Study and Feasibility of Oxygen Concentrators for Health Care

Centers.

SUBMITTED BY:

Raja Rashid Ali (Group Leader) 15BM69.

Duaa Shah 15BM13.

Mahnoor Baloch 15BM01.

Nuzla Qureshi 15BM105.

Supervised By:

Dr. Syed Amjad Ali

Co-Supervised By:

Tuqeer Ahmed (Director, Bio-Matrix Pakistan)

Department of Biomedical Engineering

Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro Sindh, Pakistan.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor in Biomedical Engineering

October 2018.

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work presented in this thesis/project report titled as

“STUDY AND FEASIBILITY OF OXYGEN CONCENTRATORS FOR

HEALTH CARE CENTERS” is entirely performed, written and completed by the

following students of final year Bio-Medical Engineering themselves, under the

supervision of Dr. Syed Amjad Ali and co-supervision of Tuqeer Ahmed.

Raja Rashid Ali 15BM69.

Duaa Shah 15BM13.

Mahnoor Baloch 15BM01.

Nuzla Qureshi 15BM105.

________________________ _________________________

Project/Thesis Supervisor Project/Thesis Co-Supervisor

________________________ _________________________

Chairman/Internal Examiner Invigilator/External Examiner

Date: ___________________

Department Of Biomedical Engineering

Mehran University Engineering Technology, Jamshoro.

ii
 DEDICATION

I don’t know what your destiny will be , but one thing I

know ; the only ones among you will be really happy are

those who have sought and have found how to serve.”

-Albert Schweitzer

This work is dedicated to all the personalities including our parents,

families, teachers and friends for their words of encouragement,

appreciation and ample support. Special thanks to our supervisor Dr.

Syed Amjad Ali for his continual support and backing and for

answering our SOS calls.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Grateful thanks to ALMIGHTY ALLAH who is the most beneficent and merciful.
Nothing would have been possible to complete this thesis/project without His mercy
and kindness.

An extra special thanks to our supervisor Prof. Dr. Syed Amjad Ali, for his
continuous supervision, guidance and enthusiastic encouragement at every stage of
completing our thesis work.

Lots of thanks to our co-supervisor Mr. Tuqeer Ahmed (Director of Bio-Matrix

Pakistan) for his collaboration and cooperation throughout our thesis work and also
for giving us the market background of oxygen concentrators.

A bunch of thankfulness and recognition to the Chairman of Department of

Biomedical Engineering, MUET, Prof. Dr. Ahsan Ahmed Ursani for his cooperation
and guidance throughout the progress of our studies.

A remarkable thanks to all teachers of Biomedical Engineering Department Mehran

University of Engineering And Technology Jamshoro, who recognized our potential,
sparked out us about this interesting field and provide generous sponsorship along the
way.

At the end we would like to express gratefulness and appreciation for our affectionate
and adoring parents and families for their sublime love and benevolent cooperation.

-Raja Rashid Ali.

-Duaa Shah.

-Mahnoor Baloch.

-Nuzla Qureshi.

iv
 ABSTRACT

The main theme of this thesis is the study of oxygen concentrators and
their vast medical applications. This thesis demonstrates the design,
techniques, applications, and importance of oxygen concentrators in
health care centers.
This thesis/project report illustrates the types of commercially available
oxygen -concentrator modules, types of oxygen separation techniques
such as pressure swing adsorption, membrane air separation and
cryogenic air distillation, uses of different adsorbent materials such as
zeolites and carbon nanotubes, operation of the most efficient pressure
swing adsorption (PSA) technique, and its components.
This thesis/project report illustrates the simplest experiment which give
details about PSA process for oxygen purification. This thesis also
proposes the design and fabrication of the most efficient Portable Oxygen
Concentrator (POC) which satisfies all consumer needs.
Future work of this thesis is focused on the thermodynamics of POCs,
testing of some efficient market-available POC modules, and designing
the most efficient and cost effective portable oxygen concentrator module
for local manufacturing and consumer markets. It will decrease the
unemployment rate in Pakistan and helps increase the research study,
education and development in pulmonology and respiratory
instrumentation.

