International Psychogeriatrics (2016), 28:5, 719–731 

C International Psychogeriatric Association 2015

doi:10.1017/S1041610215002240

Men’s vulnerability–women’s resilience: from widowhood to

late-life repartnering
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chaya Koren
The School of Social Work and The Center for the Study of Society, University of Haifa, 199 Abba Hushi Blv., Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel

ABSTRACT

Background: The ongoing increase in life expectancy resulting in people living longer after the death of a
lifelong spouse along with the stresses of widowhood is likely to increase the phenomenon of repartnering in
old age. The aim of this article is to learn about the attributed meanings of late-life repartnering among older
repartnered widows and widowers dealing with widowhood.
Methods: The experiences of 27 couples (54 participants), in which both partners were widowed, were chosen
from two larger studies on late-life repartnering: one took a dyadic perspective (interviewing both partners), and
the other took an intergenerational approach (interviewing both partners and offspring). Criterion sampling
in both studies used the criteria of widowers who repartnered above age 65 and widows above age 60,
remarried or not, living separately, or under the same roof, and who had children and grandchildren from a
lifelong marriage that had ended with the death of their spouse. All semi-structured interviews were recorded,
transcribed verbatim, and analyzed based on grounded theory principles and dyadic analysis adapted to
families.
Results: Present a grounded model indicating gender differences in dealing with the death of a lifelong spouse.
Men tended to experience vulnerability whereas women tended to experience resilience.
Conclusions: These findings make an innovative contribution by showing the reversal of gender inequality in
old age, and gender differences between widows’ and widowers’ coping with widowhood, even though both
repartnered. They are discussed in light of (critical) feminist gerontology including contribution to theory
development and implications for practice.

Key words: widowhood, gender differences, repartnering, resilience, vulnerability, old age, (critical) feminist gerontology, qualitative research

Introduction and intergenerational perspectives are scarcer (e.g.

Koren and Simhi, 2015).
Late-life repartnering is an emerging phenomenon The phenomenon includes three main forms;
among functionally independent widows and remarriage, cohabitation, and living apart together
widowers of mid to high socioeconomic status (LAT) (e.g. de Jong Gierveld, 2004). Some studies
(Davidson, 2001) and is expected to expand with related to it broadly, including persons above age
the ongoing increase in life expectancy (Brown 50 (Brown et al., 2006) or above age 55 (de Jong
et al., 2006). Widows and widowers aged 65 Gierveld, 2004). Others (Koren and Eisikovits,
years and older, who live longer after the death 2011) restricted the phenomenon to the “official-
of their lifelong spouse, seek to fulfill basic old-age” as determined by mandatory retirement
human needs such as companionship, love, and age. The phenomenon has become more common
sexuality, which can be achieved by repartnering and accepted in modern individualistic cultures
(Carr, 2004a). Most research on the phenomenon (De Jong Gierveld, 2004) when compared to more
refers to individual perspectives (e.g. Davidson, traditional collectivist cultures. Within cultures
2001), whereas dyadic (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011) located between tradition and modernity, such
as Israel, late-life repartnering is becoming more
Correspondence should be addressed to: Chaya Koren, The School of Social Work
accepted as a legitimate choice in old age but is not
and The Center for the Study of Society, University of Haifa, 199 Abba Hushi officially recognized (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011).
Blv., Mount Carmel, Haifa 3498838, Israel. Phone: 972-54-6345876. Email: This fact is strengthened by the lack of available
[email protected]. Received 15 May 2015; revision requested 14 Jul 2015;
revised version received 10 Nov 2015; accepted 15 Nov 2015. First published
statistics regarding the prevalence of repartnering
online 22 December 2015. in old age in Israel. In the United States, adults
720 C. Koren

aged 65 years or older represented about 6% of when the repartnered relationship was characterized
all remarriages in 2010. In addition, approximately by emotional closeness, but not when it was
4% of unmarried couples above age 50 were characterized by emotional distance (Eisikovits and
cohabiting (Brown et al., 2006). Drawing on the Koren, 2010).
Living Arrangements and Social Networks Survey Research on children’s and grandchildren’s
(the Netherlands) of men and women aged 55 to 89 perspectives of their parent’s/grandparent’s late-
years (N = 4,494), a total of 21% repartnered (de life repartnering is scarce. One study revealed
Jong Gierveld, 2004). that although offspring did not perceive the
Gender differences and similarities were found new partners as a replacement for parenthood
regarding prevalence of repartnering (e.g. de Jong or grandparenthood, they did perceive them as
Gierveld, 2004), in motivations for repartnering a replacement for the parent’s or grandparent’s
and reasons for not repartnering (e.g. Carr, couplehood (Koren and Lipman-Schiby, 2014).
2004a), in chances of repartnering with health Therefore, despite the disadvantages of late-life
problems, and in living arrangement preferences repartnering perceived by some offspring, they were
(e.g. Davidson, 2002). A higher percentage of men able to accept it if it was good for their repartnered
repartnering (41%) compared to women (10%) parent or grandparent (Koren and Simhi, 2015).
(de Jong Gierveld, 2004) might be explained by Late-life repartnering in this article refers to
men repartnering with younger women (Carr, both widows and widowers who repartnered to one
2004a). Whereas widowers explained their lack of another in Israel, at or above the official retirement
repartnering by cultural sanctions, which viewed age (65 for men and 60 for women), and after
repartnering as a betrayal of the deceased wife being widowed from a lifelong spouse with whom
(Bennett et al., 2013), widows reporting enjoying they had raised a family including children and
their sense of liberation, and preferred not to grandchildren. This enables examination of gender
schedule their lives around a new husband differences regarding the experience of widowhood
(Davidson, 2001). Widows who reported a fairly from the perspective of both men and women who
good lifelong marriage were more open to repartnered in old age and from the perspectives of
repartnering than those who experienced either their offspring, if they addressed the issue of coping
extremely good or bad lifelong marriages (Carr, with widowhood in their interviews.
2004a). Furthermore, when widows repartnered,
they sought someone to go out with, whereas
widowers sought someone to come home to, to Widowhood in old age
fulfill the emotional and instrumental void following
the loss of their lifelong spouse. In addition, The rate of widowhood increases dramatically at
men with health problems and good financial the age of 65 years and older for both women
resources were found to have a greater chance of and men (Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistical
repartnering, whereas women with health problems Abstract of Israel, 2014) and is considered one of
had a greater chance if they had a supportive life’s most stressful events (Carr, 2004b). Whereas
social network (Davidson, 2001). Nevertheless, bereavement represents the personal psychological
motivations for repartnering were not necessarily experience following spousal death and is associated
related to instrumental support or economic with grief and mourning, widowhood refers to a
stability; both widows and widowers repartnered change in social status from being married to being
for emotional closeness when levels of social widowed. It involves social consequences that have
support from friends and family were low (Carr, personal impact on both widowed men and women
2004a). (Bennett et al., 2005). Thus, bereavement and
In a study by de Jong Gierveld (2004), most of widowhood are associated despite their differences
the repartnered men had remarried, whereas most (Martin-Mathews, 2011).
women had chosen LAT. Such gender differences Gender similarities and differences were found in
regarding living arrangement preferences were studies on widowhood referring to cohorts born at
found to be related to motivations for repartnering. the beginning of the 20th century (Hansson and
Men preferred living under the same roof to receive Stroebe, 2007). These findings could be explained
gender-based household services, whereas women by gender differences regarding identity formation
preferred separate living arrangements to avoid in young adulthood. These differences resulted in
having to provide such services and having to nurse distinct social and familial roles for men and women
a chronically ill partner (Davidson, 2002). Other belonging to these cohorts. Thus, when entering
findings indicated that men in LAT and women widowhood, they had to learn to perform the
cohabitating found ways to accept their living unfamiliar gender-based functions that the spouse
arrangement in spite of it not being their preference had fulfilled.
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 721

