To cite this output:

Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

24

CRONEM
Centre for Research on Nationalism, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism

University of Surrey

Research Report for the RES-000-22-1294 ESRC project:

Class and Ethnicity - Polish Migrants in London

Prof. John Eade

Dr. Stephen Drinkwater
Michaá P. Garapich
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

BACKGROUND

Theoretical Note

This research explored the relationship between ethnicity and social class in the
context of migratory movements between Poland and Britain. We interpreted
ethnicity as ‘an aspect of relationship, not a cultural property of a group’ 1 and we
focussed on how ethnicity is produced, perceived and interpreted, drawing on the
approach taken by Barth 2 who places ethnicity in the context of boundary
maintenance and power relations.

As for social class the tradition, which has developed from Lockwood’s analysis of
how employment relations determined class, fitted well with the quantitative aspect of
our study. Here class is seen as ‘a characteristic not of people but of locations within
the division of labour’.3 However, in the qualitative part of our project we concentrate
on the more complex world of people’s understandings of class in both London and
Poland. As Reid notes ‘it is hardly surprising that deeper or indirect questions elicit
increasingly complex or even conflicting shades of recognition and understanding of
social class’. 4 As another commentator puts it:

it is more than income, [it] is rather a complicated mixture of the material, the
discursive, psychological predispositions and sociological dispositions being
played out in interactions with each other in the social field. 5

Class, therefore, has to be placed in a social and cultural context where people relate
to others in an individualised hierarchy of difference. 6 While these new theories of
class are very useful for our analysis Bottero notes that they still slip ‘between

1
T. H. Eriksen (1993) Ethnicity and Nationalism, London: Pluto Press p. 34
2
F. Barth (1969) Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, Boston: Little and Brown
3
E. Harrison (2006) ‘Social class in Britain’, ISER Newsletter, p. 1
4
I. Reid (1988) Class in Britain, London: Polity, p. 43.
5
D. Reay (1998) ‘Rethinking social class: Qualitative perspectives on gender and social class’,
Sociology, 32: 259-75.
6
See D. Reay (1998) Class Work, London: UCL Press; B. Skeggs (1997) Formations of Class and
Gender, London: Sage; M. Savage (2000) Class Analysis and Social Transformation, Oxford: OUP.

25
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

different meanings of “class”, and the continuing influence of older models’ which
has made them ‘reluctant to address issues of hierarchy itself’. She recommends
restricting ‘class’ to:

those explicitly ‘classed’ discourses which emerge when organizational

cultures,
social networks, or politicized representations combine to create perceptions
of social identity and social division in specifically ‘economic terms’.
Individualized and implicit processes of positional inequality are better
described as social stratification or hierarchy. 7

Bottero’s point is well made but the debate about class in Britain is still restricted by a
failure to address adequately the problems involved when applying the concept of
class to the study of migrants and their transnational life strategies. The debate has
been primarily confined within the border of the nation-state, revealing the bias of
methodological nationalism where processes outside national boundaries are
analytically ignored. 8 The transnational migrants, whom we interviewed, vividly
illustrate the inadequacies of methodological nationalism since they use several
reference points and different kinds of capital to construct their social class position.
Their employment relations and life strategies transcend national borders and their
position in an ‘individualised hierarchy of difference’ is related to other hierarchies
where different rules of social relations and classifications may apply.

It is no surprise then that migrants’ relatively recent, open-ended and, in many cases,
transient stay in Britain deeply influences their understandings of social class – a
process which is also shaped by the transition to a free market economy within
Poland. 9 The importance of process means that we have to understand social class in

7
W. Bottero (2004) ‘Class identities and the identity of class’, Sociology, 38 (5): 1000.
8
N. Glick Schiller and A. Wimmer (2003) ‘Methodological Nationalism, the Social Science and the
Study of Migration: An Essay in Historical Epistemology’, International Migration Review, 37, 576-
610.
9
See, for example, H. DomaĔski (2002) Polska klasa Ğrednia, Wrocáaw; A. Giza Poleszczuk, and A.
Rychard (2000) Strategie i system, IFIS PAN, Warszawa; H. DomaĔski and A. Rychard (1997)
Elementy nowego áadu, IFIS PAN, Warszawa; J. Frentzel-Zagórska and J. Wasilewski (2000) The
Second Generation of Democratic Elites in Central and Eastern Europe, Institute of Political Studies,
Warszawa.

