*Bicolanos Culture, Customs And Traditions*

The Bicolanos observe an annual festival in honor of the Virgin of Penafrancia every third Sunday of
September. The towns of Naga comes alive. During the celebration, a jostling crowd of all-male devotees
carries the image of the Virgin on their shoulders to the cathedral, while shouting Viva La Virgin! For the
next seven days people, mostly Bicolanos, come for an annual visit light candles and kisses the image of
the Virgin. To the Bicolanos, this affair is religious and cultural, as well. Every night, shows are held at the
plaza the year's biggest cockfights take place, bicycle races are held and the river, a lively boat race
precedes the fluvial procession.

At noon of the third Saturday of the month, the devotees carry the Image on their shoulders preceded to
the packed waterfront. The image is boarded onto the barge and the procession begins. With much
splashing back to the old chapel until next year's celebration.

ABOUT THE ART....

Bicolano art is shown in their love songs such as Sarong Bangul, Burac na Magayon and others. Among
the young songs about nature are popular. To the Bicolanos, the Ibalon, a story of heroism, is an
impotant epic.

THE BICOL REGION....

The Bicolanos live in the provinces south of Luzon Community namely Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur,
Catanduanes, Masbate, Albay and Sorsogon. With large tracts of land, farming has become the chief
occupation of the people. They also engaged in fishing, logging, cattle-raising and handicraft.

The Bicolano is conservative. They believe it is safe to stick to the old than take a risk in the new. To some
extent however, the educated Bicolano has begun to change gradually.

His way of life resembles those of the other people of Luzon. He loves songs and dances. In them, he
expresses his feeling and sentiments. He spends his leisure time dancing, singing, playing musical
instrument like the guitar, and in cockfighting. He also plays game similar to those played by Tagalogs.

Historian Mr. Teodoro A. Agoncillo said that the Bicolano is know for their religiosity.

Their views on the life with studied calmness and seldom shows their rough edges. Their preference for
spicy food is such that no food is good for them without red pepper and coconut milk. Can this the be
the reason why he is brave?
*Third Republic*

The Third Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated on July 4, 1946. It marked the culmination of the
peaceful campaign for Philippine Independence—the two landmarks of which were the enactment of
the Jones Law in 1916 (in which the U.S. Congress pledged independence for the Philippines once
Filipinos have proven their capability for self-government) and the Philippine Independence Act of 1934
(popularly known as Tydings-McDuffie) which put in place a ten-year transition period during which the
Philippines had Commonwealth status. The Third Republic also marked the recognition by the global
community of nations, of the nationhood of the Philippines—a process that began when the
Commonwealth of the Philippines joined the Anti-Axis Alliance known as the United Nations on June 14,
1942, receiving recognition as an Allied nation even before independence.

Thus, the inauguration of the Third Republic marked the fulfillment of the long struggle for
independence that began with the Philippine Revolution on August 23, 1896 (recent scholarship
suggests, on August 24) and which was formalized on June 12, 1898 with the Proclamation of Philippine
Independence at Kawit, Cavite.

From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was celebrated on July 4. On May 12, 1962, President Diosdado
Macapagal issued Proclamation No. 28, s. 1962, which declared June 12 as Independence Day. In 1964,
Congress passed Republic Act No. 4166, which formally designated June 12 of every year as the date on
which we celebrate Philippine independence. July 4 in turn has been observed as Republic Day since
then.

President Roxas takes his oath of office during the Independence Ceremony of July 4, 1946.
Administering the oath is Chief Justice Manuel Moran.

President Roxas takes his oath of office during the Independence Ceremony of July 4, 1946.
Administering the oath is Chief Justice Manuel Moran.

The Roxas Administration (May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948)

President Manuel Roxas, in his first State of the Nation Address, detailed the challenges the country was
facing in the aftermath of war: A government “without financial means to support even its basic
functions,”[1] scarcity in commodities especially of food, hyperinflation, the “tragic destruction”[2] of a
productive economy, and still-ongoing rehabilitation among the different sectors of society.

President Manuel Roxas addressing the lawmakers of the Second Commonwealth Congress of the
Philippines during his first State of the Nation Address on June 3, 1946 at a converted school house at
Lepanto Street, Manila.