Gender differences in adjustment to late-life Resilience and vulnerability following

widowhood relate to several aspects: widow- widowhood
hood prevalence (Central Bureau of Statistics,
Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2014), social From the above review, it can be concluded
support and personal growth (Martin-Matthews, that in most aspects, widows seem to be more
2011), health and mental health (Stroebe resilient than widowers, who seem to be more
et al., 2001), psychological responses (Bennett vulnerable. “Resilience” means maintaining a
et al., 2005), financial issues (Hansson and relatively stable, healthy level of psychological,
Stroebe, 2007), resilience (Bennett, 2010), and and physical functioning following a traumatic
vulnerability. experience, such as the death of someone close
The percentage of widows aged 65 years and (Bonanno, 2004). “Vulnerability” means sensitivity
older in Israel is more than three times higher to perturbation and the capacity or incapacity
than the percentage of widowers – 45% and to adapt after the exposure to stress (Gallopin,
13%, respectively (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2006), such as the death of someone close.
Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2014). A similar Thus, vulnerability refers to transformation whereas
situation exists in the United States, where, of resilience refers to preservation (Gallopin, 2006).
all the men in the 65+ age group, less than As mentioned earlier, although spousal loss for
one in five are widowers whereas nearly half the both men and women usually coincides with a
women in this age group are widows. Widowers significant decline in positive emotions (Stroebe
were found to be more passive, receive more et al., 2001), more recent research has shown
support (Bennett et al., 2005), and have smaller that when the pre-loss state was characterized
networks and less involvement with friends and by extreme resilience or extreme marital strain,
family compared to widows (Martin-Matthews, no significant decline in positive emotions was
2011). Widows were found to be more active and to found due to spousal loss (Ong et al., 2010). In
give more support to others (Bennett et al., 2005). research on coping following loss in general and
Although both men and women who were newly spousal loss in particular, resilience is typically
widowed reported depression, it took widowers the most common outcome observed for both
twice as long as widows to recover (Stroebe et al., genders (Bonanno, 2012). Although women could
2001). Furthermore, in men over 55, widowhood be perceived as being more resilient than men in
increased the risk of suicide (Corcoun and Nagar, response to widowhood, some men were also found
2010). In addition, gender differences in favor of to be able to achieve resilience as an older widower
widows were found also regarding health. Although after being in a vulnerable state. The resilience
widows reported a higher rate of medical symptoms of some widowers can be explained by personal
than widowers, no differences were found between characteristics. Some achieved resilience gradually,
married and widowed women, whereas widowed whereas others became resilient following a turning
men reported significantly higher rates of medical point. Social support was found to be instrumental
symptoms than married men (Stroebe et al., in both types of cases (Bennett, 2010).
2001).
Regarding financial resources, women appear to
be more vulnerable to the economic consequences Meaning, well-being, and personal growth
of spousal loss because, as was common to Older married men and women were found to
cohorts born at the beginning of the 20th century, experience a higher sense of meaning in life
these women were financially dependent on their compared to the widowed (Koren and Lowenstein,
husbands throughout their married lives (Hansson 2008). Men were usually happier being married
and Stroebe, 2007). However, despite possible whereas women’s well-being and sense of freedom
decrease in income, they experienced personal usually increased with widowhood (Bennett et al.,
growth (Martin-Matthews, 2011). Both men and 2005). No change in positive emotion was found
women referred to selfishness but in very different when the pre-loss relationship was extremely good
ways. When trying to cope with their grief, or bad (Ong et al., 2010), but when both women
widowers associated selfishness with self-pity at and men had been extremely dependent on their
having been left alone. Widows, however, who deceased spouse, widowhood was an opportunity
were experiencing independence for the first time, for personal growth (Carr, 2004b).
considered themselves selfish if they were unwilling Gender differences and similarities regarding
to give up this new-found freedom (Davidson, widowhood and repartnering in old age led to
2001). Furthermore, one way in which women were the choice of a (critical) feminist gerontology
able to cope was by feeling comfortable being alone perspective as the theoretical framework for this
(Bennett et al., 2005). article.
722 C. Koren