v
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2 Modules of Commercial Portable Oxygen Concentrators………………2
Figure 2.2 Air Composition…………………………………………………………8
Figure 2.2.1 Cryogenic Air Distillation…………………………………………….10
Figure 2.2.2 Membrane Based Air Separation Technique………………………….11
Figure 2.2.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption Process…………………………………..13
Figure 2.2.3(i) Stage 1 of PSA Process…………………………………………….14
Figure 2.2.3(ii) Stage 2 of PSA Process…………………………………………....14
Figure 2.2.3(iii) Stage 3 of PSA Process…………………………………………...15
Figure 2.2.3(iv) Stage 4 of PSA Process…………………………………………...16
Figure 2.3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes……………………………………….17
Figure 2.3.1(i) Single-Wall Nanotube……………………………………………...18
Figure 2.3.1(ii) Multi-Walled Nanotube………………………………………....…18
Figure 2.3.1(iii) Multi-Walled Nanotube…………………………………………...18
Figure 2.3.2 Zeolite Mineral Stone…………………………………………………20
Figure 2.3.2(i) Tetrahedral Structures of Zeolite…………………………………...21
Figure 2.3.2(ii) Powdered Natural Zeolite………………………………………….24
Figure 2.3.2(iii) Artificial Zeolites………………………………………………….25
Figure 3.2 Components of Oxygen Concentrator…………………………………..30
Figure 3.2.1 Power Supply………………………………………………………….31
Figure 3.2.2 Air Compressor………………………………………………………..32
Figure 3.2.3 Silica Gel Globules…………………………………………………....33
Figure 3.2.4 Molecular Sieve Beds…………………………………………………34
Figure 3.2.5 Mechanical Valves…………………………………………………….35
Figure 3.2.6 Storage Tank…………………………………………………………..35
Figure 4.2 System Flow Diagram…………………………………………………..39
Figure 4.3.1 Jenway Air Compressor……………………………………………....40
Figure 4.3.2 Medicare Flowmeter Regulator………………………………………41
Figure 4.3.3 Dae-Jung A-3 Zeolite (granular)……………………………………..42
Figure 4.3.4 Oxygen Analyzer and Oxygen Sensor……………………………….43
Figure 5.4(i) “Air Separation by Adsorption” Patent Search…………………..….53
Figure 5.4(ii) Airsep Focus and Inova Lab Activox……………………….……...54

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.3.2 (i) Minerals of Zeolite Families………………….22

Table 2.3.2 (ii) Grades of Zeolite……………………………..23
Table 4.4 (1) Effect of Inlet Pressure on
O2 Concentration……………………………………………..44
Table 4.4 (2) Effect of Time on
O2 Concentration……………………………………………..45

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

OC OXYGEN CONCNETRATOR
SOC STATIONARY OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR
POC PORTABLE OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR
COPD CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
PSA PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION
LPM LITER PER MINUTE
L LITERS
Lbs. POUNDS
Sec. SECONDS
ml MILI-LITERS
Pkr PAKISTANI RUPEE
PSI POUND SQUARE INCH
MPa MEGA PASCAL
Atm. ATMOSPHERES
SWNT SINGLE-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES
MWNT MULTI-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES
DC DIRECT CURRENT
AC ALTERNATING CURRENT
Hz HERTZ
V VOLTS
LTOT LONG TERM OXYGEN THERAPY
N2 NITROGEN GAS
O2 OXYGEN GAS
CO2 CARBON DIOXIDE
Ar ARGON
Ag SILVER
Li LITHIUM