26
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

the context of time. It is exactly the temporal, fluid and fast changing dimension of
social class construction and identification in a transnational context that our approach
has revealed.

OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research Questions
1. What can quantitative data on Poles in Britain tell us about Polish migrant
workers who have migrated to London?
2. In what terms do Polish migrant workers understand their socio-economic
position within London’s market and in what ways can their understandings be
analysed in terms of analytical distinctions between class and ethnicity?
3. In what terms do Polish migrant workers in London understand their socio-
economic position in Poland and in what ways can their understandings be
analysed in terms of analytical distinctions between class and ethnicity?
4. In what ways are their understandings of their socio-economic position in
London related to their lifestyles?
5. What are the social and economic links they maintain with relatives and
friends in Poland?

Aims and Objectives of Research

1. Demonstrate the continuing importance of class for an understanding of
minority communities in Britain
2. Complement the preoccupation in migration research with ‘black and Asian’
minority communities, asylum seekers and refugees through an analysis of
recent migration from Eastern Europe
3. Bridge the customary divide between quantitative and qualitative research by
relating existing quantitative data to new data generated through qualitative
methods.
4. Look beyond the local and national contexts of class and ethnicity through
research undertaken in both London and Poland.

27
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

METHODS

The quantitative aspect of the project was mainly based on the analysis of large scale
microdata, in particular the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and Census. Standard labour
economics techniques, as well as those used in quantitative sociology, were then
applied to these microdata (e.g. augmented Mincerian wage equations and limited
dependent variable models of social class outcomes). Both occupational and earnings
measures of social class were examined because some authors have criticised the
categorical nature of the occupational-based measures. 10 The occupational measure of
social class, however, is based on the NS-SEC variable, developed by David Rose and
David Pevalin, following a thorough review of such measures. The relatively small
sample provided by the LFS means that Polish respondents in London could not be
examined separately but this could be achieved using Census microdata. 11 LFS data
were also compared with the Worker Registration Scheme (WRS) because of the
relatively small sample in the former. The personal and labour market characteristics
of A8 migrants were found to be very similar in the two data sources. As well as
confirming the accuracy of the LFS data, analysis of the WRS also served the purpose
of providing the information needed to ensure that the sample of interviews in the
qualitative part of the project was made as representative as possible.

The qualitative data came from 50 in-depth interviews and participant observation.
Multi-sited ethnography has been applied and additionally 19 people in five different
(urban/rural) locations across Poland were interviewed. The London respondents were
chosen in the light of the demographic data from the WRS and LFS, while those in
Poland were chosen from the friends or family of the London respondents. Care was
taken not to rely too much on snow-balling and to select people from different social
environments. 26% respondents were recruited through friends or relatives of people
already interviewed, others were contacted through the researcher’s networks but to

10
See, for example, M. B. Stewart (1983) ‘Racial discrimination and occupational attainment in
Britain’, Economic Journal, 93: 521-41.
11 Although the 2001 Census pre-dates the large wave of migrants who moved to the UK following EU

enlargement in May 2004, the LFS reveals that the characteristics of those who moved immediately
prior to enlargement was almost identical to those who arrived immediately afterwards. Also the WRS
indicates that unlike previous cohorts of immigrants, the most recent wave of Polish migrants has
tended not to locate in London, with only 14% of A8 migrants moving to the capital since May 2004.

28
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

avoid the ‘interviewer effect’ almost half of the respondents were recruited randomly
in accordance with the demographic characteristics outlined above. By using these
different methods of recruitment we contacted as wide a variety of migrants as
possible. Nevertheless, as in most migration studies in such a dynamic and fluid social
environment, the representativeness of our sample should be treated with care.