Theoretical framework: (Critical) feminist examine these issues in a cultural context located
gerontology between tradition and modernity, such as Israel.
Thus, the following research questions were asked:
A feminist framework was chosen because (1) How do repartnered widows and widowers
gender differences were examined regarding social experience their widowhood prior to repartnering
experiences of widowhood along with psychological in relation to each other? (2) How is this expressed
experiences of bereavement. Critical gerontology among partners within couples? (3) How do
was chosen because of its critique on social second and third generation offspring react to their
influences (Ray, 1996), which coincides with late- parents’/grandparents’ coping with the widowhood
life repartnering as a phenomenon that is yet to be prior to their repartnering, if at all?
recognized as an acceptable option for widows and
widowers in Israel (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011).
It was chosen also because of its philosophical Method
foundations and empirical methodologies being
consistent with the qualitative research method used The findings presented here are part of two larger
here, in contrast to traditional gerontology (Ray, studies on the meaning of late-life repartnering.
1996). One was conducted from a dyadic perspective
Feminist gerontology has more than one (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011) and the other from
definition. However, there is a consensus that it an intergenerational family perspective (Koren
aims to understand how both gender and age and Lipman-Schibi, 2014). A qualitative approach
shape late-life experiences (Calasanti, 2004). It based on grounded theory principles was used
is commonly referred to as double marginality to capture the experience of the participants as
due to older women simultaneously experiencing individuals, as part of a couple (Eisikovits and
the disadvantages of old age along with female Koren, 2010), and/or as part of a multigenerational
oppression (Freixas et al., 2012). Others claim, family. The perspective of the partners’ offspring
however, that feminism is not a study of women gives the opportunity to present how they, as a third
only but rather views men and women in relation party, perceived the way their parent/grandparent
to one another (Calasanti, 2004). As such, feminist responded to widowhood and how their perceptions
gerontology focuses on gender and gender relations did or did not coincide with the older partners’
and how the social constructions of old age perspectives. Both studies were approved by the
influence the lives of old persons (Ray, 1996). Ethics Committee of the University of Haifa
Examining widows and widowers who repartnered Research Authority.
with each other and comparing them might provide
such understandings. Participants and recruitment
Whereas feminist gerontology explores: “how Criterion sampling (Patton, 2002) was used for
gender relations influence men and women over both larger studies to locate the repartnered
the life course into old age” (Calasanti, 2004, participants, according to the following criteria:
p.108), (critical) feminist gerontology points to age when entering the relationship (65+ for
feminists’ blind spots on age; for example, that men and 60+ for women); late-life family stage
gender inequalities become less relevant with aging (repartnering after widowhood/divorce, having
(Silver, 2003), and points to gerontology’s blind adult children with families of their own and after
spots on old women; for example, disregarding their retirement); formality of the relationship and living
unique characteristics in comparison to old men arrangements including remarriage, cohabitation,
(Calasanti, 2004). It calls for critical analysis of or LAT; independence in daily functioning, and
the social forces on men and women with more adequate fluency in Hebrew to provide in-depth
focus on issues that are change oriented and less descriptions. In both studies, both partners had to
focused on describing the status quo (Hooymen agree to participate, and in the second study, a
et al., 2002). The study of widows and widowers, child and grandchild from each side had to agree to
who repartnered with each other in old age, focuses participate. Participants for both larger studies were
on change from the status quo of expecting old identified using connections with informal networks
people to remain alone after the death of their and through the assistance of professionals working
lifelong spouse (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011). with or having access to the relevant population
Previous studies examining the experience of throughout the country, such as neighborhood
widowhood did not refer to those who repartnered clubs for older persons.
in old age (e.g. Carr, 2004b) and others did Findings are based on data from couples who
not compare men and women in relation to one repartnered following widowhood (see Table 1 for
another (e.g. Bennett, 2010). Neither did they demographic information).
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 723

Table 1. Demographic information

STUDY1: DYADIC STUDY2: INTERGENERATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE FAMILY PERSPECTIVE
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

# of participants in larger 20 couples (40 repartnered 19 stepfamilies (38 repartnered

studies participants) participants, 37 adult children, 32
grandchildren)
# of widowed participants for 14 couples (28 participants) 13 couples (26 participants)
this article
Age (women) 66−88 years old 65−80 years old
Average years of widowhood 7 years 10 years
before repartnering
(women)
Age (men) 71−92 years old 67−89 years old
Average years of widowhood 3 years 3 years
before repartnering (men)
Living arrangements (couples)
Remarriage 3 1
Cohabitation 5 6
LAT 6 6

Most men in each dyad in both studies had been significant life events was: “Please tell me about
widowed for a shorter period of time than their turning points in your life.” The interview guide
partners. However, in study1, two of the women had for study2 included three versions, one for each
been widowed for a shorter period than their current generation, with the same content areas; late-life
partner. In two couples in study1, and one couple repartnering and intergenerational relationships in
in study2, both partners had been widowed for the the family. An example of a probing question in the
same length of time. Participants in both studies content area of intergenerational relationships in the
perceived themselves to be in good to very good family for the partner version was: “Please tell me
health and reported their socioeconomic status as about your current relationship with your offspring
middle to upper-middle class. All were Jewish. Most compared to before repartnering and after losing
declared themselves as secular, about a quarter as your spouse.” An example of a probing question
traditional, and the rest as religious. in the content area of late-life repartnering in the
child/grandchild versions was: “How do you feel
about your parent’s/grandparent’s repartnering?”
Data collection procedures Data for the theme of responses to widowhood
An interview guide was developed for each study were obtained mainly while asking the opening
according to its purpose, drawing on key issues question: “Please tell me the story of your late-
identified in the literature on repartnering in life repartnering.” In study1, the majority of
old age. The interview guides for both studies the participants began by talking about their
included the same opening question (Spradley, lifelong marriages and the loss of their spouse,
1979). Study1 focused on the dyad whereas before moving on to their current repartnering
study2 asked the same opening question from an relationship. In study2, the participants’ reference
expanded family perspective. The interview guide to their parent’s or grandparent’s loss of spouse
for study1 included the following content areas: was not necessarily at the beginning of the
late-life repartnering, the experience of old age, interview. The findings for this article were obtained
and significant life events. For each content area, by enabling participants to tell their story as
probing questions were used to receive the relevant they chose, consistent with qualitative research
information (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2008). An principles.
example of a question in the content area of late- Each of the participants signed a letter of consent
life repartnering was: “How is your repartnering after reading a brief explanation of the study
relationship compared to your lifelong marriage?” and how confidentiality would be ensured. Each
An example of a question in the content area interview was conducted separately to enable each
of the experience of old age was: “Please tell participant to discuss unique experiences freely,
me about your experience of growing old.” An and lasted 1.5 to 2.5 hours each. This allowed
example of a question in the content area of participants to introduce material that might not
724 C. Koren

