1995 On August 16, 1995 Microsoft introduces and releases Microsoft Internet Explorer.
l 1995 On November 24, 1995 HTML 2.0 (Hypertext markup language) is introduced in RFC
1866.
l 1995 On December 195 Sun Microsystems announced JavaScript and first releases it in
Netscape 2.0B3. In the same year they also introduced Java.
l 1996 Telecom Act deregulates data networks.
l 1996 Now known as Adobe Flash, Macromedia Flash is introduced in 1996.
l 1996 The first CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) specification, CSS 1, is published by the W3C in
December 1996.
l 1996 More e-mail is sent than postal mail in USA.
l 1996 CREN ended its support and since then the network has cease to exist.
l 1997 Internet2 consortium is established.
l 1997 IEEE (Institute of electrical and electronics engineer) releases 802.11 (WiFi) standard.
l 1998 Internet weblogs begin to appear.
l 1998 XML (Extensible Markup Language) becomes a W3C recommendation February 10,
1998.
l 1999 Napster starts sharing files in September of 1999.
l 1999 On December 1, 1999 the most expensive Internet domain name business.com was
sold by Marc Ostrofsky for $7.5 million The domain was later sold on July 26, 2007 again to
R.H. Donnelley for $345 million USD.
187 General Science

l 2000 The dot-com bubble starts to burst.

l 2003 January 7, 2003 CREN’s members decided to dissolve the organization.
l 2003 On June 30, 2003 the Safari browser is released.
l 2004 On November 9, 2004 Mozilla releases the Mozilla Firefox browser.
l 2008 On December 11, 2008 the Google Chrome was launched.

Latest Development in Technologies

l India’s supersonic cruise missile Brahmos was successfully fight tested on December 2, 2010
from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at Chandipur, Orissa.
l Pakistan on December 21, 2010 successfully test first hatf V (Ghauri)—a medium rangs
Ballistic Missile—capable of carrying both conventional and nuclear warheads over 1300
km.
l Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh on January 20, 2011 launched nation wide Mobile
Number Portability (MNP) that allows users to switch operators/service providers without
losing or changing their phone numbers.
l China on January 11, 2011 conducted its first test-flight of a stealth fighter jet the Chengdu
J-20, one of the world’s most technically advanced warplane.
l The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on April 20, 2011, during its 17th consecutive successful
mission out of the 18 launches from Sriharikota with the PSLV-C16 scaled a spectacular

I S
success by putting three satellites into orbit with precision.

A
On May 21, 2011 the 800tonne Ariane 5 launcher carrying two communications satellites
weighting over 9,000 kg in its nose fairing blasted off into space. India’s GSAT-8 the largest

EN
and heaviest satellite built by the Indian Space Research Organisation.

ET
l On May 21, 2011 India successfully test-fired the indigenously developed air to air 'Astra'
interceptor missile from Chandipur in Orissa. The missiles is envisaged to intercept and
destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speed.
l A successful flight-test of Rustom I UAV (Unmanned aerial vehicle) was conducted by the
Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) a lab of DRDO near Hosur (Karnataka) on
May 20, 2011.
l On May 12, 2011, Pakistan’s nuclear power plant at Chasma in Punjab was inaugurated by
Pakistan’s Prime Minister. This power plant was built in collaboration with China and is
expected to produce 330 Megawatt of electricity.
l INS Koswari-the nineth indigenously built Fast Attack Craft (FAC) of the navy was
commissioned at the naval base in Vishakhapatnam on July 12, 2011.
l The US shuttle Atlantis on July 19, 2011 seperated from the International Space Station for
the last time to begin its final trip back to the earth.
l NASA has planned to send a solar powered probe on five years’ journey to make the first
in-depth study of Jupiter. This mission will be known as Juno.
l The 'Brahmos' Aerospace Thiruvananthpuram Limited (BATL) has been contracted to build
five proto type airborne launchers of the 'Brahmos' super sonic missile with its flight test on
a SU-30 MKI aircraft stated to take place by the end of the year 2012.
l NASA is planning to launch two spacecraft on a nine month mission to explore the moon.
The Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) satellites will map the moon’s gravity
field.
General Science 188

l India’s PSLV put 4 satellites in orbit on October 12, 2011.

(i) 1000 kg Megha Tropiques—an Indo-French mission to study the weather and climate
in the tropical regions of the world.
(ii) 10 kg SRM sat—built by students of SRM University near Chennai.
(iii) 3 kg Jugnu—by India Institute of Technology, Kanpur.
(iv) 29 kg vessel sat from Luxembourg.
l Nuclear weapons capable Agni-II was test fired successfully from a rail-mobile launcher on
the wheeler Island, off the Orissa coast on September 30, 2011. The missile flew over a distance
of 200 km.
l INS Shakti—A 27,500 tonne fleet tanker was recently commissioned at the Naval Dackyard
in Vishakhapatnam on October 1, 2011.
l World’s cheapest tablet PC was unveiled by HRD Minister on October 5, 2011. The device
has been developed by Datawind. The tablet PC named Aakash will cost Rs. 2,276.

Some Additional Information

Timeline of Time Measurement Technology
270 BC Ctesibius builds a popular water clock, called a clepsydra.
46 BC Julius Caesar and Sosigenes develop a solar calendar.
1000s Sets of hourglasses were maintained by ship’s pages to mark the progress of a ship

1000s
during its voyage.

IAS
Large town clocks were used in Europe to display local time.

N
1335 First known mechanical clock, in Milan.
1502
1582

1655
E
Peter Henlein build first pocketwatch.

ET
Pope Gregory XIII, Aloysius Lilius, and Christopher Clavius introduce a Gregorian
calendar with leap year system.
Cassini builds the heliometer of San Petronio in Bologna.
1656 Christian Huygens builds the first accurate pendulum clock.
1676 Motion works and minute hand introduced by Daniel Quare.
1680 Second's hand introduced.
1737 John Harrison—the first stable nautical chronometer.
1850 Aaron Lufkin Dennison starts in Roxbury, Mass, USA. The Waltham Watch Company
and develops the American System of Watch Manufacturing.
1884 International Meridian Conference adopts Greenwich Mean Time for consistency with
Nevil Maskelyne’s 18th century observations for the Method of Lunar Distances.
1893 Introduced by Webb C. Ball of the General Railroad Timepiece Standards in North
America: Railroad chronometers.
1928 Joseph Horton and Warren Morrison build the first quartz crystal oscillator clock.
1946 Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell develop nuclear magnetic resonance.
1949 Harold Lyons develops an atomic clock based on the quantum mechanical vibrations of
the ammonia molecule.
1999 Launch of data clock for measurement societal time and design of timescapes.
2008 Launch data for the Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space.
189 General Science