Use was also made of a large survey conducted by CRONEM which looked at Polish
migrants across Britain exploring their migratory patterns and intentions about staying
(see Outputs). Also content of the media based in London and in Poland was
monitored.

Interviews were conducted in Polish, then translated, transcribed, coded and analysed
using the Envivo7 qualitative software package. As some expressions were left in
Polish (in order not to lose the semantic context), an interviewer-reader help-tool was
designed in the form of a Polish-English ethnographic glossary. All the interviews,
along with the glossary and additional documentation, are being stored at the
University of Essex’s QualiData unit.

29
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

LONDON SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS:

Sex Education

68%
54%

46% 22%

10% Higher education

Female Secondary
Male Students

Age Geographical background

36%
36%
62%

28%
28%
10%

below 25 Rural
25-40 Small town – up to 50 thousand
40 plus Town more than 50 thousand

Occupation
6%
6% 12%

8%

20%

18%

6%
6%
18%

Manual labour in construction industry

Construction industry subcontractors (owners of a company)
Couriers/drivers
Catering/hospitality
Cleaners/nanny
Media
Social service
Industry
Other

30
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

RESULTS

1. Earnings
Recent Polish migrants have mainly found employment in low paid jobs. For
example, the LFS data revealed that average earnings were just over £6 an hour for
both Polish and other A8 migrants arriving after 2003. 12 This was much less than the
earnings of post-enlargement migrants (e.g. average earnings for Other European
migrants was £10.52 an hour). Furthermore, Poles and other A8 migrants arriving
before 2000 also earned over £11 an hour but the earnings of A8 immigrants arriving
earlier in this decade were only slightly higher than those arriving after May 2004
However, although Poles were similar in age and levels of education to Other A8
migrants, they benefited least from education and experience. It was also found that
the returns from education were lower for recent Polish arrivals compared with earlier
cohorts of Polish migrants.

2. Social Class
Wage information from the LFS also revealed that around three-quarters of recent
Polish and other A8 migrants are employed in semi-routine and routine jobs. This
situation contrasts sharply with other recent immigrants to the UK, since 68% from
English-speaking countries and 42% of other Europeans had professional/managerial
jobs, compared with less than 10% from the A8 countries. Large proportions of earlier
cohorts of migrants from A8 countries had also entered high level or
intermediate/skilled occupations, although a lower percentage of A8 migrants arriving
between 2000 and 2003 were managers and professionals. Given these findings, we
investigated the social class of those born in Poland in further detail using the 1991
Sample of Anonymised Records and 2001 Controlled Access Microdata Sample.
These datasets were helpful since the 2001 Census revealed that London was the only
area to experience an increase in the Polish population between 1991 and 2001,
whereas the fall in the percentage of the Polish-born in all other regions was at least

12
Earnings data are based on pooling Quarterly LFS data up to June 2006 and are reported in May
2004 prices. The earnings information reported here is consistent with information in the WRS and in
the COMPAS survey (see http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/changingstatus). For example, 80% of WRS
respondents earned between £4.50 and £6.50 an hour and mean earnings were £5.94 in the COMPAS
survey.

31
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

12%. 13 This suggests that relatively large numbers of young Polish migrants started to
move to London before 2004. Regression models indicated that Poles living in
London were still significantly more likely to be in managerial/professional jobs and
were less likely to be in partly skilled/skilled occupations in 2001. However, these
differentials had narrowed compared to 1991. There were no significant differences
within London according to whether individuals lived in areas that had experienced an
increase in Polish migrants between 1991 and 2001, compared with those which had
suffered a decline. The importance of higher level qualifications in determining social
class outcomes was evident in both years, although the possession of such
qualifications had a larger impact in 1991.

