STATISTICS APPLIED
TO RESEARCH
What is STATISTICS?
Definition:
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
summarizing, and analyzing information to draw
conclusions or answer questions.
What information is referred to in
the definition?
The information referred to the definition is the data.
According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, data are
“factual information used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation”.
Understand the Process of
Statistics
1. Identify the research objective
A researcher must determine the question(s) he or she wants
answered. The question(s) must be detailed so that it identifies a
group that is to be studied and the questions that are to be
answered. The group to be studied is called the population.
Definition:
Universe is the set of all entities under study.
Population is the set of all possible values of the variable.
An individual is a person or object that is a member of the
population being studied.
Understand the Process of
Statistics
2. Collect the information needed to answer the
questions
Everybody collects and uses information, much of it in numerical
or statistical forms in day-to-day life. Gaining access to an entire
population is often difficult and expensive. In conducting
research, we typically look at a subset of the population called a
sample.
Definition:
Sample is the subset of the universe or the population.
Why do we use SAMPLES?
Reduced Cost
Greater Speed or Timeliness
*Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
*Greater Scope Convenience
Necessity
Ethical Considerations
Exercises:
A research objective is presented. For each research
objective, identify the population and sample in the study.
1. The Philippine Mental Health Associations contacts 1,028
teenagers who are 13 to 17 years of age and live in Antipolo City
and asked whether or not they had been prescribed medications
for any mental disorders, such as depression or anxiety.
ANSWER:
Population: Teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who live in
Antipolo City
Sample: 1,028 teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who live in
Antipolo City
Exercises:
A research objective is presented. For each research
objective, identify the population and sample in the study.
2. A farmer wanted to learn about the weight of his soybean
crop. He randomly sampled 100 plants and weighted the
soybeans on each plant.
ANSWER:
Population: Entire soybean crop
Sample: 100 plants selected
Understand the Process of
Statistics
3. Organize and summarize the information
This step in the process is referred to as descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics describe the information collected
through numerical measurements, charts, graphs, and tables.
The main purpose of descriptive statistics is to provide an
overview of the information collected.
Understand the Process of
Statistics
4. Draw conclusion from the information.
In this step the information collected from the sample is
generalized to the population. This process is referred to as
Inferential statistics. Inferential statistics uses methods that
takes results obtained from a sample, extends them to the
population, and measures the reliability of the result.
Inferential Statistics
Reminders:
If the entire population is studied, then inferential statistics is not
necessary, because descriptive statistics will provide all the
information that we need regarding the population.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
1. A badminton player wants to know his average score for
the past 10 games.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
1. A badminton player wants to know his average score for
the past 10 games.
Answer: Descriptive Statistics
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average
lifetime of batteries by testing a sample of 50 batteries.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average
lifetime of batteries by testing a sample of 50 batteries.
Answer: Inferential Statistics
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
3. Janine wants to determine the variability of her six exam
scores in Algebra.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
3. Janine wants to determine the variability of her six exam
scores in Algebra.
Answer: Descriptive Statistics
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the number of
passengers traveling via their ships next year using their data on
the number of passengers in the past three years.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the number of
passengers traveling via their ships next year using their data on
the number of passengers in the past three years.
Answer: Inferential Statistics
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
5. A politician wants to determine the total number of votes his
rival obtained in the past election based on his copies of the tally
sheet of electoral returns.
Exercises:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to
the field of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
5. A politician wants to determine the total number of votes his
rival obtained in the past election based on his copies of the tally
sheet of electoral returns.
Answer: Descriptive Statistics
Distinguish between Qualitative
and Quantitative Variables
Definition:
Variables are the characteristics of the individual within the
population.
Classification of Variables
Variables can be classified into two groups:
1. Qualitative variables is variable that yields categorical
responses. It is a word or a code that represents a class or
category.
2. Quantitative variables takes on numerical values
representing an amount or quantity.
Exercises:
Determine whether the following variables are qualitative or
quantitative.
1. Gender
2. Temperature
3. Number of Children
4. Hair Color
5. Zip Code
ANSWER:
1. Qualitative Variable
2. Quantitative Variable
3. Quantitative Variable
4. Qualitative Variable
5. Qualitative Variable
Distinguish between Discrete and
Continuous Variables
Quantitative variables may be further classify into:
Discrete variable is a quantitative variable that either a
finite number of possible values or a countable number of
possible values. The terms countable means that the
values result from counting, such as 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on.
Distinguish between Discrete and
Continuous Variables
Quantitative variables may be further classify into:
A continuous variable is a quantitative variable that
has an infinite number of possible values that are not
countable.
Exercises:
Determine whether the following quantitative variables are
discrete or continuous.
1. The number of heads obtained after flipping a coin five times.
2. The number of cars that arrive at a McDonald’s drive-through
between 12:00 P.M and 1:00 P.M.
3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can travel in city
conditions with a full tank of gas.
4. Number of words correctly spelled.
5. Response time.
ANSWER :
1. Discrete
2. Discrete
3. Continuous
4. Discrete
5. Continuous
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Level
Identify, name, classify, or categorize objects or events.