Physicists and their Contribution

Issac Newton (U.K.) Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; Reflecting telescope.
Galileo Galilei (Italy) Law of inertia.
Archimedes (Greece) Principle of buoancy; Principle of the lever.
James C. Maxwell (U.K.) Electromagnetic theory : Light an electromagnetic wave.
Roentgen (Germany) X-rays.
Marie Curie (Poland) Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on natural
radioactivity.
A Einstein (Germany) Law of Photo-electricity; Theory of Relativity.
James Chadwick (U.K.) Neutron
Niel Bohr (Denmark) Quantium model of hydrogen atom
Rutherford (N. Zealand) Nuclear model of atom
Huygens (Holland) Wave theory of light
Michael Faraday (U.K.) Laws of electromagnetic induction
Edwin Hubble (U.S.A.) Expanding universe
Abdus Salam (Pakistan) Unification of weak and electro-magnetic interactions
R.A. Millikan (U.S.A.) Measurement of electronic charge
Ernest O. Lawrence (U.S.A.)
W. Pauli (Austria)

IAS
Cyclotron
Quantum Exclusion Principle

N
L de Broglie (France) Wave nature of matter
J.J. Thomson (U.K.)
Lev D. Landau (Russia)
H.R. Hertz (Germany)
ETEElectron
Liquid Helium
Electromagnetic waves
Hideki Yukawa (Japan) Theory of nuclear forces
Heisenberg (Germany) Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty Principle
Victor F. Hess (Austria) Cosmic radiation
Contribution of Some Indian Physicist
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules
Homi J. Bhabha Cascade process in cosmic radiation
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars.
Source of Sound Noise Level
Whispering 10-20 db
Wind in leaves 15-20 db
Waves on seashore 40 db
Ordinary conversation 40-60 db
Shouted conversation 70 db
Vacuum Cleaner 80 db
General Science 190

Traffic on busy road 90 db

Rock Music 100 db
Industrial machinery 100-120 db
Threshold of Pain 120 db
Jet Aeroplane (30 m) 140 db
Rocket 200 db
Some Pressure Pa
Center of Sun 2 × 1016
Center of Earth 4 × 1011
Highest sustained laboratory pressure 1.5 × 1010
Deepest Ocean tench (bottom) 1.1 × 108
Automobile tire 2 × 105
Normal blood pressure 1.6 × 104
Atmosphere at sea level 1 × 105
Loudest tolerable sound 30
Fairest detectable sound 3 × 10-5
Best laboratory vacuum 10-12

IAS
Energy Levels Associated with Various Phenomena
Phenomena Energy (J)
Big Bang

EN 1068

ET
Radio energy emitted by the galaxy during its lifetime 1055
Rotational energy of the Milky Way 1052
Energy released in a supernova explosion 1044
Ocean’s hydrogen in fusion 1044
Rotational energy of the earth 1029
Annual solar energy incident on the earth 5 × 1024
Annual wind energy dissipated near earth’s surface 1022
Annual global energy used by human 3 × 1020
Annual energy dissipated through tides 1020
Energy release of 15-megaton fusion bomb 1017
Annual electrical output through large plants 1016
Thunderstorm 1015
Energy released in burning 1000 kg of coal 3 × 1010
Kinetic energy of large jet aircraft 109
Energy released in burning a litre of gasoline 3 × 107
Daily food intake of a human adult 107
Work done by a human heart per beat 0.5
Turning of a page of any book 10-3
191 General Science

Flea hop 10-7

Discharge of a single neuron 10-10
Energy of a proton in a nucleus 10-13
Energy of a an electron in an atom 10-18
Energy to break one bond in DNA 10-20
Material Conductivity
-1 -1 -1
(Js m K )
Metals
Silver 406
Copper 385
Aluminium 205
Brass 109
Steel 50.2
Lead 34.7
Mercury 8.3
Non-metals
Insulating brick 0.15

S
Concrete 0.8
Body fat
Felt

N IA 0.20
0.04
Glass
Ice
Rock Wool
Wood ETE 0.8
1.6
0.04
0.12-0.04
Water 0.8
Gases
Air 0.024
Argon 0.016
Hydrogen 0.14
Weights and Measures Units
Unit Definition
acoustic ohm cgs unit of acoustic impedance (the ratio of sound pressure on a surface to
sound flux through the surface)
acre traditional English land measure; 1 acre = 4,480 sq yd (4,047 sq m or 0.4047
ha)
acre-foot unit sometimes used to measure large volumes of water such as reservoirs;
1 acre-foot = 1,2335 cu m/43,560 cu.ft
astronomical unit unit (symbol AU) equal to the mean distance of the earth from the sun;
149,597,870 km/92,955,808 mi
General Science 192

atmosphere unit of pressure (abbreviation atm); 1 standard atmosphere = 101,325 Pa

barn unit of area, especially the cross-sectional area of an atomic nucleus; 1
barn = 10-28 sq.m
barrel unit of liquid capacity; the volume of a barrel depends on the liquid being
measured and the country and state laws, 1 barrel = 31 gal (117.35 1/25.81
imperial gal). Many states fix a 36-gallon barrel for cistern measurement
and federal law uses a 40-gallon barrel to measure & ldquo, proof spirits
& erdquor, 1 barrel of beer in the UK = 163.66 1(43.23 U.S. gal/36 imperial
gal)
base box imperial unit of area used in metal plating; 1 base box = 20.232 sq.m/
31,360 sq.in
baud unit of electrical signaling speed equal to 1 pulse per second
brewster unit (symbol B) for measuring reaction of optical materials to stress
bushel measure of dry and (in the UK) liquid volume. 1 bushel (struck measure)
= 8 dry U.S. gallons (64 dry U.S. pt/35.239 1/2,150.42 cu in). 1 heaped U.S.
bushel = 1.278 bushels, struck measure (81.78 dry pt/45.027 1/2,747.715
cu in), often referred to as 11/4 bushels, struck measure. In the UK, 1 bushel
= 8 imperial gallons *64 imperial pt); 1 UK bushel = 1.03 U.S. bushels
cable unit of length used on ships, taken as 1/10 of a nautical mile (185.2 m/