In an effort to solve the massive socio-economic problems of the period, President Roxas reorganized the
government, and proposed a wide-sweeping legislative program. Among the undertakings of the Third
Republic’s initial year were: The establishment of the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (which would
be reorganized in 1958 as the Development Bank of the Philippines);[3] the creation of the Department
of Foreign Affair and the organization of the foreign service through Executive Order No. 18; the GI Bill of
Rights for Filipino veterans; and the revision of taxation laws to increase government revenues.[4]

President Roxas moved to strengthen sovereignty by proposing a Central Bank for the Philippines to
administer the Philippine banking system[5] which was established by Republic Act No. 265.
In leading a “cash-starved[6] government” that needed to attend a battered nation, President Roxas
campaigned for the parity amendment to the 1935 Constitution. This amendment, demanded by the
Philippine Trade Relations Act or the Bell Trade Act,[7] would give American citizens and industries the
right to utilize the country’s natural resources in return for rehabilitation support from the United States.
The President, with the approval of Congress, proposed this move to the nation through a plebiscite.

The amendment was necessary to attract rehabilitation funds and investments at a time when public
and official opinion in the United States had swung back to isolationism (the Cold War, and a
corresponding reversal in what had been heretofore a return of isolationism, would only come a few
years later). On March 11, 1947, a total of 432,933 (78.89% of the electorate) voted in favor of the parity
amendment.[8] The approval of the amendment had provided the nation with $620 million[9] in war
damage compensation, through the Philippine War Damage Commission.

A major initiative arising from preliminary wartime discussions about the future security of the
Philippines, was the US–Philippine Military Bases Agreement of 1947, which gave the United States the
right to retain the use of sixteen bases, free of rent, with the option to use seven more for a term of 99
years.[10]

The Roxas administration also pioneered the foreign policy of the Republic. Vice President Elpidio
Quirino was appointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs. General Carlos P. Romulo, as permanent
representative[11] of the Philippines to the United Nations, helped shape the country’s international
identity in the newly established stage for international diplomacy and relations. During the Roxas
administration, the Philippines established diplomatic ties with foreign countries and gained
membership to international entities, such as the United Nations General Assembly, the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
International Labor Organization (ILO), etc.

On April 15, 1948, following a speech before an audience of assembled airmen at Clark Field Air Base,
President Roxas died of a heart attack. Vice President Elpidio Quirino assumed the presidency on April
17, 1948.

On April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino, back in Malacañan Palace, knelt and wept unabashed
before the casket bearing the remains of Manuel Roxas. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the
Philippines.)

On April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino, back in Malacañan Palace, knelt and wept unabashed
before the casket bearing the remains of Manuel Roxas. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the
Philippines.)

The Quirino Administration (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)

President Elpidio Quirino’s goal as chief executive, as stated in his first State of the Nation Address,
revolved around strengthening the people’s confidence in the government and the restoration of peace.
In order to achieve these, the Chief Executive travelled around the country to inspect firsthand the
condition of the nation.

President Elpidio Quirino delivering his First State of the Nation Address on January 24, 1949.
President Quirino established the Action Committee on Social Amelioration through Administrative
Order No. 68, in order to efficiently promote the welfare of citizens in the rural districts. He established
the Social Security Study Commission by virtue of Executive Order No. 150, to investigate socio-economic
problems of the working class and formulate legislation developing social welfare. The Labor
Management Advisory Board, established by Executive Order No. 158, formulated labor policies and
conducted studies on the ways and means of preventing, minimizing, and reconciling labor disputes. The
Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration, established by Republic Act. No. 821,
assisted farmers in securing credit as well as developing cooperative associations to efficiently market
their agricultural commodities.

The Quirino administration reached out to the leaders and members of Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon
(HUKBALAHAP) and the Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga Magbubukid (PKM) to negotiate peace and put an
end to the insurgency. In 1948, through Proclamation No. 76, the government granted amnesty to the
insurgents that surrendered arms. The negotiation failed to persuade HUKBALAHAP leader Luis Taruc
and other rebel leaders, as they conceded to register but never disarm. From 1950 to 1953, Secretary of
National Defense Ramon Magsaysay and President Quirino exerted efforts in reforming the nation’s
Armed Forces and promoting welfare of citizens in the rural areas through the Economic Development
Corps (EDCOR)[12] and Land Settlement and Development Corporation (LASEDECO)[13]. This resulted to
a considerable improvement to the country’s insurgency problem. There were over 25,000 armed
communists in early 1950—two thirds of which had either been captured, killed, or had voluntarily
surrendered; an estimated 60,000 firearms were surrendered or captured.[14]

President Elpidio Quirino delivering his First State of the Nation Address on January 24, 1949. (Photo
courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines.)