3. Meritocracy and Migration

The qualitative part of the research put the above findings into a much more dynamic
perspective. Interviews included a question taken from the International Social Survey
Programme (see Appendix) on perceptions of inequality. Respondents were asked to
locate Poland and the UK within a model and then indicate where they saw
themselves in that distribution. 76% saw Poland sharply divided between a small elite
and a vast mass of people. In contrast, 84% saw Britain as a predominantly middle
class society based on merit where social mobility is more achievable than in Poland.

ISSP strata visualisation ISSP self-positioning:

Poland: UK: 1) Higher/better socio-economic

A: 54% A: 2% position; more chances and more
B: 22% B: 2% perspectives for the future than in
C: 14% C: 22% Poland: 58%
D: 6% D: 42% 2) Loss of status, social position:
E: 0% E: 20% 14%
3) Same as in Poland, no difference
in social position: 14%
4) “I don’t see myself here (in UK)”:
12%

13
Falls of at least 30% were reported in the North West, Yorkshire & Humberside, the Midlands,
Scotland and Wales. There were also large differences with respect to age since the median age of

32
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

4. Migration Pattern and Social Class

The respondents overwhelmingly constructed their class position in terms of their
perceived life chances and plans. Their relatively recent arrival led them to understand
class, in contrast to the British majority,14 in terms of the opportunities that lay ahead
rather than an occupational or economic position held at present. Not surprisingly,
86% stressed that what was crucial was not ‘occupation’ or ‘earnings’ but the
person’s qualities as a worker and ‘how well’ the job was done. This approach
towards class treated current occupation and social position in highly temporal and
transient terms.

The respondents’ understanding of their class position depended heavily on their

migration strategy, settlement plans and the extent to which they were engaged in
transnational activities. It is, therefore, logical to categorise them on the basis of their
migratory strategies and we have developed the following typology. 15

a. Storks (20%) – circular migrants 16 who are found mostly in low paid
occupations (catering, construction industry, domestic service). They
include different types of seasonal migrants - farmers commuting to
London’s building sites in winter, students working during the summer
in the catering industry in London to pay for their tuition fees in
Poland, others working in London but returning to their Polish
universities, sometimes twice a month. Storks usually stay between 2
and 6 months. Since they mostly arrange employment and
accommodation through their Polish relatives or friends, they tend to
be clustered in dense Polish social networks which sometimes
encourage suspicion and competition between co-ethnics. Their

Poles living in London fell from 64 to 48 between 1991 and 2001, whereas it increased from 67 to 74
in the rest of Britain.
14
Reid, op. cit., pp. 32 and 43.
15
The proportions in each of the categories is consistent with a survey of 505 Polish migrants
undertaken by CRONEM in July 2006 for BBC Newsnight.
16
This is one of most characteristic modes of migration from Eastern Europe, see M.
Okólski, ‘The Transformation of Spatial Mobility and New Forms of International
Population Movements: Incomplete Migration in Central and Eastern Europe’ in W. J.
Dacyl (ed.) (2001) Challenges of Cultural Diversity in Europe (Stockholm: CEIFO).

33
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

commuting behaviour often becomes a long-term strategy and the

means of survival hence they regard their economic status as
improving but mainly with reference to the economic situation in
Poland.

b. Hamsters (16%) – migrants who treat their move as a one-off act to

acquire enough capital to invest in Poland. Compared with Storks their
stays in the UK are longer and uninterrupted. Like Storks, they tend to
treat their migration as only a capital-raising activity. They also tend to
cluster in particular low-earning occupations and are often embedded
in Polish networks and see their migration as a source of social
mobility back home.

c. Searchers (42%) – those who keep their options deliberately open.