S
607.6 ft)
calorie
carat
IA
cgs unit of heat, now replaced by the joule; 1 calorie = 4.1868 J
unit for measuring mass of precious stones; 1 carat = 0.2 g/0.00705 oz

N
carat
carcel
cental
chaldron
E
unit of purity in gold; pure gold is 24-carat

ET
obsolete unit of luminous intensity
name for the short hundred weight; 1 cental = 45.36 kg/100 lb
obsolete unit measuring capacity; 1 chaldron = 1.309 cu m/46.237 cu ft
clausius in engineering, a unit of entropy; defined as the ratio of energy to
temperature above absolute zero
cleanliness unit unit for measuring air pollution; equal to the number of particles greater
than 0.5 μ m in diameter per cu ft of air
clo unit of thermal insulation of clothing; standard clothes have insulation of
about 1 clo, the warmest have about 4 clo per 2.5 cm/1 in of thickness
kayser unit used in spectroscopy to measure wave number (number of waves in
a unit length); a wavelength of 1.0 cm has a wave number of 1 kayser
knot unit used in navigation to measure a ship’s speed; 1 knot = 1 nautical mile
per hour, or about 1.15 miles per hour
league obsolete imperial unit of length; 1 league = 3 nautical mi/5.56 km or 3
statute ml/4.83 km
light-year unit used in astronomy to measure distance; the distance traveled by light
in one year, approximately 9.46 × 1012 km/5.88 × 1012 mi
mache obsolete unit of radioactive concentration; 1 mache = 3.7 × 10-7 curies of
radioactive material per cu m of a medium
193 General Science

maxwell cgs unit (symbol Mx) of magnetic flux, the strength of a magnetic field in
an area multiplied by the area. 1 maxwell = 10-8 weber
megaton measurement of the explosive power of a nuclear weapon; 1 megaton = 1
million tons of trinitrotoluene (TNT)
mil (a) one-thousandth of a liter; contraction of the word milliter; (b) imperial
measure of length, equal to one-thousandth of an inch; also known as the
thou
mile imperial unit of linear measure; 1 statue mile = 1.60934 km/5,280 ft, and 1
international nautical mile = 1.852 km/6,076 ft
millimeter of mercury unit of pressure (symbol mmHg) used in medicine for
measuring blood pressure
morgan arbitrary unit used in genetics; 1 morgan is the distance along the
chromosome in a gene that gives a recombination frequency of 1%
nautical mile unit of distance used in navigation, equal to the average length of 1 minute
of arc on a great circle of the earth; 1 international nautical mile = 1.852
km/6,076 ft
neper unit used in telecommunications; gives the attenuation of amplitudes of
currents or powers as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the voltage
between two points or the current between two points
oersted

ounce
I S
cgs unit (symbol Oe) of magnetic field strength, now replaed by amperes

A
per meter (1 Oe = 79.58 amp per m)
unit of mass; of a pound avoirdupois, equal to 437.5 grains/28.35 g; or

EN
14.6 pound troy, equal to 480 grains/31.10 grains

ET
parsec unit (symbol pc) used in astronomy for distances to stars and galaxies;
astronomical units 1 pc = 3.262 light-years, 2.063 × 105 or 3.086 × 1013 km
peck obsolete unit of dry measure, equal to 8 imperial quarts or 1 quarter bushel
(8.11 in the United States or 9.11 in the UK)
pennyweight imperial unit of mass; 1 pennyweight = 24 grains = 1.555 × 10-3 kg
perch obsolete imperial unit of length; 1 perch = 51/2 yards = 5.029 m, also
called the rod or pole
pint imperial unit of liquid or dry measure; in the United States, 1 liquid pint
= 16 ft oz/0.473 1, while 1 dry pint = 0.551; in the UK, 1 pt = 20 fl oz, 1/2
quart, & gal, or 0.568 1
point metric unit of mass used in relation to gemstones; 1 point = 0.01 metric
carat = 2 × 10-3 g
poise cgs unit of dynamic viscosity; 1 poise = 1 dyne-second per sq cm
pound imperial unit (abbreviation lb) of mass; the avoirdupois pound or imperial
standard pound = 0.45 kg/7,000 grains, while the pound troy (used for
weighing precious metals) = 0.37 kg/5,760 grains
poundal imperial unit (abbreviation pdl) of force; 1 poundal = 0.1383 newton
quart imperial liquid or dry measure; in the United States, 1 liquid quart = 0.946
J, while 1 dry quart = 1.101 1; in the UK, 1 quart = 2 pt/1.137 1
General Science 194

rad unit of absorbed radiation dose, replaced in the SI system by the gray; 1
rad = 0.01 joule of radiation absorbed by 1 kg of matter relative biological
effectiveness relative damage caused to living tissue by different types of
radiation
rood imperial unit of area; 1 rood = 1/4 acre = 1,011.7 sq m
roentgen unit (symbol R) of radiation exposure, used for X- and gamma rays
rydberg atomic unit of energy; 1 rydberg = 2.425 × 10-18 J
sabin unit of sound absorption, used in acoustical engineering; 1 sabin =
absorption of 1 sq ft (0.093 sq m) of a perfectly absorbing surface
scruple imperial unit of apothecaries measure; 1 scruple = 20 grains = 1.3 × 10-3 kg
shackle unit of length at sea for measuring cable or chain; 1 shackle = 15 fathoms
(90 ft/27 m)
slug obsolete imperial unit of mass; 1 slug = 14.59 kg/32.17 lb
snellen unit expressing the visual power of the eye
sone unit of subjective loudness
standard volume in pysics, the volume occupied by 1 kilogram molecule (molecular mass
in kilograms) of any gas at standard temperature and pressure;
approximately 22.414 cu m

S
stokes cgs unit (symbol St) of kinematic viscosity; 1 stokes = 10-4 m2 s-1
stone
strontium unit
IA
imperial unit (abbreviation st) of mass; 1 stone = 6.35 kg/15 lb
measures concentration of strontium-90 in an organic medium relative to