President Elpidio Quirino shaking hands with Huk Leader Luis Taruc upon issuing amnesty to the rebel
group on the condition that they disarm on June 21, 1948. The negotiation will eventually collapse on
August, 1948. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines.)

The Quirino administration came to a close in the presidential elections of 1953. It was a battle between
incumbent Liberal Party of President Elpidio Quirino against the charismatic Nacionalista candidate
Ramon Magsaysay. It was a landslide victory for Ramon Magsaysay, who gained 2,912,992 votes or
68.9% of the electorate.

President-elect Ramon Magsaysay tries out the presidential chair, on the invitation of President Elpidio
Quirino, when Magsaysay arrived to fetch the latter on inaugural day. Taken on December 30, 1953.
(Photo taken from Palacio de Malacañang)

President-elect Ramon Magsaysay tries out the presidential chair, on the invitation of President Elpidio
Quirino, when Magsaysay arrived to fetch the latter on inaugural day. Taken on December 30, 1953.
(Photo taken from Palacio de Malacañang)

The Magsaysay Administration (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)

To help the rural masses was the focal point of the populist administration[15] of President Ramon
Magsaysay. President Magsaysay insisted in meeting and communicating with his people. In his first
Executive Order, he established the Presidential Complaint and Action Commission, which investigated
various citizen complaints and recommended remedial actions through different government agencies.
The Commission served to boost the nation’s confidence with its government; it was seen as a fulfilment
of President Magsaysay’s promise, stated in his inaugural address, to become a President for the people.
The principles of the Magsaysay administration were codified in the Magsaysay Credo, and became the
theme of leadership and public service.

Champion of the Masses – President Ramon Magsaysay was warmly received by the crowd during one of
his Presidential visits. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines.)

Among the accomplishments of the Magsaysay administration were the Social Security Law of 1954 or
Republic Act No. 1161. In an effort to solve the problems of communism and insurgency, President
Magsaysay sought to protect the farmers, through the creation of laws such as: the Agricultural Tenancy
Act of the Philippines or Republic Act No. 1199; the Land Reform Act of 1955 through Republic Act No.
1400; the formation of the Court of Agrarian Relations through Republic Act No. 1267; and the National
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) through Republic Act No. 1160. The
administration achieved victory over insurgents with the surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in 1954.

The Agricultural Tenancy Act and the Land Reform Act of 1955 are among the laws enacted by President
Ramon Magsaysay to help protect the local farmers. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the
Philippines.)

In the field of international diplomacy and defense, President Magsaysay, through the Manila Pact of
1954 or the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, led the establishment of the Southeast Asian
Treaty Organization (SEATO).[16]

The Laurel-Langley Agreement, signed during the Magsaysay administration, gave the Philippines a
preferential trade system[17] with the United States and other countries. Among its provisions were the
right to impose quotas on non-quota articles and the right to impose export taxes.[18]

On March 17, 1957, President Magsaysay and 25 other passengers of the presidential plane Mt.
Pinatubo perished in a crash, at Mt. Manunggal, Cebu. Vice President Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the
presidency on March 18, 1957.

A nation in mourning—a huge crowd joined the funeral procession of President Ramon Magsaysay as it
passed through the streets of Manila.

Our Guy and his Legacy—The Ramon Magsaysay Award, created in 1957, is the highest prize for
leadership in Asia. The award is presented every 31st of August—the birth anniversary of President
Ramon Magsaysay. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines.)

The Garcia Administration (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)

President Carlos P. Garcia, in his inaugural address, sought the help and support of the masses in
accomplishing the tremendous responsibilities of the presidency and in carrying on the legacy of the
Magsaysay administration. President Garcia used the momentum of the previous administration’s
campaign on social welfare and signed the amendment of the Social Security Law through Republic Act
1792, establishing the Social Security System on September 1, 1957.[19]

President Garcia ran for the presidential elections of 1957. It was the first time in electoral history where
there were four serious contenders to the presidency, namely: Jose Yulo, Claro M. Recto, Manuel
Manahan, and President Garcia. The incumbent president won the elections with 41.3% of the
electorate. It was the first time that a president was elected by plurality of candidates instead of a
majority vote. It was also the first time where the elected president and vice president did not come
from the same political party—President Garcia was a Nacionalista and Vice President Diosdado
Macapagal a Liberal.