This group consists predominantly of young, individualistic and
ambitious migrants. They occupy a range of occupational positions
from low-earning to highly skilled and professional jobs. They
emphasise the unpredictability of their migratory plans – a strategy we
have termed intentional unpredictability. Searchers focus on
increasing social and economic capital, both in Poland and UK, and
prepare for any possible opportunity such as pursuing a career in
London, returning to Poland when the economic situation improves or
migrating elsewhere. Their refusal to confine themselves to one nation-
state setting underlines their adaptation to a flexible, deregulated and
increasingly transnational, post-modern capitalist labour market. 17

d. Stayers (22%) – those who have been in the UK for some time and
intend to remain for good. This group also represents respondents with
strong social mobility ambitions. However, this is the only group

17
Supporting evidence for this also comes from the WRS about intentions to stay. Although not
officially published in the Accession Monitoring Report, the question ‘How long do you think you will
stay in the UK?’ is asked in the WRS. The responses to this question reflect the contingency and
fluidity of the migration flows since around 43% stated that they intended to stay less than 3 months,
whilst 48% left the question unanswered or ticked the ‘I don’t know’ box.

34
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

which explicitly stresses the existence of social class in Britain and its
role in determining social mobility.

5. Social Mobility and Rite of Passage

Class perceptions among these four types of migrants strategically engage different
reference points. Hamsters and Storks relate their social class position to the
economic and social position in Poland, literally converting their London earnings
into Polish currency. They believe that migration has improved their status because of
the focus on their earning power in Poland. This explains why the British public sees
them as having a strong ‘work ethic’, since their strategy is to maximise earnings and
minimise the time needed to achieve this. Because Searchers and Stayers are more
open to the prospect of living in the UK for longer, they emphasise most the openness
of the British class system, where opportunities for the ambitious and hard working
individuals are plentiful. They stress the amount and variety of opportunities available
in London and emphasise other forms of capital crucial in a meritocratic environment,
such as acquiring a language, becoming more mature, learning to sustain oneself,
getting the know-how to operate in a capitalist labour market and living in a global
city.

Given the age distribution of migrants, migration is seen by many as a rite of passage
into adult life, a school of life – as most of them put it. Female respondents, in
particular, mention this in the context of moving from the parental home ‘growing up’
and becoming independent. Working below one’s qualifications and de-skilling –
however sometimes bitterly felt - is acceptable as long as it is for a short time and
other forms of capital are acquired during that period. 18

It may seem paradoxical that migrants mainly employed in low paid jobs see their
social class position as having improved. However, this is only the case if we take a
static, non-processual and state-centric view of migration. Most migrants emphasise
the opportunities for social mobility which lie ahead and these opportunities are
contrasted with a seemingly protectionist, non-meritocratic and anti-business Polish
labour market.

18
This supports the findings of the COMPAS study, Changing Status, Changing Lives, see p. 39.

35
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

6. De-Localisation of Class: Subjective and Objective Aspects of Class in

Transnational Context

Since most respondents see their current occupation as temporary, either because of
their migration strategies (Storks, Hamsters) or their potential social mobility
(Searchers, Stayers), there is a sharp contrast between people’s objective class
position (occupation) and their subjective understanding of class. As the quantitative
analysis has shown, many recent Polish migrants have relatively high levels of
education despite the majority being employed in low waged jobs. However, their
perception of social class is constructed dynamically in relation to projected
opportunities rather than their current position in the labour market. Their transient
attitude to their current occupation and an ‘open options’ strategy explains their
clustering in low paid occupations despite their educational levels. This low return to
education relates also to the strong criticism expressed by some respondents about the
compatibility of Polish educational system with the modern capitalist labour market.

Although the dual character of social class has been noted in previous studies 19 , our
research contains another dimension – the transnational construction of class. This
results in the de-localisation of class identity, where individuals dynamically interpret
their position with reference to several stratification systems. This strategy is
maintained through actively participating in the economic and social life in Poland.
Hence from our sample:
x 80% of our respondents make frequent visits to Poland, generally ranging
from 3 to 12 times a year.
x 70% of respondents maintain strong economic and social interests in
Poland – e.g. buying land, investing in real estate, business or education,
job seeking, voting etc.
x 26% have bought or are planning to buy a flat or house from money earned
in London.