N
E
the concentration of calcium metric unit of line density; 1 tex is the line

ET
density of a thread with a mass of 1 gram and a length of 1 kilometer
measure of thermal insulation of a fabric, garment, or guilt; the tog value
is equivalent to 10 times the temperature difference (in oC) between the
two faces of the article, when the flow of heat across it is equal to 1 W per
sq m
ton 1 unit of mass; the long ton (UK) = 1,016 km/2,240 lb; 1 short ton (United
States) = 907 kg/2,000 lb; 1 metric tone = 1000 kg/2205 lb
yard imperial unit (symbol yd) of length, equivalent to 0.9144 m/3 ft
Inventor Invention
Thomas Alva Edison electric lamp
John Bardeen, Walter Brattan, William Shockley transistor
Alexander Graham Bell telegraphy
Eli Whitney cotton gin
William Coolidge vacuum tube
Guglielmo Marconi transmitting electric signals
Samuel Morse telegraph signals
Nikola Tesla electromagnetic motor
Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright flying machine
Rudolf Diesel internal combustion engine
195 General Science

Charles Goodyear improvement in Indiarubber fabrics

Enrico Fermi neutronic reactor
Charles Hall manufacturing of aluminium
Charles Townes maser
Lee De Forest audio amplifier
Gorge Eastman coating plates for use in photography
Edwin Land instant processing photography
Charles Steinmetz system of electrical distribution
Vladimir Zworykin cathode ray tube
Louis Pasteur brewing beer and ale
Jay Forrester digital information storage device
Robert Goddard control mechanism for rocket apparatus
Charles Plank, Edward Rosinski improved gasoline manufacturing
Edwin Armstrong method of receiving high-frequency
oscillations
James hillier electron lens correction device
Charles Kettering engine starting devices and ignition system
Lewis Sarett
Harold Black

IAS process of treating pregnene compounds

negative feedback amplifier
Chester Carlson
Charles Draper
EN electrophotography
gyroscopic apparatus
Nicolaus Otto
Jack Kilby
Ernest Lawrence
Ottmar Mergenthaler
ET gas motor engine
miniaturized electronic circuits
ion acceleration
machine for producing printing bars
Max Tishler riboflavin, sulfaquinoxline
Ernest Alexanderson high-frequency alternator
Andrew Alford localizer antenna systems
Herbert Dow process of extracting bromine
Robert Noyce semiconductor device and lead structure
George Stibitz complex computer
William Burton manufacture of gasoline
Wallace Carothers nylon
Philo Farnsworth television system
Theodore Maiman laser
Marvin Camras magnetic recording
Willis Carrier air conditioning
Rene Hugonnet, Louis Moyroud photo composing machine
General Science 196

Willem Koltf “Mushroom-shaped” heart

Roy Plunkett Teflon
Luther Burbank strain of peach
Harold Edgerton stroboscope
Wilson Greatbatch heart pacemaker
Charles Mc Cormick reaper
Donalee Tabern, Ernest Wolwiler Pentothal, Nembutal
Arnold Beckman apparatus for testing acidity
William Burroughs calculating machine
Andrew Moyer method for production of penicillin
Igor Sikorsky helicopter controls
Frank Colton oral contraceptive
Elisha Otis safety elevator
Louis Parker television receiver
An Wang magnetic pulse controlling device
Rayman Damadian magnetic resonance imaging
John Deere plow
Irving Langmuir
George Westinghouse

IAS incandescent electric lamp

steam-power brake device
George Washington Carver

E
Graham Durant, John Emmett,
N cosmetics, paint, and stain
antiucler compounds and compositions

ET
C. Robin Ganellin
Charles Ginsburg videotape recorder
Herman hollerith punched card tabulating system
Eugene Houdry liquid fuels
Percy Julian cortisone synthesis
Robert Ledley diagnostic X-rays system
Kenneth Olsen magnetic core memory
Williard Bennett radio frequency mass spectrometer
Gertrude Elion antileukemia drug
Gordon Gould optically pumped laser amplifier
Leonard Greene airplane stall warning device
William “Butch” Hanford, Donald Holmes polyurethane
Elmer Sperry gyroscopic compass
Robert Williams synthesis of vitamin B1
Lloyd Conover tetracycline
Frederic Cottrell electrostatic precipitator
William Hewlett audio oscillator
Benjamin Rubin bifurcated vaccination needle
197 General Science

Baruch Blumberg, Irving Millman test and vaccine for hepatitis B

John Ericsson propeller
Willam Lear automobile radio
Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter Schultz fiber optics
John Parsons numerical control of machine tools
Emile Berliner microphone and phonograph high-voltage
Robert Hall high-power semiconductor rectifiers using
PIN diode
Elizbeth Hazen, Rachel Brown Nystatin
Robert Rines high-resolution imaging-scanning radar and
sonar
Heinrich Rohrer, Gerd Binning scanning tunneling microscope
Joseph H. Burckhalter, Robert J. Seiwald dyes for diagnosing infectious disease
Stephanie L. Kwolek Kevlar-aromatic polymers and fibers
Waldo L. Semon polyvinyl chloride plastisols
John Sheehan semisynthetic penicillin
William Stanley electric transformer
Forest M. Bird

H.M. Edmund Germer

IAS fluid control device, respirator, pediatric
ventilator
discharge device, high-pressure vapour lamp

EN
Ted Hoff, Stanley Mazor, Federico Faggin microprocessor concept and architecture

ET
Julius Arthur Nieuwland vinyl derivatives of acetylene and methods
of preparation
Authur Leonard Schawlow masers and maser communication system
Leo Szilard neutronic reactor
Robert W. Bower field-effect device with insulated gate
George H. Babcock, Stephen Wilcox Jr. water tube steam boiler
Seymour Cray supercomputer
Mark Dean and Dennis Moeller improvements in computer architecture
allowing computer components to
communicate with each other in a high-speed
and efficient manner
Robert H. Dennard dynamic random access memory (DRAM)
Henry Timken tapered roller bearing
Alfred Nobel dynamite
Joseph Begun magnetic recording
Douglas Engelbart the mouse and development of modern
computer environment
James Fergason liquid crystal displays
Kary Mullis polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
General Science 198

Perey LeBaron Spencer RadarMicrowave Oven

Donald Campbell, Homer Z. Martin, Eger V.
Murphree, Charles W. Tyson Fluid Catalytic Cracking
George de Mestral Velcro
Garhard Sessler, James Edward West Foil Electret Microphone
Bryan B. Molloy, klaus K. Schmiegel Prozac
Walt Disney multiplane camera
Reginald Fessenden apparatus for signaling by electromagnetic
waves
Alfred Free composition of matter
Helen Free indicator for detecting glucose
J. Franklin Hyde method of making a transparent article of
silica
William Kroll method for manufacturing titanium and
alloys thereof
Steve Wozniak microcomputer for use with video display
Robert Banks polymers and production thereof