President Carlos P. Garcia was received by the crowd during his campaign for the Presidential Elections of
1957. (Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines)

(From left to right) Vice President Diosdado Macapagal, First Lady Leonila Dimataga-Garcia, President
Carlos P. Garcia and Mrs. Eva Macapagal during their inauguration on December 30, 1957. (Photo
courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines)

The second inauguration of Carlos P. Garcia, at the Independence Grandstand (now Quirino Grandstand).
(Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines)

The Garcia administration promoted the “Filipino First” policy, whose focal point was to regain economic
independence; a national effort by Filipinos to “obtain major and dominant participation in their
economy.”[20] The administration campaigned for the citizens’ support in patronizing Filipino products
and services, and implemented import and currency controls favorable for Filipino industries.[21] In
connection with the government’s goal of self-sufficiency was the “Austerity Program,” which President
Garcia described in his first State of the NatIon Address as “more work, more thrift, more productive
investment, and more efficiency” that aimed to mobilize national savings.[22] The Anti Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act, through Republic Act No. 301, aimed to prevent corruption, and promote honesty and
public trust. Another achievement of the Garcia administration was the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement of
1959, which shortened the term of lease of the US military bases in the country from the previous 99 to
25 years.[23]

The Macapagal Administration (December 30, 1961- December 30, 1965)

President Diosdado Macapagal, during his inaugural address on December 30, 1961, emphasized the
responsibilities and goals to be attained in the “new era” that was the Macapagal administration. He
reiterated his resolve to eradicate corruption, and assured the public that honesty would prevail in his
presidency. President Macapagal, too, aimed at self-sufficiency and the promotion of every citizen’s
welfare, through the partnership of the government and private sector, and to alleviate poverty by
providing solutions for unemployment.

“To solve the immediate problems of the present” and “to build materially and spiritually for the future”
were the goals of the "New Era" of President Diosdado Macapagal. (Photo courtesy of the National
Library of the Philippines)
“To solve the immediate problems of the present” and “to build materially and spiritually for the future”
were the goals of the “New Era” of President Diosdado Macapagal. (Photo courtesy of the National
Library of the Philippines)

Among the laws passed during the Macapagal administration were: Republic Act No. 3844 or the
Agricultural Land Reform Code (an act that established the Land Bank of the Philippines)[25]; Republic
Act No. 3466, which established the Emergency Employment Administration; Republic Act No. 3518,
which established the Philippine Veterans Bank; Republic Act No. 3470, which established the National
Cottage Industries Development Authority (NACIDA) to organize, revive, and promote the establishment
of local cottage industries; and Republic Act No. 4156, which established the Philippine National Railways
(PNR) to operate the national railroad and tramways. The administration lifted foreign exchange controls
as part of the decontrol program in an attempt to promote national economic stability and growth.

President Diosdado Macapagal signs the first leasehold contract in Plaridel, Bulacan in front of a crowd
of tenant-farmers and landowners on July 4, 1964. (Photo courtesy of National Library of the Philippines)

President Diosdado Macapagal signs the first leasehold contract in Plaridel, Bulacan in front of a crowd
of tenant-farmers and landowners on July 4, 1964. (Photo courtesy of National Library of the Philippines)

In the field of foreign relations, the Philippines became a founding member of Maphilindo, through the
Manila Accord of 1963.[26] The regional organization of Malay states strove for “Asian solutions by Asian
nations for Asian problems,” and aimed to solve national and regional problems through regional
diplomacy.

President Sukarno, President Macapagal and Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of Malaysia signing
agreements forming the MAPHILINDO on August 5, 1963 at the Juan Luna Hall of the Department of
Foreign Affairs. (Photo courtesy of National Library of the Philippines)

President Sukarno, President Macapagal and Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of Malaysia signing
agreements forming the MAPHILINDO on August 5, 1963 at the Juan Luna Hall of the Department of
Foreign Affairs. (Photo courtesy of National Library of the Philippines)

The Macapagal administration closed with the presidential elections of 1965. The “Poor boy from Lubao”
was defeated by the Nacionalista candidate Ferdinand E. Marcos.