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………....iv
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..v
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………..vi
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………...…vii
LIST OF ABREVIATIONS…………………………………………………….…...viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………........1
1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………......1
1.2 Overview…………………………………………………………………………..2
1.3 History…………………………………………………………..…………………3
1.4 Problem statement…………………………………….………………...…………5
1.5 Aims and Objective…..............................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO: BACKGROUND……………………………...……………....…..7
2.1 Chapter Introduction................................................................................................7
2.2 Oxygen Separation Techniques...............................................................................7
2.2.1 Cryogenic Air Distillation……………………………..…………...........8
2.2.2 Oxygen Membrane Separation………………...…………….......……...10
2.2.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption…..................................................................11
2.3 Adsorbent Materials used in PSA Process………………………….……………16
2.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes……………………………………………………….16
2.3.2 Zeolites...............................................................................................…...19
2.3.2 (a) Structure of
Zeolite…………………………………………....20
2.3.2 (b) Occurrence of Zeolite…………………..………………….…
23
2.3.2 (c) Properties of Zeolite……………………………………….….25
2.3.2 (d) Application of Zeolite……………………………………..….26
2.4 Types of Zeolites used in PSA Technique…………………………………….…27
2.4.1 LiAgX Zeolite…………………………………………………….27
2.4.2 AgA Zeolite……………………………………………………….27

ix
2.5 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………...28
CHAPTER THREE: COMPONENTS OF PSA-BASED OXYGEN
CONCENTRATOR AND PROPOSED DESIGN……….…….....……...………….29
3.1 Chapter Introduction……………………………………………………………..29
3.2 PSA Based Oxygen Concentrator Components……………………………….…29
3.2.1 Power Supply…………………………………………………………30
3.2.2 Air Compressor…………….…………………………………………31
3.2.3 Silica Gel Column…………………………………………………….32
3.2.4 Molecular-Sieve Beds…………...……………………………………33
3.2.5 Valves…………………………………………………………………34
3.2.6 Storage Tank…………………………………………….…………….35
3.3 Proposed Design……………...…………………………………………………..36
3.3.1 Goals……………………………………………………………….…..36
3.3.2 Design Specifications………………………………………………….37
3.4 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………...37
CHAPTER FOUR: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN, RESULTS AND
APPLICATIONS OF OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR………………………………38
4.1 Chapter Introduction……………………………………………………………..38
4.2 Experimental Design……………………………………………………………..38
4.3 System Components………………………………………………………...……39
4.3.1 Air Compressor………………………………………………………….40
4.3.2 Flowmeter Regulator…………………………………………………….40
4.3.3 Zeolite……………………………………………………………….…...42
4.3.4 Oxygen Analyzer………………………………………………………...42
4.3.5 Stop Watch……………………...……………………………………….43
4.4 Results……………………………………………………………………………44
4.4.1 Observations…………………………………………………………….44
4.5 Applications of Oxygen Concentrator…………………………………………...46
4.5.1 Medical Applications…………………………………………………....46
4.5.2 Other Uses……………………………………………………………….47
4.6 Chapter Summary…………………………………………………………….….49

x
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK………………………..49
5.1 Chapter Introduction…………………………………………………………….49
5.2 Thesis Overview…………………………………………………………………50
5.3 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….51
5.4 Future Work……………………………………………………………….…......52
5.5 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………......54
GLOSSARY…………………………………………………………………………56
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………58

xi
 CHAPTER N0: 01

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The goal of biomedical engineering is to narrow the gap between

engineering and healthcare. It blends the traditional and advance
principles of engineering and medicine to create a whole new field which
address health care issues worldwide and suggest probable solutions.
Within this field, there are many disciplines, each focuses on a specific
problem related to the abnormal functioning of human body. The main
focus of this paper is to demonstrate the concept and working of an
oxygen concentrator and what techniques are used to get highly purified
oxygen gas. Oxygen is one of the most important key factors of life on
Earth and is abundantly present in gas form in our atmosphere at a
percentage of approximately 21%. However, the demand of oxygen in
much purer form has increased massively with the growth of advance
industrial processes and medical uses. Industrial/ manufacturing
applications of purified oxygen include the fabrication of steel,
chemicals, petrochemicals, glass, ceramics, paper, and the recovery of
non-ferrous metal etc. Medical applications of oxygen mainly involve
oxygen therapy, emergency medical services such
as resuscitation, anaphylaxis, major trauma, major bleeding, shock,
active convulsions, and hypothermia, treatment of COPDs and cystic
fibrosis in which patient suffers from chronically low level of oxygen.
According to statistics oxygen has grown from the 4 th largest distributed
chemical in the mid 1990’s to the 2nd largest in 2006.