have emerged in joint interviews, especially when partner’s and/or offspring’s quotes, an additional
discussing sensitive topics or criticizing their partner interpretation was derived by combining the
(for more details see: Eisikovits and Koren, 2010). individual perspectives. This was both enriching
and limiting, because the individual interpretations
were interdependent, and therefore mutually
Data analysis process restrictive (Eisikovits and Koren, 2010).
This was based on grounded theory methods To present the experience from a dyadic and/or
of analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) along intergenerational perspective, the data from study1
with dyadic-analysis principles (Eisikovits and are presented using quotes from both partners for
Koren, 2010). Therefore, although interviews each theme addressed, and for study2, offspring
were conducted separately, they were analyzed quotes are also presented when relevant. All quotes
on individual and dyadic levels for overlaps were translated from Hebrew and identifying details
and contrasts (for more details see Eisikovits have been altered to maintain confidentiality.
and Koren, 2010). The first stages of dyadic Partners from study1are labeled as: man
analysis were identical to grounded theory analysis – M, woman – W. For example, the male
on the individual level, which included making partner of couple3 is labeled: couple3M. Fam-
comparisons and asking questions to conceptualize ily members from study2 are labeled as:
data by identifying segments of meaning and giving man-CM, man’s daughter-DM, man’s son-SM,
names to various units, also known as open coding man’s granddaughter-GDM, man’s grandson-
(Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The next step was GSM, woman-CW, woman’s daughter-DW, wo-
to discover categories by grouping concepts and man’s son-SW, woman’s granddaughter-GDW,
putting data back together in new ways, also known woman’s grandson-GSW. For example, the man’s
as axial coding. This resulted in constructing themes son of family8 is labeled: family8SM.
through shifting back and forth between the various
levels of analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). To
derive a descriptive narrative by selecting a core Findings
category, the same procedure was followed for the
other member of the dyad. Then notes were taken When responding to the opening request to tell
on overlaps and contrasts between the narratives of their story of late-life repartnering, participants
each member. This included examining how each began by referring to their experiences of losing
cross-case theme and subtheme, which emerged on their lifelong spouse. Gender differences were
the individual level, was addressed by each member found. Women’s experiences included building new
of the family and/or couple, to derive a third lives and enjoying a new sense of independence.
perspective, which is a combination of individual They lived active lives, indicating a relatively
perspectives of the partners (Eisikovits and Koren, stable, healthy level of psychological, and physical
2010) or of the family members. This resulted in a functioning following the death of their husband.
grounded model presented in the findings section. Thus, such experiences were consistent with
Trustworthiness was achieved in several ways. resilience. The men however, experienced difficulty
First, verbatim transcriptions of audio-recorded in overcoming their loss in spite of receiving support
interviews enabled verification with the original. from their families. Thus, such experiences were
Second, the researchers of the larger studies consistent with vulnerability. Variations were found
simultaneously performed separate analyses. The for the men’s experiences but not for women’s, as
identified themes were compared and negotiated illustrated in Figure 1.
until agreement was achieved. Third, peer One side presents women’s resilience and the
debriefing was achieved by a group of colleagues other side presents men’s vulnerability. Men’s
familiar with qualitative methods, who asked vulnerability was found to vary between cases in
provocative questions relating to the analysis. This which repartnering was related to recovery and cases
provided additional insights beyond those of the in which it was not. When repartnering was not
researchers (Patton, 2002). Fourth, negative case related to recovery, a process of becoming resilient
analysis, which emphasized the exceptional cases, could be identified. The exception, regarding
was performed (Patton, 2002). The exception the absence of gender-based differences, is also
in this article refers to the absence of gender presented.
differences. Fifth, dyadic analysis served to ensure For each of the themes, two quotes are
trustworthiness similar to triangulation; the more presented, the man’s illustrating vulnerability, and
sources available for interpreting data, the more the woman’s illustrating resilience. When the
reliable the findings become. In addition to participants are from study2, the intergenerational
the researcher’s interpretation of each individual study, quotes from offspring are also presented,
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 725

Women’s resilience Men’s vulnerability

Recovery related to
The Exception: Recovery not
repartnering
Repartnering related to
entered without repartnering
gender-based
difference

Figure 1. A grounded model of response to widowhood and loss of lifelong spouse.

when relevant. The quotes used for illustrating each His partner’s narrative:
of the themes are representative of both samples
(of study1 and study2) and were chosen according
to data richness. Thus, the inclusion of additional How did we meet? We met through friends. The truth
is, we became widowed almost at the same time. He
quotes would be superfluous.
lives in the apartment building where good friends of
mine live. When the year of mourning was over, they
Recovery related to repartnering came to me and said: “You must meet him.” I said:
The following quotes illustrate couples character- “It’s out of the question,” I lived with my husband
ized by men who experienced vulnerability while for 39 years, I’m from the old generation, one man
living without a partner before repartnering. in a lifetime and that’s it and I don’t want to hear
The man’s narrative: about it, I have children and grandchildren. They are
not always by my side, but when I became widowed,
I also started volunteer work to keep busy. Once I
First, my wife passed away. We had been married 44
recovered, it [volunteer work] was the first thing I did.
years; a very happy marriage and I couldn’t accept
I was widowed very suddenly; my husband died of a
it. I remained alone. The children were very good
heart attack and the shock was tremendous of course,
and supportive. They came and everything, but [short
and I didn’t want to hear, and didn’t want to hear, and
silence] it just wasn’t right. It was awful, I lost a
didn’t want to hear [of repartnering]. Two years later, I
tremendous amount of weight and you could say I
had a hip operation, I was partially physically disabled,
was on the verge of depression and after a while, after
I still used a cane, and she [my friend] set me up, I got a
a year or two, friends offered to introduce me to a
lot of encouragement from my daughters-in-law; that’s
woman and I said no, I can’t accept this, I’m not
the truth. (study1: couple3W, age 66, cohabitating 6
ready for it, so the situation [of despair] continued
years, widowed 2.5 years prior to repartnering)
until I met her [my current partner]. How did I get
to know her? We had a neighbor and after my wife
passed away, they adopted me, invited me down in
The woman begins by emphasizing that she and
the evening for coffee. I found her there. I started
[laughs] to suspect something, and then my neighbor
her current partner became widowed at about the
said: “She’s really something, an outstanding woman, same time. However, in contrast to her partner’s
and great homemaker, very friendly, very popular. vulnerability, she was able to manage well on her
She’s devoted. You can’t bring her [your deceased own after a period of bereavement. She achieved
wife] back, and look, your situation is deteriorating’. this by doing volunteer work, which was sufficient
(study1: couple3M, age 77, cohabitating 6 years, for her well-being. Her recovery after her husband’s
widowed 3 years prior to repartnering) sudden death emphasizes her resilience. At first, she
did not want to consider repartnering. This might be
The man focuses on the very difficult experience an indication that she succeeded in building a new
of losing his spouse of 44 years. In spite of life without necessarily needing a partner. Before
receiving support from his family and neighbors, telling us that her neighbor “set her up” with her
he reports loneliness, depression, physical neglect, current partner, she adds: “I had a hip operation, I
weight loss, and lack of motivation even to consider was partially physically disabled, I still used a cane.”
repartnering. Once he accepts the difficulty of his The reason for this statement and its location within
situation and the need for immediate intervention, her narrative could be interpreted in several ways. It
the words: “so the situation [of despair] continued might indicate that it made her realize the potential
until I met her” indicates that his partner’s benefits of a new partner as someone who could
appearance becomes his salvation and indicates his assist her in future times of need. It might have
turning point toward recovery. The overall narrative been a way to justify repartnering to herself and to
is one of devastation, vulnerability, and subsequent her family, also explaining why she added; “I got a
rescue by meeting his new partner. lot of encouragement from my daughters-in-law.”
726 C. Koren