The Marcos Administration (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986)

The last president of the Third Republic of the Philippines was President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Prior to
the events of Martial Law, the first term of the Marcos administration, as emphasized in his inaugural
address on December 30, 1965, focused on “the revival of the greatness of the nation.”
First inauguration of President Ferdinand Marcos held at the Quirino Grandstand, Manila, December 30,
1965. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

First inauguration of President Ferdinand Marcos held at the Quirino Grandstand, Manila, December 30,
1965. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

President Marcos, faced with the challenge of corruption in the government, reorganized the Armed
Forces, the Philippine Constabulary, and the Bureau of Internal Revenue. In an attempt to solve the
problem of technical smuggling, the Bureau of Customs was also reorganized. The administration, with a
goal to strengthen the local economy, devised construction programs and irrigation projects. The
promotion of Philippine heritage, culture, and arts was achieved through the establishment of the
Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) in 1969.[27]

Under the Marcos administration, the country hosted the Manila Summit in 1966. The conference aimed
to resolve the Vietnam War, and sought the restoration of peace and the promotion of economic
stability and development throughout the Asia-Pacific region.[28]

Among the laws approved by President Marcos were: Republic Act No. 5186 or the Investments
Incentives Act; Republic Act No. 4864 or the Police Act of 1966; and Republic Act No. 5173, which
established the Philippine Coast Guard.

President Marcos won his re-election bid in the 1969 presidential elections against Liberal Party’s Sergio
Osmeña Jr. President Marcos gained 5,017,343 votes or 61.47% of the electorate to become only the
second Philippine president in history to win reelection and the first to do so in the Third Republic.

Re-electionist President Ferdinand Marcos during his campaign for the Presidential Elections of 1969.
(Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines)

Re-electionist President Ferdinand Marcos during his campaign for the Presidential Elections of 1969.
(Photo courtesy of the National Library of the Philippines)

On the 30th of January 1970, to protest the violent dispersal of the student-led rally during President
Marcos’ fifth State of the Nation Address four days earlier, a demonstration was held in front of
Malacañan Palace. This event intensified into a protracted and vicious battle between authorities and
the students who tried to storm the palace. A fire truck was rammed into one of the Palace gates;
properties were destroyed and fires were started by the rallyists. Two persons were reportedly killed and
106 were injured. The incident and the rallies thereafter became known as the First Quarter Storm, a
period of unrest marked by a series of demonstrations against the Marcos administration.[29]

On November 27 of the same year, Blessed Pope Paul VI traveled to the Philippines, attending to the
63.2 million Filipino Catholic faithful. It marked the first time the head of the Catholic church visited the
country. Surviving an assassination attempt upon his arrival, the Pontiff continued his Philippine visit. He
officiated the first Papal Mass in the Far East at the Manila Cathedral, as well as an open-air mass at the
Rizal Park. [Learn more about papal visits to the Philippines.]

Pope Paul VI with President Ferdinand E. Marcos on the balcony of the north wing of Malacañan Palace.
(Photo from Malacañan Palace: The Official Illustrated History)

Pope Paul VI with President Ferdinand E. Marcos on the balcony of the north wing of Malacañan Palace.
(Photo from Malacañan Palace: The Official Illustrated History)

As opposition to President Marcos grew significantly due to corruption in the administration, the Liberal
Party then saw an opportunity in the midterm elections of 1971. The Miting de Avance of the Liberal
Party held at Plaza Miranda on August 21, 1971 was cut short when two bombs were hurled at the
opposition candidates, killing nine people and injuring about a hundred.[30] Because of this incident,
President Marcos suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus, leading to the arrest and incarceration of
twenty people.

The Plaza Miranda bombing, alongside the increasing strength of the Communist Party of the Philippines
and its military wing, the New People’s Army, and the Marcos-staged ambush on the convoy of Secretary
of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile on the night of September 22, 1972, were the pretext for Marcos’
declaration of Martial Law on September 23, 1972, by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081. The said
proclamation was dated September 21, when in fact it was only put into effect on September 23.

The audience at the Plaza Miranda, caught in a panic following the 1971 blast. (Photo courtesy of the
Presidential Museum and Library)

The audience at the Plaza Miranda, caught in a panic following the 1971 blast. (Photo courtesy of the
Presidential Museum and Library)

Opponents of the administration were incarcerated; decree-making powers were asserted by the
President, and when the ongoing Constitutional Convention produced a draft document, a series of
“barangay assemblies” were held to prevent Congress from convening as scheduled in January, 1973.
After claiming approval of a new Constitution, the dictatorship ordered Congress padlocked. The
“ratification” of the 1973 Constitution marked the end of the Third Republic and the beginning of the
Bagong Lipunan—the New Society as the martial law regime was called—under President Marcos.