S
Herb Boyer process for producing biologically functional

A
molecular chimeras
Stan Cohen

N I process for producing biologically functional

molecular chimeras
Oliver Evans
Thomas Fogarty
Paul Hogan
ETE high pressure steam engine
embolectomy catheter
polymers and production thereof
Elijah McCoy improvement in lubricators for steam-engines
Peter Sherman block and graft copolymers containing water
solvatable polar groups and fluoroaliphatic
groups
Christopher Sholes type writing machine
Sam Smith block and graft copolymers containing water
solvatable polar groups and fcluoroaliphatic
groups
199 General Science

Indian Space Programme

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Remarks
Aryabhata 19 April 1975 Intercosmos Provided technological experience in
building and operating a satellite
system.
Bhaskara-I 07 June 1979 Intercosmos First experimental remote sensing
satellite. Carried TV and microwave
cameras.
Rohini Technology 10 August 1979 Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) Intended for measuring in-flight
Payload performance of first experimental flight
of SLV-3, the first Indian launch vehicle.
Did not achieve orbit.
Rohini RS-1 18 July 1980 SLV-3 Used for measuring in-flight
performance of second experimental
launch of SLV-3.
Rohini RS-D1 31 May 1981 SLV-3 Used for conducting some remote
sensing technology studies using a
landmark sensor payload launched
by the first developmental launch of
SLV-3.
Ariane Passenger 19 June 1981 Ariane First experimental communication

S
Payload Experiment satellite. Provided experience in
building and operating a payload

N IA experiment three-axis stabilized

communication satellite.

E
Bhaskara-II 20 November 1981 Intercosmos Second experimental remote sensing

ET
satellite; similar to Bhaskara-1.
Provided experience in building and
operating a remote sensing satellite
system on an end-to-end basis.
INSAT-1A 10 April 1982 Delta launch vehicle First operational multipurpose
communication and meteorology
satellite. Procured from USA. Worked
for only six months.
Rohini RS-D2 17 April 1983 SLV-3 Identical to RS-D1. Launched by the
second developmental launch of
SLV-3.
INSAT-1B 30 August 1983 Space Shuttle Challenger Identical to INSAT-1A. Served for more
than design life of seven years.
Stretched Rohini 24 March 1987 ASLV Carried payload for launch vehicle
Satellite Series performance monitoring and for
(SROSS-1) gamma ray astronomy. Did not achieve
orbit.
IRS-1A 17 March 1988 Vostok Earth observation satellite. First
operational remote sensing satellite.
Stretched Rohini 13 July 1988 ASLV Carried remote sensing payload of
Satellite Series German space agency in addition to
(SROSS-2) Gamma Ray astronomy payload. Did
not achieve orbit.
INSAT-1C 21 July 1988 Ariane Same as INSAT-1A. Served for only
one-and-a-half years.
General Science 200

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Remarks

INSAT-1D 12 June 1990 Delta launch vehicle Identical to INSAT-1A. Still in service.
IRS-1B 29 August 1991 Vostok Earth observation satellite. Improved
version of IRS-1A.
Stretched Rohini 20 May 1992 ASLV Carried gamma ray astronomy and
Satellite Series aeronomy payload.
(SROSS-C)
INSAT-2DT 26 February 1992 Ariane Launched as Arabsat 1C. Procured in
orbit from Arabsat in 1998.
INSAT-2A 10 July 1992 Ariane First satellite in the second-generation
Indian-built INSAT-2 series. Has
enhanced capability over INSAT-1
series. Still in service.
INSAT-2B 23 July 1993 Ariane Second satellite in INSAT-2 series.
Identical to INSAT-2A. Still in service.
IRS-1E 20 September 1993 PSLV-D1 Earth observation satellite. Did not
achieve orbit.
Stretched Rohini 04 May 1994 ASLV Identical to SROSS-C. Still in service.
Satellite Series
(SROSS-C2)
IRS-P2 15 October 1994 PSLV-D2 Earth observation satellite. Launched by
second developmental flight of PSLV.
INSAT-2C

IAS
07 December 1995 Ariane Have additional capabilities such as
mobile satellite service, business
communication and television outreach

EN beyond Indian boundaries. Still in

service.

ET
IRS-1C 29 December 1995 Molniya Earth observation satellite. Launched
from Baikonur Cosmodrome.
IRS-P3 21 March 1996 PSLV-D3 Earth observation satellite. Carries
remote sensing payload and an X-ray
astronomy payload. Launched by third
developmental flight of PSLV.
INSAT-2D 04 June 1997 Ariane Same as INSAT-2C. Inoperable since
1997-10-04 due to power bus anomaly.
IRS-1D 29 September 1997 PSLV-C1 Earth observation satellite. Same as IRS-
1C.
INSAT-2E 03 April 1999 Ariane Multipurpose communication and
meteorological satellite.
IRS-P4 OCEANSAT 26 May 1999 PSLV-C2 Earth observation satellite. Carries an
Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and a
Multifrequency Scanning Microwave
Radiometer (MSMR).
INSAT-3B 22 March 2000 Ariane Multipurpose communication: business
communication, developmental
communication, and mobile
communication.
GSAT-1 18 April 2001 GSLV-D1 Experimental satellite for the first
developmental flight of
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle, GSLV-D1.
201 General Science

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Remarks

Technology 22 October 2001 PSLV-C3 Experimental satellite to test
Experiment technologies such as attitude and orbit
Satellite (TES) control system, high-torque reaction
wheels, new reaction control system,
etc.
INSAT-3C 24 January 2002 Ariane Designed to augment the existing
INSAT capacity for communication and
broadcasting and provide continuity of
the services of INSAT-2C.
Kalpana-1 12 September 2002 PSLV First meteorological satellite built by
ISRO. Originally named METSAT.
Renamed after Kalpana Chawla who
perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia.
INSAT-3A 10 April 2003 Ariane-5 Multipurpose satellite for
communication, broadcasting, and
meteorological services along with
INSAT-2E and Kalpana-1.
GSAT-2 08 May 2003 GSLV Experimental satellite for the second
developmental test flight of
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV)
INSAT-3E 28 September 2003 Ariane-5 Communication satellite to augment

S
the existing INSAT System.