19
Reid, op. cit., pp. 33-44.

36
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

7. Polish Ethnic Identity

Most respondents present what may be termed as an individualised and situational
attitude towards their ethnicity. Half of the respondents, predominantly the young,
expressed a mild attachment to Polish identity typically stating that ‘one should not
judge the other on the basis of their nationality’. These ‘cosmopolitans’ defined
themselves as Polish but their belief in British meritocracy, their largely positive
attitude towards multicultural diversity and the Searchers’ strategy of keeping their
options open made that definition compatible with other dimensions of identity.

Criticism of fellow Poles was one of the interviews’ most striking features. This
criticism is made even more interesting since the interviews indicated that the vast
majority of migrants maintained close ties with Poles in both the UK and Poland and
are embedded (especially Storks and Hamsters) within Polish networks, both socially
and economically. This combination of discursive hostility (60% report that they
would not like to work for a Polish employer, 80% speak of shame from some Poles
‘staining’ the reputation of the group and 62% believe that one should be careful in
contact with Poles) and ethnic cooperation became one of the main focuses of our
analysis.

The conclusion is that for respondents, ethnicity is an ambiguous concept since it can
be both a resource for accessing capital, networks and information and a source of
disappointment, vulnerability and social class transgression. Through ethnic
categorizing by the outsiders, individualistic migrants are being associated with
people they would rather avoid contact with. Hence the horizontal ties of ethnicity are
contested and replaced by individually constructed vertical class divisions between
migrants, which are shaped by different occupational niches in London and the
influence of different educational and class backgrounds in Poland.

Unsurprisingly, this attitude is shared by migrants occupying the same labour market
niches, notably in the construction industry. Direct competition seems to result in
deep suspicion and can lead to inequality and exploitation. There is also a clear
gender division, with almost 80% of males reporting that one should be careful when
doing business with co-ethnics, compared with only 50% of females. These findings

37
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

imply that ethnic solidarity is a domain of ideal rather than day to day agency. We
find that by discursive hostility towards co-ethnics, individuals communicate
‘warnings’ against treating ethnicity as the sole basis of trust and cooperation –
another aspect of importance of individualistic attitudes of these migrants.

The relationship between Poles, therefore, tends to be opportunistic and

individualistic, while pragmatically contesting dominant views on ethnic solidarity.
People carefully manoeuvre between obligations of ethnic ties and own interests, but
in contrary to previous research 20 show high levels of mutual cooperation by
engaging in chain migration, information and resources exchange through their dense
family, friends or regional networks (the boom in the ethnic labour market being
another point). However, class and ethnicity conflict is common. Sometimes it drives
people to engage in social mimesis by hiding their ethnicity to avoid being
unfavourably judged by the British majority. Again this is pragmatically driven since
they see the behaviour of other Poles as a potential liability which may affect their
chances in the labour market.

Ethnicity also becomes a source of division in London’s local and transnational

political arena since the established, post-WWII diaspora and newcomers now
compete for public recognition in both Britain and Poland. 21

8. Transnational Chain Migration and the Future

Research in Poland shows that migration chains established well before EU
enlargement are now fully operational. As Hamsters or Storks return to Poland, new
ones leave. Whilst migration from Poland has increased dramatically, as we have seen
the flow is predominantly open ended, short term and circular. The well functioning
network, which has evolved, puts each type of migrant into a special, interdependent
and interconnected relationship. Storks and Hamsters, in order to minimise risks
associated with moving and maximise earnings in the least possible time, rely
strongly on the Searchers and Stayers whose networks and local knowledge are much

20
B. Jordan (2002) ‘Migrant Polish workers in London: Mobility, labour markets and prospects for
democratic development’, Paper presented at the Beyond Transition: Development Perspectives and
Dilemmas Conference, Warsaw, April 12-13, 2002.
21
For more details, see M. Garapich, ‘Odyssean Refugees, Migrants and Power: Construction of the
“Other” within the Polish “community” in the UK’.