Senators Doy Laurel, Eva Estrada Kalaw, Ramon Mitra, Gerry Roxas, and Jovito Salonga outside the
padlocked Senate session hall. (Photo from Doy Laurel by Celia Diaz-Laurel)

Senators Doy Laurel, Eva Estrada Kalaw, Ramon Mitra, Gerry Roxas, and Jovito Salonga outside the
padlocked Senate session hall. (Photo from Doy Laurel by Celia Diaz-Laurel)
In 1981, through Proclamation No. 2045, Martial Law was lifted throughout the country and marked the
beginning of the “New,” or Fourth, Republic of the Philippines.

*The Fifth Republic of the Philippines - Post Marcos Dictatorship*

Fifth Republic of the Philippines was re-established after the downfall of the dictatorial regime of
Ferdinand Marcos.

Aquino administration (1986–1992)

With the People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino's assumption into power marked the restoration of
democracy in the country. Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the
situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution" that restored civil liberties and
dismantled the heavily Marcos-ingrained bureaucracy— abolishing the Batasang Pambansa and relieving
all public officials. The Aquino appointed a constitutional commission that submitted a new permanent
constitution that was ratified and enacted in February 1987. The constitution crippled presidential power
to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim
Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.

Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's
administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic
development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the
Philippine military. Aquino privatized many of the utilities the government owned, such as water and
electricity. This practice was viewed by many as Aquino catering to oligarchic as well U.S. interests, losing
the government's power of regulation.

Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters. In June 1991, Mount
Pinatubo in Central Luzon erupted, after being dormant for 600 years. It was the 2nd largest volcanic
eruption of the 20th century. It left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless, and cooled global weather by
1.5°C.

In September 16, 1991, despite lobbying by President Aquino, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty
that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States
turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in
Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.

Ramos administration (1992–1998)

In the 1992 elections, Defense secretary Fidel V. Ramos (Lakas-NUCD), endorsed by Aquino, won by just
23.6% of the vote, over Miriam Defensor-Santiago (PRP), Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr. (NPC), House Speaker
Ramon Mitra (LDP), former First Lady Imelda Marcos (KBL), Senate President Jovito Salonga (LP) and Vice
President Salvador Laurel (NP).

Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority. He legalized the
Communist Party and created the National Unification Commission (NUC) to lay the groundwork for talks
with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law
a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel
accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents. In October 1995, the government signed an
agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end.

A standoff with China occurred in 1995, when the Chinese military built structures on Mischief Reef in
the disputed Spratly Islands claimed by the Philippines as Kalayaan Islands.

Ramos was heavily criticized for passing an oil-deregulation law, thus inflating prices of gasoline
products. Ramos was also criticized for alleged corruption in his handling of the Philippine Centennial
Exposition and the PEA-AMARI land deal, in which Ramos allegedly received kickbacks amounting to
millions of pesos.

A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) under Nur Misuari, a major Muslim
separatist group fighting for an independent Bangsamoro homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996,
ending the 24-year old struggle. However an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF) under Salamat Hashim continued the armed Muslim struggle for an Islamic state.

The 1998 elections were won by former movie actor and Vice President Joseph Ejercito Estrada (PMP-
LAMMP) with overwhelming mass support, with close to 11 million votes. The other ten candidates
included his closest rival and administration candidate, House Speaker Jose De Venecia (Lakas-NUCD-
UMDP) with 4.4 million votes, Senator Raul Roco (Aksyon Demokratiko), former Cebu governor Emilio
Osmeña (PROMDI) and Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim (LP).

Estrada administration (1998-2001)

Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from it. From
a low -0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999. Like his predecessor there was a
similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional
Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal,
according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution
that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was
not successful in amending the constitution.

In March 21, 2000 President Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF) after the worsening secessionist movement in Midanao The government later captured 46 MILF
camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar.

In October 2000, Ilocos Sur governor Luis "Chavit", Singson a close Estrada friend, accused the President
of receiving collections from jueteng, an illegal numbers game.