A
RESOURCESAT-1 17 October 2003 PSLV-C5 Earth observation/remote sensing
(IRS-P6)

N I satellite. Intended to supplement and

replace IRS-1C and IRS-1D.
EDUSAT

HAMSAT

ET
05 May 2005E
20 October 2004 GSLV

PSLV
Also designated GSAT-3. India's first
exclusive educational satellite.
Micro satellite (42.5 kilograms) for
providing satellite-based amateur radio
services to the national as well as the
international community.
CARTOSAT-1 05 May 2005 PSLV-C6 Earth observation satellite. Provides
stereographic in-orbit images with a 2.5-
meter resolution.
INSAT-4A 22 December 2005 Ariane Advanced satellite for direct-to-home
television broadcasting services.
INSAT-4C 10 July 2006 GSLV Geosynchronous communications
satellite. Did not achieve orbit.
CARTOSAT-2 10 January 2007 PSLV-C7 Advanced remote sensing satellite
carrying a panchromatic camera
capable of providing scene-specific spot
images.
Space Capsule 10 January 2007 PSLV-C7 Experimental satellite intended to
Recovery demonstrate the technology of an
Experiment (SRE-1) orbiting platform for performing
experiments in microgravity conditions.
Launched as a co-passenger with
CARTOSAT-2. SRE-1 was de-orbited
and recovered successfully after 12 days
over Bay of Bengal.
General Science 202

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Remarks

INSAT-4B 12 March 2007 Ariane Identical to INSAT-4A. Further
augments the INSAT capacity for direct-
to-home (DTH) television services and
other communications on the night of 7
July INSAT-4B experienced a power
supply glitch which led to switching 'off'
of 50 per cent of the transponder
capacity (6 Ku and 6 C-Band
transponders).
INSAT-4CR 02 Sept 2007 GSLV-F04 Identical to INSAT-4C. Provides direct-
to-home (DTH) television services,
video picture transmission (VPT), and
digital satellite news gathering (DSNG).
CARTOSAT-2A 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 Earth observation/remote sensing
satellite. Identical to CARTOSAT-2.
IMS-1 (Third World 28 April 2008 PSLV-C9 Low-cost micro satellite imaging
Satellite - TWsat) mission. Launched as co-passenger with
CARTOSAT-2A.
Chandrayaan-1 22 October 2008 PSLV-C11 Unmanned lunar probe. Carries 11
scientific instruments built in India,
USA, UK, Germany, Sweden and
Bulgaria.
RISAT-2 20 April 2009

IAS PSLV-C12 Radar imaging satellite used to monitor

India's borders and as part of anti-

N
infiltration and anti-terrorist operations.

E
Launched as a co-passenger with

ET
ANUSAT.
ANUSAT 20 April 2009 PSLV-C12 Research micro satellite designed at
Anna University. Carries an amateur
radio and technology demonstration
experiments.
Oceansat-2 (IRS-P4) 23 September 2009 PSLV-C14 Gathers data for oceanographic, coastal
and atmospheric applications.
Continues mission of Oceansat-1.
GSAT-4 15 April 2010 GSLV-D3 Communications satellite technology
demonstrator. Failed to reach orbit due
to GSLV-D3 failure.
CARTOSAT-2B 12 July 2010 PSLV-C15 Earth observation/remote sensing
satellite. Identical to CARTOSAT-2A.
GSAT-5P / 25 December 2010 GSLV-F06 C-band communication satellite, failed
INSAT-4D to reach orbit due to GSLV-F06 failure.
RESOURCESAT-2 20 April 2011 PSLV-C16 PSLV-C16 placed three satellites with a
total payload mass of 1404 kg -
RESOURCESAT-2 weighing 1206 kg,
the Indo-Russian YOUTHSAT
weighing 92 kg and Singapore's X-SAT
weighing 106 kg - into an 822 km polar
Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
203 General Science

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Remarks

GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G 21 May 2011 Ariane Communications satellite carries 24 Ku-
band transponders and 2 channel
GAGAN payloads operating in L1 and
L5 band.
GSAT-12 15 July 2011 PSLV-C17 GSAT-12 communication satellite built
by ISRO, weighs about 1410 kg at lift-
off. GSAT-12 is configured to carry 12
Extended C-band transponders to meet
the country's growing demand for
transponders in a short turn-around-
time. The 12 Extended C-band
transponders of GSAT-12 will augment
the capacity in the INSAT system for
various communication services like
Tele-education, Telemedicine and for
Village Resource Centres (VRC).
Mission life About 8 Years.
Megha-Tropiques 12 Oct 2011 PSLV-C18 Megha-Tropiques weighs about 1000kg
Lift-off Mass, developed jointly by ISRO
and the French Centre National
d'Études Spatiales (CNES). PSLV-C18 is
configured to carry four satellites in
which, one satellite, developed by India

IAS and France, will track the weather, two

were developed by educational
institutions, and the fourth is from

EN Luxembourg.

ET
General Science 204

Practice Questions
1. When a person enters a dark room from bright light, he is not able to see clearly for a little
while because the
(a) eye is unable to adust itself immediately
(b) retina becomes insensitive momentarily
(c) iris is unable to dilate the pupil immediately
(d) distance between the lens and retina takes time to adjust
2. What happens when water is cooled from 8oC to 0oC?
(a) its volume decrease uniformly, becoming minimum at 0oC
(b) its density increases uniformly, attaining maximum value at 0oC.
(c) its volume decreases up to 4oC and then increases
(d) its density decreases up to 4oC and then increases.
3. The mass of a body is different from its weight because
(a) mass is a variable quantity whereas weight is constant
(b) mass varies very little at different places whereas weight varies a lot
(c) mass is constant but weight increases as the body moves from the poles to the equator
(d) mass is a measure of the quantity of matter whereas weight is a force.
4.
(a) no part

I S
Which part of the sun is visible during total solar eclipse?