Both partners were widowed at around the The man’s 12-year-old granddaughter illustrates
same time and both received support from family, the change in her grandfather’s emotional state:
friends, and neighbors, the man maybe even
more that the woman. However, the woman’s Before he got to know his girlfriend he [silence], but
narrative emphasizes resilience whereas the man’s now he’s happy. Beforehand, he was not only not
emphasizes vulnerability. Both repartnered to happy; he was sad. (study2: family8GDM, age 12)
improve their situation. Although the woman
experienced disability due to her hip operation, she The granddaughter emphasizes her grandfather’s
repartnered from a position of resilience whereas vulnerable emotional state before repartnering using
the man acted from a position of vulnerability. a double statement: “he was not only not happy; he
The following quotes illustrate another man’s was sad.”
vulnerability from the perspectives of three The son and granddaughter strengthen the man’s
generations in his family; the man, his son, and his illustration regarding his emotional vulnerability
granddaughter. after losing his wife and reinforce how repartnering
The man’s perspective: helped change it for the better. The perspectives
of his offspring, which are in keeping with his
. . . my life changed drastically [with my wife’s death]
own, strengthen the findings of men’s vulnerability
from being full to being empty. Empty, empty, I
functioned like a machine, now that she [my partner]
versus women’s resilience when recovery is related
is here, my heart is somewhat full. I feel like a person, to repartnering.
before I felt I was in transition waiting to leave [the The woman’s narrative illustrates resilience after
world]. That’s it; now I feel like a whole person her husband’s death:
(study2: family8CM, age 67, cohabitation 2 years,
widowed 1 year prior to repartnering) I didn’t expect to find someone, I wasn’t looking at
all. When my husband died, I understood that I would
Similar to the man in study1, this man describes be like this till the end of my life. [ . . . ] I didn’t feel
a vulnerable emotional state after his wife’s death. restricted [ . . . ] there are things I like to do. I do
By comparing three points in time – before losing this kind of art work, for example, it gives me a lot
his wife, becoming a widower, and after meeting of satisfaction, and I like to work in the garden, and
his partner – the man emphasizes the contrast I love my children and grandchildren. I thought I’d
between feeling empty and feeling full, between continue like this. And then I met him, only a year
after my husband died [ . . . ] and then our relationship
functioning as a whole person versus functioning
began. (study2: family8CW, age 66, cohabitation 2
as a machine. Being in a state of waiting to die years, widowed 2 years prior to repartnering)
provides clear evidence of how vulnerable he was
after his wife’s death. Although he does not return to
feeling completely full as he had felt with his lifelong Similar to the woman in study1, this woman
spouse, feeling “somewhat” full with his current describes a process of coming to terms with
partner is an improvement from feeling empty. It becoming a widow. She describes how, after
enables him to experience being a whole person realizing that she would remain spouseless, she
again. began to look at the benefits of her situation,
His son’s narrative provides additional evidence that there was nothing to restrict her from doing
regarding his father’s emotional state after losing his things that made her feel good like working in the
wife and before becoming involved with his current garden and enjoying her family. Repartnering was
partner: not part of her plan and when it occurred, she had
already maintained a relatively stable, healthy level
. . . .I didn’t want to lose him too, he simply withered of psychological and physical functioning following
away, and the worst was when he sent us pictures of a her husband’s death (Bonanno, 2004).
dead rose; a rose that withered along with him. (study2: The two cases, each from a different study,
family8SM, age 41) illustrating a similar state of men’s vulnerability and
women’s resilience adds to the trustworthiness of
The metaphor of the dead rose helped the son the findings. Although the partners of the couple in
to understand his father’s emotional state and what study1 both repartnered two years after losing their
might happen if the situation continued. Thus, the spouses, whereas in study2, the man repartnered
son emphasizes how vulnerable his father was after sooner after his wife’s death in comparison to
losing his spouse. This was a wake-up call that his partner, they were each interviewed after
something had to change. It helped the son accept being together for two years. Thus, they both
his father’s choice to repartner because he did not retrospectively described how they had coped with
want to lose him in addition to losing his mother. their widowhood.
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 727