On November 13, 2000, the House of Representatives impeached Estrada on grounds of bribery, graft
and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable violation of the constitution. His impeachment trial
in the Senate began on December 7, but broke down on January 17, 2001, after 11 senators allied with
Estrada successfully blocked the opening of confidential bank records that would have been used by the
prosecution to incriminate the President. In response, millions of people massed up at the EDSA Shrine,
where in 1986 the People Power Revolution had ousted Marcos, demanding Estrada's immediate
resignation. Estrada's cabinet resigned en masse and the military and police withdrew their support. On
January 20, the Supreme Court declared the presidency vacant and swore in Vice President Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo as the country's 14th President. Estrada and his family evacuated the Malacañang
Palace soon after.

Nevertheless, Estrada challenged the legitimacy of the Arroyo before the Supreme Court on grounds that
he did not resign, but just went on an indefinite leave. The Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of
Arroyo with finality on March 2, 2001.

Arroyo administration (2001-2010)

Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal) was
sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Estrada later challenged the legitimacy of
Arroyo's government, claiming he did not resign from office, but the Supreme Court twice upheld
Arroyo's legitimacy. After Estrada was arrested on corruption charges in April 2001, thousands of his
supporters staged an "EDSA III" to overthrow the Arroyo government, but the attempt failed when the
protest rallies degraded into violence. Arroyo's accession to power was further legitimated by the mid-
term congressional and local elections held in May 2001, when her coalition won an overwhelming
victory.
Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in
Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion. Although she had
declared in December 2002 that she would not contest the May 2004 presidential election, citing a need
to heal divisiveness, she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to run. She was re-elected and
sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004.

In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an
election official if her margin of victory can be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's
resignation.

Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and
refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.

Arroyo currently spearheads a controversial plan for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the
present unitary and presidential republic with a bicameral legislature into a federal parliamentary
government with a unicameral legislature.

*Japanese Occupation of the Philippines*

During Word War II

A typical Japanese soldier during Word War II On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines.
Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then
on December 22, The Japanese forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to Manila. General
Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city on the advice of commonwealth President Manuel L.
Quezon to avoid its destruction. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. MacArthur
retreated with his troops to Bataan while the commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor island
before proceeding to the United States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in Bataan finally
surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then proceeded to Australia. The 76,000
captured soldiers were forced to embark on the infamous "Death March" to a prison camp more than
100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.
The Huks

In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together and created local brigades
for their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino, and other leaders of organized farmers
held a meeting in February 1942 in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the
Japanese as a unified guerrilla army. Another meeting was held the following month, where in
representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija threshed out various details regarding their
organization, which they agreed to call "Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc
was chosen to be the Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man. The members were
simply known as Huks!

The Philippine Executive Commission

Jose P. Laurel, president during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the Filipino officials in
Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises with the Japanese to mitigate the
sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine
Executive Commission was established, with Vargas as chairman. the following was appointed as
department heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro
M. Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and communication;
Jose Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.

The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory Commission for Philippine
Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel
became its head. Against the will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10,
1943. Two months later it was ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political party allowed to
exist at that time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935
constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in effect only temporarily, while
the Philippines still in chaos. After the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new
Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director general, Benigno Aquino Sr.
held a party convention to elect 54 members of the National Assembly. The Assembly was actually made
up of 108 members; but half of this number was composed of incumbent governors and city mayors.
Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of the second republic (the first republic was Aguinldo's Malolos
Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. & Ramon Avancena as a vice-presidents. The new republic was
inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the front steps of the legislative building in Manila. The Philippine
flag was hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese started using propaganda
to gain the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They hung giant
posters and distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the Philippines belong to the
Filipinos." they also used newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the same idea. Promoting
Japanese propaganda was one of the main objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain
the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing several Japanese
strongholds until they regained control of areas previously occupied by the enemy. The bombings began
on September 21 1944, and barely a month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans landed
triumphantly in Leyte. Once a shore, General Douglas MacArthur said; "I have Returned."

Sergio Osmena, President during the commonwealth period

Sergio Osmeña was Part of MacArthur’s group. He had taken over Manuel L. Quezon as president after
the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on August 1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944 the
Americans engaged Japanese forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle in
World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese fleet and rendered in
incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte Gulf is said to have signaled the
beginning of Philippine liberation from the Japanese.

By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese, meanwhile, secured other
area where their thought other American units would land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces
successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen.
Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme commander of the Japanese troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes
(Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also deployed MAKAPILI units
to defend Manila but neither succeeds.