A (b) corona
(c) chromosphere

EN (d) photosphere

ET
5. The quantity of water vapour the atmosphere can hold
(a) is independent of temperature
(b) increases with increase of temperature
(c) decreases with increase of temperature
(d) fluctuates with increase of temperature
6. Perspiration is maximum when
(a) temperature is high and air is dry
(b) temperature is high and air is humid
(c) temperature is low and air is humid
(d) temperature is low and air is dry
7. The hygrometer is an instrument to measure
(a) the relative density of liquids
(b) the purity of milk
(c) relative humidity
(d) atmospheric pressure
8. Drinks remain hot or cold for a long time in a thermos flask because of the
(a) presence of air, which is a bad conductor of heat, in between the double walls
(b) silver coating on the inside of the double walls
205 General Science

(c) vacuum between the double walls

(d) combined effects of (b) and (c)
9. It is easier to roll a barrel than to pull it because
(a) the full weight of the barrel comes into play when it is pulled
(b) rolling friction is much less than sliding friction
(c) the surface area of the barrel in contact with the road is more in the case of pulling
(d) of a reason other than those mentioned
10. If a body is taken from the earth to the moon
(a) its mass will be different but weight will remain the same
(b) both mass and weight will be different
(c) its mass will remain the same but weight will be different
(d) its mass and weight will remain unchanged
11. One finds it more difficult to walk on ice than on a concrete road because
(a) ice is soft and spongy whereas concrete is hard
(b) the friction between the ice and the feet is less than that between the concrete and the
feet
(c) there is more friction on ice than on concrete
(d) none of these
12.

AS
A small hole in the window of a closed room forms an inverted image of outside building

I
on the opposite wall of the room. This happens because
(a)

EN
the rays of light suffer lateral inversion on entering the hole

ET
(b) of the rectilinear propagation of light
(c) the hole acts as a convex lens
(d) the hole acts as a prism
13. During summer, we feel comfortable under a fan because it
(a) throws cool air on us
(b) sets the air in motion, thereby increasing the evaporation of sweat
(c) produces covection currents
(d) produces air which carries heat away from the body
14. Using the codes GH for good conductor of heat, BH for bad conductor of heat, GE for
good conductor of electricity and BE for bad conductor of electricity, mica can be classified
as
(a) GH and GE (b) GH and BE
(c) BH and GE (d) BH and BE
15. A solar eclipse occurs when
(a) the moon comes between the sun and the earth
(b) the earth comes between the sun and the moon
(c) the sun comes between the earth and the moon
(d) the sun, the moon and the earth are not in the same line
General Science 206

16. A steel ball floats on mercury because

(a) mercury does not allow any metallic ball to sink it
(b) mercury is also a metal in the liquid form
(c) the density of mercury is higher than that of steel
(d) a steel ball can be made to float on any liquid suitable adjustment
17. If water in a lake were to behave like other liquids, then in extremely cold weather it
would freeze
(a) from top to bottom
(b) from bottom to top
(c) simultaneously throughout the depth
(d) first on the surface, bottom and sides and then in the interior
18. A lunar eclipse occurs when
(a) the sun, the moon and the earth are not in the same line
(b) the moon comes between the sun and the earth
(c) the earth comes between the sun and the moon
(d) the sun comes between the earth and the moon
19. Food is cooked faster in a pressure cooker because
(a) heat cannot escape from the cooker

S
(b) steam is hotter than the boiling water
(c)
(d)
IA
due to high pressure the boiling point of water is raised
in the cooker water starts boiling at a lower temperature

N
E
20. When a ship enters a sea from a river

ET
(a) it rises a little
(b) it sinks a little
(c) it remains at the same level
(d) it rises or sinks depending on the material it is made of
21. In a barometer, mercury is preferred over water because
(a) mercury is a good conductor of heat
(b) mercury is shining and therefore its level can be read easily
(c) mercury is available in pure form
(d) mercury has high density and low vapour pressure
22. Radar is used for
(a) receiving signals in a radio receiver
(b) studying the movement of planets
(c) detecting the fixing the position of objects, e.g., aeroplanes
(d) studying the sunspots
23. Planets are
(a) luminous bodies that twinkle
(b) non-luminous bodies that twinkle
(c) luminous bodies that do not twinkle
(d) non-luminous bodies that do not twinkle
207 General Science

24. A ball tied with a string to a rotating shaft revolves at uniform speed. As the shaft is
suddenly brought to rest the string starts getting round the shaft with the angular velocity
of the ball
(a) increasing (b) decreasing
(c) remaining constant (d) becoming zero
25. We get energy directly from
(a) the sun (b) ocean
(c) space (d) atmosphere
26. The density of sea water increases as
(a) depth and salinity decrease
(b) depth decreases and salinity increases
(c) depth increases and salinity decreases
(d) depth and salinity increase
27. The temperature of the top of a frozen lake is –15oC. What is the temperature of the water
in the lake in contact with the ice layer?
(a) 0o C (b) 4o C
(c) –15o C (d) –7.5o C
28. Which part of the camera is analogous to the retina in the human eye
(a)
(c)
lens
aperture
IAS (b)
(d)
film
shutter
29.

EN
The science dealing with the study of phenomena at very low temperatures is known as

ET
(a) refrigenics (b) cytogenics
(c) frozenics (d) cryogenics
30. Figure shows a simple form of a hydraulic press with both limbs of circular cross-section.
How much weight is required on the narrow limb to support a 20 kg weight as shown in
the figure?

(a) 5 kg (b) 10 kg
(c) 20 kg (d) none of these
31. It takes much longer to cook things in the hills than in the plains because
(a) due to low atmospheric pressure in the hills the boiling point of water is raised, and
therefore water takes longer to boil
(b) in the hills the atmospheric pressure is lower than that in the plains and therefore
water boils at lower temperature
General Science 208

(c) in the hills the atmospheric temperature is low and therefore a lot of heat is lost to the
atmosphere
(d) in the hills the humid atmosphere absorbs a lot of heat, leaving very little for the cooking.
32. Why does radio reception improve slightly during the night?
(a) The outside noise is reduced very much at night
(b) Unlike the daytime, only a few radio stations broadcast during the night
(c) Sunlight affects radio broadcasts to some extent during the day
(d) The magnetic field of the earth acts with reduced intensity during the night, thereby
reducing its impact on broadcasts.
33. The cover of a solar cooker is made of glass
(a) because glass allows sunlight into the container but does not allow heat radiation out
of it
(b) because glass is transparent and one can see the food cooking
(c) because glass does not absorb heat radiation and, therefore, there is no wastage of
energy
(d) because glass is a good conductor of heat and is also cheap.
34. Which of the following positions of thermometer in Figure shows the correct way of
determining the temperature of boiling water?