38
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

more rooted in the UK. For example, the employers in the construction industry in our
sample were both Searchers and Stayers who employed mainly Storks and Hamsters.

The role of Searchers is crucial since they are keen to raise their own social and
human capital in both countries simultaneously in order to keep their options open.
They do this mainly by facilitating the migration chain and helping others to find
work sometimes becoming informal job brokers. They represent the best example of a
de-localised social class where social position and status depends on several reference
points in more than one country. Furthermore, as Searchers settle, they can assist
future waves of Storks and Hamsters, thus contributing to increased numbers involved
in the migration system.

9. London’s Cultural Diversity

The perception of a meritocratic and classless Britain contrasts with most
respondents’ belief that the divisions in London lie along ethnic and racial lines. In
this racial and ethnic hierarchy they locate themselves as ‘white’ people rather than as
Poles. Moreover, 54% state or implicitly suggest that ‘whiteness’ is an important
feature in British society and assume a presence of a hierarchy of belonging in
Britain. Many also consider ‘whiteness’ to be an asset and that white minorities are
treated better than non-white people. Yet when talking about ‘whiteness’, respondents
usually link it to English employers/friends/public attitudes towards Poles in general.
This means that as Poles enter the web of social and economic interactions, they need
to reassert their position within the hierarchy of groups. Emphasising their
whiteness/Europeanness puts them into a strong position within this hierarchy. In
contrast to ethnicity, which carries the danger of being associated with Poles from the
wrong social class, an emphasis on race assumes membership within the dominant
white English group, which also occupies higher social class position. This emphasis
on ‘whiteness’ is encouraged by sections of the white majority 22 and by comments
from some media and politicians about the similarities between Poles and Britons as
white, European and Christian 23 implying a cultural distance from other minorities.

22
Further evidence of this can be found in the CRONEM survey, where 90% of Poles thought they had
been favourably or very favourably received by the British public.
23
For more on this see the interim report: www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM

39
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

The experience of London’s diversity has resulted in 54% of respondents expressing

enthusiastic to positive attitudes towards multiculturalism and treating it as one of the
city’s main strengths and attractions. At the same time approximately a third of the
respondents disagreed and regarded ethnic diversity as abnormal. For them Poland’s
ethnic homogeneity was the desirable state of affairs and they expressed mild to
strong racist views. This wide range of attitudes towards race was reflected in the
response to the question about their reaction to their son/daughter getting into a
relationship with someone of a different skin colour. 50% said that they would not
have a problem, while 38% were more reluctant to accept it and 12% were not sure.

Almost all believe that London’s diversity would be impossible in Poland. This
implies that migration and living in a multicultural city has changed respondents’
perceptions, leading them to criticise what they see as Polish intolerance. Such a
change shows that multicultural London provides migrants with social and cognitive
skills for pragmatically managing cultural difference in everyday interactions. Despite
the overtly racist views expressed by a minority, even these respondents admitted that
one can ‘get used to it’, that living in London requires tolerance and that
multiculturalism is a fact of life, not an abstract ideology.

40
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

Activities, Outreach and Dissemination of the Project:

1. Media Engagement
¾ M. Garapich has been engaged in public debate in the Polish press.
Through this link, the CRONEM team was contacted by BBC
Newsnight for advice on Polish migration. Apart from an extensive
briefing of the two reporters/producers on the subject, Newsnight
commissioned a UK-wide survey of over 500 Polish migrants. The
survey results (see: www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM) were aired on
July 4, 2006.
¾ The research had extensive British, Polish (in the UK and Poland) and
international media engagement. The full list of media outputs is on the
ESRC Society Today website see
www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/index.aspx
¾ The public and private user groups list can be found in the End of
Award Report, p. 9.
5. Major Conferences and Workshops
¾ ‘London’s Polish Borders: Class and Ethnicity of Global City Migrants’,
conference organised by CRONEM at the Polish Embassy, London, May
17, 2006. The event brought together representatives of: a) the Polish
Embassy; b) the Embassies of the other A8 countries; c) the Home Office;
d) leaders of the Polish community in Britain; e) academics from Poland;
f) members of the business sector, especially those recruiting migrants; g)
the British and Polish media; h) European Commission officials. S.
Drinkwater and M. Garapich presented preliminary results from the project
at the conference, which also featured an introduction by J. Eade, see:
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM/polish-conf-presentations.htm
¾ International conference in Kraków organised by CRONEM and the
Centre for European Studies, Kraków, October 6-8, 2006. The conference
brought together experts on Polish migration. J. Eade delivered a keynote
speech and M. Garapich presented a paper. For more details, see:
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Arts/CRONEM/krakow/about.htm