Example: Method of payment (cash, check, debit card, credit
card), Type of school (public vs. private), Eye Color (Blue,
Green, Brown)
Ordinal Level
Like nominal scales, identify, name, classify, or categorize,
objects or events but have an additional property of a
logical or natural order to the categories or values.
Example: Food Preferences, Rank of a Military officer, Social
Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower)
Interval Level
Identify, have ordered values, and have the additional
property of equal distances or intervals between scale.
Example: Temperature on Fahrenheit/Celsius Thermometer,
Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low anxious), IQ (e.g., high
IQ vs. average IQ vs. low IQ)
Ratio Level
Identify, order, represent equal distances between scores
values, and have an absolute zero point.
Example: Height, Weight, Number of words correctly spelled
Exercises:
Categorize each of the following as nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio measurement.
1. Ranking of college athletic teams
2. Employee number
3. Number of vehicles registered
4. Brands of soft drinks
5. Number of car passers along C5 on a given day
ANSWER:
1. Ordinal
2. Nominal
3. Ratio
4. Nominal
5. Ratio
Data Collection
Definition:
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions,
test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Consequences from Improperly
Collected Data
✦ Inability to answer research questions accurately
✦ Inability to repeat and validate the study
✦ Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
Consequences from Improperly
Collected Data
✦ Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless
avenues of investigation
✦ Compromising decisions for public policy
✦ Causing harm to human participants and animal
subjects
Steps in Data Gathering
1. Set the objectives for collecting data
2. Determine the data needed based on the set
objectives.
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering
and define the comprehensive data collection points.
Steps in Data Gathering
4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
5. Collect data
6. Organize, summarize and consolidate data
gathered.
Steps in Data Gathering
7. Analyze data using different tools and techniques.
8. Compare resulting information with standards,
targets and customer requirements.
9. Decide what action to take based on information
gathered.
Primary Data
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
1. Direct personal interviews. The researcher has
direct contact with the interviewee. The researcher
gathers information by asking questions to the
interviewee.
Primary Data
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method. This methods of
data collection involve sourcing and accessing existing
data that were originally collected for the purpose of
the study.
Key Design Principles of a Good
Questionnaire
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible
2. Decide on the type of questionnaire
3. Write the questions properly
4. Order the questions appropriately
Key Design Principles of a Good
Questionnaire
5. Write an introductory letter or an introduction
6. Write special instructions for interviewers or
respondents
7. Translate the questions if necessary
8. Pretest the questionnaire
Open-Ended vs. Closed-Ended
Questionnaire
Primary Data
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
3. A focus group is a group interview of approximately
six to twelve people who share similar characteristics
or common interests. A facilitator guides the group
based on a predetermined set of topics.
Primary Data
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
4. Experiment is a method of collecting data where
there is direct human intervention on the conditions
that may affect the values of the variable of interest.
Bear in mind that the experimental
method has several limitations that
you should be aware of.
✦ Ethical, moral, and legal Concerns
✦ Unrealistic Controlled Environments
✦ Inability to Control for All Variables
Primary Data
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
5. Observation is a method of collecting data on the
phenomenon of interest by recording the observations
made about the phenomenon as it actually happens
Secondary Data
Method of Collecting Secondary Data
✦ Published report on newspaper and periodicals
✦ Financial Data reported in annual reports
✦ Records maintained by the institution
✦ Internal reports of the government departments
✦ Information from official publications
Reminders:
✦ Always investigate the validity and reliability of the
data by examining the collection method employed by
your source.
✦ Do not use inappropriate data for your research.
Seatwork
For numbers 1 to 3, list the three main parts of
Statistics according to its definition.
Seatwork
For numbers 1 to 3, list the three main parts of
Statistics according to its definition.
Identify the population. (4)
Identify the sample. (5)
List all the variables (6 - 10)
For each variable, determine the level of
measurement. (11 - 15)
Seatwork
Determine if discrete or inferential (16 - 17)
Based on last year‟s electricity bills, Mrs. Venegas
would like to forecast the average monthly electric bill
she will pay for the next year.
Seatwork
Determine if discrete or inferential (16 - 17)
Based on last year‟s electricity bills, Mrs. Venegas
would like to forecast the average monthly electric bill
she will pay for the next year.
A marketing research group wishes to know the
number of families not eating three times a day in the
sample used for their survey.
Seatwork
Determine if discrete or inferential (16 - 17)
Based on last year‟s electricity bills, Mrs. Venegas would
like to forecast the average monthly electric bill she will pay
for the next year.
A marketing research group wishes to know the number of
families not eating three times a day in the sample used for
their survey.
Give 1 consequences from improperly collected data.
(18)
Seatwork
Determine if discrete or inferential (16 - 17)
Based on last year‟s electricity bills, Mrs. Venegas would like to
forecast the average monthly electric bill she will pay for the
next year.
A marketing research group wishes to know the number of
families not eating three times a day in the sample used for their
survey.
Give 1 consequences from improperly collected data. (18)
Give 2 methods where in primary data can be collected.
(19 - 20)