1
1.2 OVERVIEW

Oxygen concentrators also known as Oxygen generators can be

used as an alternative to compressed oxygen gas cylinders, the only
difference is that they provide continuous supply of oxygen-enriched gas
stream without the need of refill. They produce 90–95% pure oxygen by
only using atmospheric air as a raw material. Oxygen concentrators can
be large and heavy for industrial and stationary uses or can be small,
lightweight and portable for mobile and travelling purposes. Both
stationary and portable OCs work on same principles, the only difference
is in their sizes and flowrates. SOCs can deliver 3-10 liters per minute of
oxygen whereas POCs deliver 1-5 liters per minute. SOCs weigh between
40lbs-60lbs and POCs weigh between 5lbs-10lbs only. There are many
varieties of POCs commercially available for patients suffering with
chronic conditions. The common design features for these POCs are
weight, size, ease-of operation, cost, and oxygen response. A variety of
POCs modules is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Modules of Commercial Portable Oxygen

Concentrators.

2
1.3 HISTORY

Carl Wilhelm Scheele beat Joseph Priestley to the discovery

of oxygen but Joseph Priestly, an English Chemist, published his findings
3 years before Scheele’s, in 1774. But the discovery of oxygen is still
attached with the name of Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele
because he had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and
various nitrates in the year 1772. Scheele called this gas “fire air” because
it was the only known way to cause combustion. He wrote an account of
this discovery in a document titled as “Treatise on Air and Fire”, which
he sent to his publisher in 1775. However, that manuscript was not
published until 1777.

From there, it took almost 100 years for scientists and

doctors to recognize the uses oxygen in industrialization, manufacturing
and for treating patients with varying diseases which require oxygen as a
treatment. In 1885, the first ever document was recorded which
demonstrates the medical use of oxygen. This first documented medical
procedure was to cure a patient with pneumonia by using oxygen. This
novel treatment was administered by Dr. George Holtzapple who is
recognized as the pioneer of this therapy. Just after two years of this
procedure, in 1887, a product was invented and sold that stored enough
oxygen for intermittent use. At the turn of the 20th century (1900), a
nasal catheter was used as the connection between the oxygen and the
patient. However, in 1917, Jon Scott Haldane invented the gas mask to
protect and nurse the soldiers who had been affected by dangerous
chlorine gas attacks during the World War I. Medical uses of oxygen
3
made major breakthroughs up until World War II. Oxygen was chiefly
being used in hospitals as a medication for patients with a variety of
respiratory issues and also for ambulatory purposes. Even before 1950’s
the first form of portable medical oxygen therapy was fabricated. This
form of oxygen therapy was used strictly in ambulances and on the sites
of medical emergencies. Not much like the homecare lightweight
versions of POCs we are using today but this oxygen therapy was
somewhat portable. The 1970’s was groundbreaking for medical grade
oxygen therapy evolutions. Finally, today you can easily get your
personal oxygen therapy unit at home which are now called as oxygen
concentrators. Although oxygen tanks of varying sizes are supplied by
many suppliers but they’re still larger than the most innovative versions
of Oxygen Concentrators called POCs. This development in oxygen
therapy was phenomenal due to the fact that the concentrator purified
oxygen within itself without requiring any refills and are less hazardous
than oxygen tank. Heavyweight and stationary units of oxygen
concentrators were also created and are still available in markets and are
also in use nowadays but over the span of 30 years, oxygen concentrators
began to shrink in size, due to the insistence by younger and more active
oxygen therapy patients who wanted smaller, lightweight, more beneficial
and mobile units. With these groundbreaking advancements on oxygen
we get to learn more about oxygen therapy and various respiratory
diseases. Bettering our understanding allowed patients to be diagnosed
and prescribed oxygen sooner in their lifespan thus perpetuating a young
and active demand. Nowadays, oxygen concentrators are small enough to
fit in a suitcase, or even can place under your seat on an airplane.
Presently, some OCs can weigh less than 5 lbs, some have over 10 hours

4
of battery life, and some homecare units have an oxygen output of more
than 10,000 ml per minute.