41
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

¾ Workshop in which the Polish language version of the final report will be
presented in London, 23 January 2007.
¾ CRONEM in cooperation with the History and Governance Research
Institute at the University at Wolverhampton is organising a one day
workshop on up-to-date research on Polish migration to the UK, February
2, 2007.

3. Around 15 other presentations based on the project’s findings have been made
by Eade, Drinkwater and Garapich at national and international conferences.
These are listed on the ESRC website
www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/index.aspx

Outputs

Articles accepted/considered for publication

M. Garapich, ‘Odyssean Refugees, Migrants and Power: Construction of the

“Other” within the Polish “community” in the UK’ in D. Reed and C. Brettel
(eds), Immigration and the Politics of Citizenship (Routledge: in press).

S. Drinkwater, J. Eade and M. Garapich, ‘Poles Apart? EU Enlargement

and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants in the UK’ -
downloadable as an IZA working paper from http://ftp.iza.org/dp2410.pdf.
and also submitted to International Migration.

M. Garapich, ‘Soldiers and Plumbers: The Migration Industry and Civil

Society after the EU Enlargement’ - article submitted for a special issue of
the Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (waiting for acceptance).

Monograph for Berghahn Books by J. Eade and M. Garapich under the title
The Plumber, His Lovers, and the Untold Story of Polish Migration to the United
Kingdom: The Anthropology of a Transnational Field Between Poland the UK

42
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

A possible volume of articles on Polish migration from the Krakow

conference for Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie (Journal of Economic
& Social Geography)

Work in progress - two quantitative papers: ‘Changing face of the Polish-

born population in Britain’ and ‘The Calm before the storm? Poles in
Britain, 1991-2001’.

Future Research Priorities

1) This research has shown the importance of reinserting social class into debates
concerning multiculturalism and migration. It has also exposed the limitations
of state-centric, ‘objectivistic’ and one-dimensional analyses of class
formations when addressing a highly mobile, young and socially ambitious
cohort. Rather than talk about migration from one country to another, it is
more useful to focus on the emergence of a transnational European social
mobility field where migration becomes a potentially gratifying continuity in
time and an individual trajectory rather than a traumatic disruption of space
and ‘uprooting’ of ties. At the same time there should be further exploration of
the extent to which individuals are climbing the social ladder. This would
require a longitudinal study, which uses both qualitative and quantitative data.

2) This present study should be treated as setting an agenda for future research
since the dynamic reality of Polish migration constantly poses new questions.
In particular, the extent to which Polish migrants have settled in the UK
remains unknown. Moreover, if large numbers do settle for long periods then
it is important to establish whether and what types of links will be maintained
with Poland. For example, the amount sent in remittances is crucial since they
are a vital source of development capital.

3) The study also reveals the importance of questions concerning integration,

social cohesion and inter-communal relations in Britain. It brings the issue of
identity politics and political participation into the foreground. What kinds of
ethnic/class/generational dimensions will dominate the future political

43
To cite this output:
Eade, John (2007). Class and Ethnicity: Polish Migrant Workers in London: Full Research Report.
ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-1294. Swindon: ESRC

REFERENCE No.

representation of Poles in the UK? Will they be represented at all? How will
Polish migration contribute to the future of British multiculturalism?

44