The next variation represents how men’s 74, cohabitating 1.5 years, widowed 4 years prior to
recovery from bereavement was not necessarily repartnering)
related to repartnering but gender differences
related to dealing with the loss of a lifelong spouse This couple met by chance, and their relationship
are evident. unintentionally developed into repartnering. From
the woman’s narrative, it is clear that, after losing
Recovery not related to repartnering her husband, she was able to build a fulfilling life
which did not necessarily include a new partner
The following quotes illustrate another variation relationship. Similar to the other women, she
of men’s vulnerability and women’s resilence. describes resilience.
What characterizes this variation is that the Both partners were widowed at the same time,
men’s recovery was achieved regardless of the were able to build a life for themselves after
repartnering. their losses and did not consider repartnering as
The man’s perspective: an option for dealing with their loss. However,
although the man’s narrative illustrates moving
You can ask whoever you want, I took outstanding care from vulnerability toward resilience following a
of her [my deceased wife]. Doctors came here and saw turning point (Bennett, 2010), the differences lie
how difficult things were. When she passed away, a in the emphasis of each: The woman emphasizes
void was created. There was nothing, no one to take fulfillment whereas the man emphasizes emptiness.
care of, I woke up at night and couldn’t sleep, I made The next variation illustrates the exception,
puzzles of a thousand pieces till slowly I looked like a
which is a way of strengthening the rule in
drunk and I didn’t know what I wanted, till I adapted
to the situation. I had no choice, you either keep on
qualitative research.
grieving or you overcome and want to live. There
are two options and I decided to live. I called a girl Gender similarities to widowhood and
from a dating advertisement in the newspaper. I went repartnering
out with several, till I met her [my current partner].
Whereas the responses to widowhood and
I never thought that I would move in with another
woman. I thought of dating but no more than that,
repartnering of most couples differed according
and now we are a happy couple. (study1: couple15M, to gender, the following couple illustrates gender
age 77, cohabitation 1.5 years, widowed 4 years prior similarities, which is an exception:
to repartnering)
When I was first widowed, I didn’t think about having
a girlfriend. I was very busy with my carpentry; I didn’t
The man’s vulnerability is created by the have time for other things (study1: couple4M, age 91,
combination of devoted care for his wife and LAT 4 years, widowed 7 years prior to repartnering).
the void created after her death. He uses this
as a justification for continuing with his life by In contrast to the other men participants, this
casual dating, not necessarily for repartnering. The man coped by being active, (i.e. through his
use of the grammatical second person brings the carpentry). Similar to most women, he does not
interviewer (and thus the reader) closer to the describe vulnerability.
pain which brought him to a turning point – to His partner’s coping is described as follows:
the realization that life must continue. The first
turning point was dating other women and the A short time after my husband passed away, I sat alone,
next was establishing a meaningful new relationship a few friends came by and then I accepted it [loss of my
when this had not been his initial intention. husband], but I never thought of looking for someone.
Moving from vulnerability to resilience following I never thought I’d find someone that I would want.
a turning point (Bennett, 2010) strengthens the (study1: couple4W, age 84, LAT 4 years, widowed 11
notion that he recovered from his loss regardless years prior to repartnering)
of the repartnering.
His partner’s quote illustrates resilience following The woman describes a normative process of
the loss of her lifelong marriage: bereavement ending with her realization that she
must accept her husband’s death and continue with
I didn’t want to meet and go out with anyone
her life independently, regardless of repartnering.
afterwards [loss of spouse]. I never felt better. I was Both partners describe resilience in coming to
alone and my friends and acquaintances wanted me terms with the loss of their spouses – the man by
to meet with men but I said no, things are good for continuing his interest in carpentry, and the woman
me. All the hours of the day aren’t enough for me by accepting her situation. Repartnering did not
to do everything I want. (study1: couple15W, age play a part for either of them in their recovery.
728 C. Koren

Discussion close was achieved by transformation (Gallopin,

2006).
The opening sentence in Leo Tolstoy‘s Anna A possible explanation for why repartnered
Karenina, “Happy families are all alike; every women tended to experience resilience might be
unhappy family is unhappy in its own way,” reflects related to the mid-high socioeconomic status which
the findings of this article. The women’s experiences characterizes those who repartnered in later life
described resilience without variations, whereas (Davidson, 2001). In contrast to aspects such as
the men’s experiences described vulnerability social and familial ties (Martin-Matthews, 2011)
with variations. Some of the men were able and health and mental health (Stroebe et al., 2001),
to build a new life only after finding a new in which widows are better off than widowers,
partner. There were those for whom recovery and widows appear most vulnerable to the economic
repartnering were simultaneous but unrelated. For consequences of spousal loss (Hansson and Stroebe,
these men, repartnering was a major source of 2007). However, when financial resources are not
renewed meaning, although their recovery was not an issue, there is no reason for widows to be
presented as dependent on it. Deriving a grounded vulnerable.
model indicates that a pattern was identified, A broader explanation refers to gender roles
thus distinguishing between a personal and a related to culture and cohort. Within more
public problem (Calasanti, 2004, p. 107). This is traditional cultures and societies located between
consistent with discussing these findings in light of tradition and modernity, such as Israel, gender-
a (critical) feminist gerontology perspective. based roles in family and society are emphasized
Previous studies referred to gender differences (Lavee and Katz, 2003). Furthermore, women
regarding repartnering. Those findings indicated and men belonging to cohorts born within the
that women refrain from repartnering for various first half of the 20th century were expected to
reasons, mainly because they do not want to look get married to experience an intimate sexual
after another person and do not want to give relationship (Adams, 2007). In an attempt to
up their freedom, whereas men more frequently explain the findings presented in this article, gender
wish to, and do, remarry (Davidson, 2002). Other inequalities within those cohorts throughout the life
studies identified that the intention to repartner course are presented. Inequalities relate to identity
is not necessarily related to gender but rather to formation in young adulthood, social roles (Sorell
social support. Both widows and widowers with and Montgomery, 2001), and mental health (Eagly
weaker social ties tend to repartner (Carr, 2004a). et al., 2012).
Findings presented here indicate that both widows Identity formation for men was perceived
and widowers repartnered despite receiving social as developing individuality whereas for women,
support. The innovation of the current findings identity formation was thought to be developed
is that gender differences are not manifested by through the intimate relationship with their
the choice of repartnering itself because all of the husband. As such, social roles practiced within the
participants lived in such a relationship at the family were strictly divided according to gender;
time of participating in the study. Rather, gender women were responsible for homemaking and
differences are manifest in dealing with the loss of a for the well-being of family members whereas
lifelong spouse among those who repartnered. men were responsible for providing financially
Although resilience is typically the most common for their family through employment (Sorell and
outcome observed following the death of a spouse Montgomery, 2001). Throughout the life course,
(Bonanno, 2012), findings here indicate gender feminist studies have indicated that women’s life
differences. The women tended to experience situations, especially the homemaker role, are
resilience whereas the men tended to experience perceived as making them more vulnerable to
vulnerability. This coincides with Carr’s suggestion mental illness such as depression. This could
that instead of adopting the “who suffers more” be explained by women’s social oppression in
approach, studies should address vulnerability or comparison to men, who were found less vulnerable
resilience to loss when examining gender differences to mental illness in young adulthood and middle age
(Carr, 2004b). The claim that men grieve and because of greater social power gained by being the
women do not is not being made here. Discussing family breadwinner (Eagly et al., 2012).
these findings refers to how resilience, i.e. the Findings of this study indicate that, in old age,
preservation of a relatively stable, healthy level of gender inequality seems to change in favor of
psychological and physical functioning following women. Their roles within the family that have
the death of a spouse (Bonanno, 2004) was served as a source of oppression throughout their
achieved, and/or how vulnerability, as the capacity married lives (Freixas et al., 2012) have provided
or incapacity to adapt to the death of someone them with skills needed beyond retirement from
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 729