On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders of Yamashita, who
is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront
stretching along the Sierra Madre Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.
The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of intense fighting before they
finally surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur continued to liberate other parts of the country.
And finally proclaim general freedom from the Japanese on July 4, 1945.

*The Philippine Commonwealth Era*

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in
preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under the Philippine Independence
Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law. Manuel L. QuezonThe Commonwealth era
was interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth
government, lead by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of
tuberculosis while in exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same time, the Japanese forces
installed a puppet government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. This government is
known as the Second Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944, the Allied forces led by Gen. Douglas
MacArthur landed on the island of Leyte to liberate the Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally
surrendered in September 2, 1945.

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened in its first President
Manuel A. Roxas of the Philippinesregular session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the people’s
representatives have assembled since their election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was elected
Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was speaker of
the house, while Prospero Sanidad became speaker pro Tempore. The first law of this congress, enacted
as commonwealth act 672, organized the central bank of the Philippines. The commonwealth deal also
tackled the issue of collaboration. In September 1945 the counter intelligence corps presented the
people who were accused of having collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included were
prominent Filipinos who had been active in the puppet government that the Japanese had been
established. ”A Peoples Court" was created to investigate and decide on the issue.

Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23, 1946. Sergio
Osmeña and Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus becoming the last president of the
Philippine Commonwealth. The Commonwealth era formally ended when the United States granted
independence to the Philippines, as scheduled on July 4, 1946

*First Philippine Commission*

On January 20, 1899, United States President William McKinley created the first Philippine Commission,
known as the Schurman Commission.

This commission recommended establishment of a civil government, bicameral legislature and a public
school system in the Philippines. Its report also became the basis for the second Philippine Commission's
creation on July 4, 1901.

The first Philippine Commission had Jacob Schurman as chairperson and George Dewey, Elwell Otis,
Dean Worcester and Charles Denby as members.

Today in Philippine History, January 20, 1899, the Schurman Commission was created

In the proclamation of this Special Commission, President McKinley sent following statement of
"regulative principles" to the commissioners.

The supremacy of the United States must and will be enforced throughout every part of the Archipelago,
and those who resist it can accomplish no end other than their own ruin.

To the Philippine people will be granted liberty and self-government reconcilable with maintenance of a
wise, just, stable, effective, and economical administration of public affairs, and compatible with the
sovereign and international rights and obligations of the United States.

The civil rights of the Philippine people will be guaranteed and protected to the fullest extent; religious
freedom will be assured, and all persons shall be equal and have equal standing in the eyes of the law.

Honor, justice, and friendship forbid the use of the Philippine people or the Islands they inhabit as an
object or means of exploitation. The purpose of the American government is the welfare and
advancement of the Philippine people.

There shall be guaranteed to the Philippine people an honest and effective civil service, in which, to the
fullest extent to which it is practicable, natives shall be employed.

The collection and application of all taxes and other revenues will be placed upon a sound, economical
basis, and the public funds, raised justly and collected honestly, will be applied only to defray the regular
and proper expenses incurred by the establishment and maintenance of the Philippine government and
such general improvements as the public interests may demand. Local funds collected will be used for
local purposes, and not devoted to other ends. With such prudent and honest fiscal administration it is
believed that the needs of the government will, in a short time, become compatible with a considerable
reduction in taxation.

A pure, speedy, and effective administration of justice will be established, whereby may be eradicated
the evils arising from delay, corruption and exploitation.

The construction of roads, railroads, and similar means of communication and transportation, and of
other public works, manifestly to the advantage of the Philippine people, will be promoted.

Domestic and foreign trade and commerce, agriculture, and other industrial pursuits tending toward the
general development of the country in the interests of the inhabitants, shall be the objects of constant
solicitude and fostering care.

Effective provision will be made for the establishment of elementary schools, in which the children of the
people may be educated, and appropriate facilities will be provided for a higher education.

Reforms in all departments of the government, all branches of the public service and all corporations
closely touching the common life of the people, will be undertaken without delay and effected
conformably with right and justice in a way to satisfy the well-founded demands and the highest
sentiments and aspirations of the people. Such is the spirit in which the United States comes to the
people of the Islands, and the President has instructed the Commission to make this publicly known.

In obeying his behest, the Commissioners desire to join the President in expressing their good will
toward the Philippine people, and to extend to the leading representative men an invitation to meet
them for the purpose of personal acquaintance and the exchange of views and opinions.