IAS
EN
ET
35. A ball B1 is thrown horizontally and another ball B2 is just released from the same height
such that it falls vertically. It is found that
(a) B1 touches the ground first
(b) B2 touches the ground first
(c) B1 takes double the time to touch ground
(d) both B1 and B2 touch the ground simultaneously
36. A diagnostic technique commonly known as ‘Ultrasound’ is based on recording
(a) echoes of extremely high frequency waves
(b) echoes of extremely low frequency waves
(c) ultraviolet rays
(d) nuclear magnetic resonances.
37. The frequency of a sound wave is related to its
(a) amplitude (b) loudness
(c) pitch (d) quality
209 General Science

38. In Newton’s third law, the action and reaction forces

(1) act on different bodies (2) act on the same body
(3) are not always equal (4) are always equal
Choose the correct answer
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
39. A fluorescent lamp and a television picture tube emit light by the phenomenon of
fluorescence, which is caused by
(a) ultraviolet rays in both the devices
(b) beam of electrons in both the devices
(c) beam of electrons in fluorescent lamps and ultraviolet rays in the television tube
(d) beam of electrons in television tube and ultraviolet rays in a fluorescent lamp
40. Compared to the velocity of light, the velocity of radio-waves is
(a) smaller (b) greater
(c) the same (d) infinite
41. The pupil of the eye adjusts automatically for
(a) short distance vision (b) colour

42.
(c) amount of light

IAS
Weight of a person can be zero when
(d) object size

(1) he is falling freely

EN
ET
(2) he is orbiting in a satellite
(3) he is in an aeroplane flying at a high altitude
(4) he is having ride in a gas filled ballon.
Codes :
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 1 and 4 are correct
(c) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 correct
43. Which of the following is used as a lubricant in heavy machines?
(a) Bauxite (b) Sulphur
(c) Phosphorus (d) Graphite
44. Colour is related to
(a) amplitude (b) frequency
(c) quality (d) velocity
45. Among the many applications of lasers one is
(1) holography (2) medical sonography
(3) surgery (4) controlled thermonuclear reactions
Choose the correct answer from the codes given as follows:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
General Science 210

46. Hydraulic brakes in automobiles work on

(a) Bernoulli’s principle
(b) Posieuille’s principle
(c) Pascal’s principle
(d) Archimede’s principle
47. A hydrogen-filled ballon
(a) always rises in the air
(b) rises only if its total weight is much less than the weight of air it displaces
(c) rises only if its total weight is equal to the weight of air it displaces
(d) can never rise in the air
48. Consider the following statements:
(1) If a person looks at a coin which is in a bucket of water, the coin will appear to be closer
than it really is.
(2) If a person under water looks at a coin above the water surface, the coin will appear to
be at a higher level than it really is
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 alone
(c) 2 alone (d) Neither 1 nor 2
49. Ultrasonics is used for
(a)
IAS
locating underwater objects and finding their depth
(b)

N
diagnosing abnormalities or diseases in human organs such as liver, pancreas, kidneys,
heart
E
ET
(c) mapping underground structures for oil and mineral deposits
(d) all the above mentioned purposes

Answers
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1. (c) 14. (b) 27. (a) 40. (c)
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2. (c) 15. (a) 28. (b) 41. (a)
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3. (d) 16. (c) 29. (d) 42. (d)
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4. (b) 17. (b) 30. (a) 43. (b)
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5. (b) 18. (c) 31. (b) 44. (b)
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6. (b) 19. (c) 32. (c) 45. (b)
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7. (c) 20. (a) 33. (a) 46. (c)
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8. (d) 21. (d) 34. (d) 47. (b)
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9. (b) 22. (c) 35. (d) 48. (a)
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10. (c) 23. (d) 36. (a) 49. (d)
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11. (b) 24. (a) 37. (b)
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12. (b) 25. (a) 38. (d)
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13. (b) 26. (d) 39. (c)
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211 General Science

Previous Years Questions

1. An artificial satellite orbiting around the Earth does not fall down. This is so because the
attraction of Earth.
(a) Does not exist at such distance
(b) Is neutralized by the attraction of the moon
(c) Provides the necessary speed for its steady motion
(d) Provides the necessary acceleration for its motion
2. Which is the difference between asteroids and comets?
(1) Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held
together by rocky and metallic material.
(2) Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are
found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
(3) Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. A person traveled a distance of 50 km in 8 hours. He covered a part of the distance on foot
at the rate of 4 km per hour and a part on a bicycle at the rate of 10 km per hour. How

(a) 10 km
(c) 30 km
IAS
much distance did he travel on foot?
(b) 20 km
(d) 40 km
4.

EN
Which one of following reflects back more sunlight as compared to other three?

ET
(a) Sand desert (b) Paddy crop land
(c) Land covered with fresh snow (d) Prairie land
5. Consider the following:
(1) Bluetooth device (2) Cordless phone
(3) Microwave oven (4) Wi Fi device
Which of the above can operate between 2.4 and 2.5 GHz range of radio frequency band?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
6. What is the principle by which a cooling system (Radiator) in a motor car works?
(a) Conduction only (b) Convection
(c) Radiation only (d) Both conduction and radiation
7. Which among the following do/does not belong/belongs to the GSM family of wireless
technologies?
(a) EDGE (b) LTE
(c) DSL (d) Both EDGE and LTE
8. With reference to the treatment of cancerous tumors, a tool called cyber knife has been
making the news. In this context, which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) It is a robotic image guided system
(b) It delivers an extremely precise dose of radiation
(c) It has the capability of achieving sub-milimeter accuracy
(d) It can map the spread of tumour in the body
General Science 212

9. Who of the following scientists proved that the stars with mass less than 1.44 times the
mass of the Sun end up as White Dwarfs when they die?
(a) Edwin Hubble (b) S. Chandrashekhar
(c) Stephen Hawking (d) Steven Weinberg
10. Which one among the following has the highest energy?
(a) Blue light (b) Green light
(c) Red light (d) Yellow light
11. Which one of the following brings out the publication called “Energy Statistics” from
time to time?
(a) Central Power Research Institute
(b) Planning Commission
(c) Power Finance Corporation Ltd.
(d) Central Statistical Organization
12. Which one of the following types of waves are used in a night vision apparatus?
(a) radio waves (b) Microwaves
(c) Infra-red waves (d) None of the above

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