paid employment. Men, on the other hand, who women is a more normative life event than for
have enjoyed the benefits of built-in domestic men. This might help ease widows’ coping and
help throughout their married life (Adams, 2007) adjustment because they have a larger social group
find themselves helpless when entering widowhood. in a similar situation with which to identify. As such,
Furthermore, women’s skills in constructing widows are more likely to develop adaptation and
meaningful, close, emotional relationships continue behavior norms than widowers.
to provide support in widowhood, whereas men, The findings illustrate how social constructions
who depended on their wives for their emotional influence the lives of older persons (Ray, 1996).
and social support, find difficulty in this domain The roles that contributed to women’s oppression at
(Davidson, 2001). Beyond grief due to losing a younger ages contribute to their resilience in old age,
lifelong companion, widowed women continue to whereas roles that provided patriarchal power to
benefit from their husband’s financial provisions men at younger ages contribute to their vulnerability
by receiving their part of his pension plan. in old age. It is possible that gender inequality
Thus, women do not lose what they received reversal in old age might enhance resistance to the
instrumentally in marriage, whereas men do. For patriarchal order of society (Silver, 2003). It might
women who were born within the first half of be anticipated that when the younger generations
the 20th century, individualism could contradict in society today, born toward the end of the
nurturance, thus creating ambivalence (Adams, 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st
2007). These older widowed women, however, century, become old, such gender reversal will be
no longer have to face such ambivalence. The less apparent because these younger generations
widows who participated in this study found are experiencing more similarity in social roles
ways to preserve their autonomy within a new by gender in the home and the workplace (Carr,
partner relationship (Koren and Eisikovits, 2011). 2004b). However, in Israel, as a society culturally
Regarding mental health, the findings of this located between tradition and modernity (Lavee
study indicate that widowed women demonstrated and Katz, 2003), division of roles by gender
resilience in dealing with the loss of their spouse. might not change as much as anticipated within
Most of the men, on the other hand, were able to modern societies and accordingly, gender reversal
deal with widowhood and continue with their lives might not decrease as rapidly. Nonetheless, further
by repartnering. This is consistent with previous investigations are called for regarding the social and
findings, indicating that it takes men twice as long to personal conditions that enable gender inequality
recover from depression due to spousal loss in late reversal in old age.
life in comparison to women (Stroebe et al., 2001).
Reversal of power relations in favor of women
in old age is hereby suggested. Such a reversal is Limitations and recommendation for future
explained by a life course experience of oppression research
(Freixas et al., 2012) and of learning how to cope The aims of the larger studies did not include
and survive along with the traditional role of family investigating the processes of dealing with
relations that are a central and familiar aspect of widowhood. These were obtained as a by-product
women’s lives. Men, however, experience a change when participants told the stories of their lifelong
in social status, from being the breadwinner, which marriages when asked about repartnering. As such,
gave them power within the spousal relationship, identifying strategies of dealing with widowhood as
to being retired, when they no longer have this resilience or vulnerability was determined through
role (Silver, 2003). Losing their lifelong spouse data analysis. Obtaining findings in such a manner
was yet another loss they had to compensate for is based on the inductive principle of qualitative
by developing homemaking skills and close social research, which is characterized by not knowing in
relationships that were new to them. As such, men advance what the data analysis will reveal and by
and women are viewed in relation to one another keeping an open mind for findings that were not
(Calasani, 2004). Women experience social and previously anticipated (Patton, 2002). Therefore,
psychological continuity by having the opportunity what might appear to be a limitation is actually a
to continue familiar practices such as homemaking. natural outcome of qualitative data analysis.
Men experience social discontinuity due to loss of Another limitation is that the sample was not
social power along with retirement (Silver, 2003) systematically chosen according to all criteria
and personal discontinuity by having less experience relevant for understanding strategies for dealing
of managing familial issues (Davidson, 2004). with the loss of a spouse, to allow, for
Furthermore, the higher percentage of widows example, comparison between short- and long-term
(43%) in comparison to widowers (10%) (Martin- widowhood. Nevertheless, these findings can be
Matthews, 2011) indicates that widowhood for the basis for further investigation. No systematic
730 C. Koren

information was obtained about the quality of new romantic relationships. Journal of Aging Studies, 27,
the lifelong marital relationship or about well- 499–506.
being prior to the loss, and therefore it might Bennett, K. M., Smith, P. T. and Hughes, G. M. (2005).
not have been possible to determine resiliency Coping, depressive feelings and gender differences in late
based on if and how emotional and physical life widowhood. Aging & Mental Health, 9, 348–353.
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma and human resilience:
functioning was maintained (Bonanno, 2004).
have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after
However, most participants did provide the relevant extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59,
information. Future studies, designed specifically 20–28.
for understanding widowhood among persons who Bonanno, G. A. (2012). Uses and abuses of the resilience
repartnered in old age, should consider all relevant construct: loss, trauma, and health-related adversities.
variables. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 753–756.
Brown, S. L., Lee, G. R. and Bulanda, J. R. (2006).
Cohabitation among older adults: a national portrait.
Implications
Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and
Despite these limitations, the innovation of these Social Sciences, 61, S71–S79. doi:
findings lies in gender differences found between 10.1093/geronb/61.2.S71.
widows and widowers in dealing with widowhood, Calasanti, T. (2004). Feminist gerontology and old men.
when both had repartnered. Although double Journal of Gerontology, Social Sciences, 59B, S305–S314.
marginality is experienced by older women (Freixas Carr, D. (2004a). The desire to date and remarry among
et al., 2012) the findings here show that this is not older widows and widowers. Journal of Marriage and
Family, 66, 1051–1068.
always necessarily true. By referring to men and
Carr, D. (2004b). Gender, pre-loss marital dependence, and
women in relation to one another (Calasanti, 2004),
older adults’ adjustment to widowhood. Journal of Marriage
women experience inequality reversal in their favor and Family, 66, 220–235.
under some circumstances. The exploration of Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) Statistical abstracts
gender differences in dealing with loss of a lifelong of Israel (2014). Retrieved 5.1.15 http://www.cbs.gov.il/
spouse might contribute to theory development in shnaton65/st02_04x.pdf; last accessed 5 January 2015.
feminist gerontology and in practice. Counselors Corcoun, P. and Nagar, A. (2010). Suicide and marital
should be aware of gender inequality reversal among status in Northern Ireland. Social Psychiatric Epidemiology,
older widows and widowers when counseling older 45, 795–800. DOI 10.1007/s00127-009-0120-7.
widowed persons and their families, to be able Davidson, K. (2001). Late life widowhood, selfishness and
to address the unique needs of widowers in new partnership choices: a gendered perspective. Ageing
and Society, 21, 297–317.
comparison to widows.
Davidson, K. (2002). Gender differences in new partnership
choices and constraints for older widows and widowers.
Ageing International, 27, 43–60.
Conflict of interest Davidson, K. (2004). Why can’t a man be more like a
woman?: marital status and social networking of older men,
None. Journal of Men Studies, 13, 25–43.
de Jong Gierveld, J. (2004). Remarriage, unmarried
cohabitation, living apart together: partner relationships
following bereavement or divorce. Journal of Marriage and
Acknowledgment
the Family, 66, 236–243.
Part of the research reported in this article was Eagly, A. H., Eaton, A., Rose, S. M., Riger, S. and
supported by a grant from the Israel Science McHugh, M. C. (2012). Feminism and psychology
Foundation – ISF GRANT NO. 1583/11 analysis of a half-century of research on women and
gender. American Psychologist, 67, 211–230. DOI:
10.1037/a0027260.
Eisikovits, Z. and Koren, C. (2010). Approaches and
References outcomes of dyadic qualitative analysis. Qualitative Health
Research, 20, 1642–1655. DOI:
Adams, M. (2007). Rhetoric and (re)enforcement of the 10.1177/1049732310376520.
gender status quo women’s rights and wedding bells: Freixas, A., Luque, B. and Reina, A. (2012). Critical
19th-century pro-family. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 501. feminist gerontology: in the back room of research. Journal
DOI: 10.1177/0192513x06297465. of Women & Aging, 24, 44–58.
Bennett, K. M. (2010). How to achieve resilience as an older Gallopin, G. C. (2006). Linkages between vulnerability,
widower: turning points or gradual change? Ageing & resilience, and adaptive capacity. Global Environmental
Society, 30, 369–382. Change, 16, 293–303.
Bennett, K. M., Arnott, L. and Soulsby, L. K. (2013). Hansson, R.O. and Stroebe, M. S. (2007). Bereavement in
You’re not getting married for the moon and the stars: the Late Life: Coping, Adaptation, and Developmental Influences.
uncertainties of older British widowers about the idea of Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
 Widowhood, late-life repartnering, and gender 731

Hooymen, N., Browne, C. V., Ray, R. and Richadson, V. Martin-Matthews, A. (2011). Revisiting widowhood in later
(2002). Feminist gerontology and the life course: policy, life: changes in patterns and profiles, advances in research
research and teaching issues. Gerontology and Geriatricts and understandings. Canadian Journal on Aging, 30,
Education, 22, 3–26. 339–354.
Koren, C. and Eisikovits, Z. (2011). Life beyond the Ong, A. D., Fuller-Rowell, T. E. and Bonanno, G. A.
planned script: accounts and secrecy of older persons living (2010). Prospective predictors of positive emotions
in second couplehood in old age in a society in transition. following spousal loss. Psychology and Aging, 25, 653–660.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28, 44–63, DOI: Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Evaluation and Research
10.1177/0265407510385430. Methods, 3rd edn, California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Koren, C. and Lipman-Schibi, S. (2014). “Not a Ray, R. (1996). A postmodern perspective on feminist
replacement”: emotional experiences and practical gerontology. The Gerontologist, 36, 674–680.
consequences of Israeli second couplehood stepfamilies Silver, C. B. (2003). Gendered identities in old age: towards
constructed in old age. Journal of Aging Studies, 31, 70–82. (de)gendering? Journal of Aging Studies, 17, 379–397.
Koren, C. and Lowenstein, A. (2008). Late-life widowhood Sorell, G. T. and Montgomery, M. J. (2001). Feminist
and meaning in life. Ageing International, 32, 140–155. perspectives on Erikson’s theory: their relevance for
Koren, C. and Simhi, S. (2015). “As long as it’s good”: an contemporary identity development research. Identity: An
intergenerational family perspective of bridging gaps International Journal of Theory and Research, 1, 97–128.
between reality and ideality of second couplehood in old DOI: 10.1207/S1532706XID0102_01.
age as a problem and as a solution. Ageing and Society, Spradley, J. P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. Holt,
OnLine First. Epublished ahead of print, DOI: Rinehart and Winston, New York.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X14001482. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative
Kvale, S. and Brikmann, S. (2008). InterViews: Learning the research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques,
craft of qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks California: Sage.
California: Sage Publications Ltd. Stroebe, M., Stroebe, S. and Schut, H. (2001). Gender
Lavee, Y. and Katz, R. (2003). The family in Israel: between differences in adjustment to bereavement: an empirical and
tradition and modernity. Marriage and Family Review, 35, theoretical review. Review of General Psychology, 5(1),
198–217. 62–83.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.