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Oxygen Concentrators especially POCs are becoming more

and more popular worldwide as they are economic and convenient. They
are much more reliable than the gas cylinders as they do not run out of
the oxygen supply and do not require any refills. Oxygen concentrator is
a lucrative alternative for patients who need regular supply of oxygen as a
medical intervention. Thus, a need for POCs exist because they are
lightweight, maneuvers at low pressure, and requires minimal power for
their operation. Therefore, manufacturing markets are struggling to
design new lightweight, portable, less power consuming with power
backup, low pressure operating oxygen concentrators which can provide
almost about 99% purified oxygen gas at much higher flowrates through
a venturi system. A further object of this study is to provide:

1. An experimental setup which will illustrate the basic process of

PSA technology.
2. An improved and much efficient design specifications of an
oxygen concentrator which satisfies the needs of consumers. The
advantage of this formulation will be its cost reduction and quality
when compared with the other market imported products. This
fabrication will help the local industry of Pakistan to set up the
plant for this product in any area of the country, thereby reducing
the burden of import expenses.

5
1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Following are the objectives/goals of this study:

1. To collect vast knowledge of oxygen concentrators and types of

oxygen concentrators.

2. To study variety of medical and industrial applications of oxygen

concentrators.

3. To compare and contrast different oxygen separation techniques to sort

out the best out of them.

4. To study the basic principle and related components behind Pressure

Swing Adsorption Technique.

5. To study different types of absorbent materials available in markets

and which one is the best to extract highly purified oxygen.

6. To compare and contrast different types of zeolite to ensure which type

is best for efficient performance of PSA process.

7. To set a laboratory experiment which will illustrate the basic process of

PSA technology.

8. To introduce an improved and much efficient design specifications of

an oxygen concentrator which satisfies the needs of consumers. This part
is briefly discussed in this study and will be the focus of our work in
future.

6
 CHAPTER NO: 02

BACKGROUND

2.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

There are many techniques which can be used to separate

oxygen from atmospheric air. Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is one of
the most appropriate techniques for separating oxygen from air and this is
the most widely used technology behind OCs. PSA use absorbent
materials to extract all the other gases which are the constituents of air to
give pure oxygen which is then used for variety of purposes mainly for
medical use. Out of these absorbent material the most efficient is Zeolite.
Zeolite is a crystalline material that can be used to adsorb component
gases such as Nitrogen, Argon etc. from atmospheric gas. There are
different types of zeolites, each serve for specific purpose. We’ll further
learn the different combinations of zeolite to enhance the efficiency of
PSA process.

2.2 OXYGEN SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

There are many techniques through which oxygen can be
produced such as using a lens to focus sunlight on mercuric oxide to
produce oxygen as performed by Priestly in 1774, electrolysis of water to
separate oxygen from hydrogen and air separation techniques to produce
oxygen etc. Here we are going to discuss only air separation techniques to
get pure oxygen. Atmospheric air is basically the combination of
Nitrogen (78.08%), Oxygen (20.95%), and Argon (0.93%) with some

7
impurities of 0.04% such as CO2, water vapors, neon, helium etc. Figure:
2.2 shows the composition of air.

Figure 2.2 Air Composition.

There are three types of air separation techniques:

1. Cryogenic Air Distillation.
2. Oxygen Membrane Separation.
3. Pressure Swing Adsorption.

2.2.1 Cryogenic Air Distillation

This is the leading procedure to produce 99% purified
oxygen gas in bulk. This process reduces the temperature of atmospheric
air to its liquid phase and then separates the various components of air
such as Nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide etc. based on their densities in

8
liquid states. This procedure is useful because it produces the component
gases in dense form and based on the differences in their densities these
components are easy to separate and transport from oxygen. Thereby
leaving behind highly purified oxygen only. This pure oxygen is then
stored into large gas cylinders at very high pressures. The oxygen
produce through this process is in liquid form (1L of liquid oxygen =
860L of gaseous oxygen).

Oxygen Tank:
Oxygen tanks are used to store oxygen gas produced through
cryogenic distillation at very high pressure which can be dangerous.
Oxygen cylinders are available in a selection of sizes to accommodate
particular demands. H-sized cylinders are large tanks weighing more than
200 lbs. and contain 6,900 L of oxygen while D-sized cylinders weigh 9
lbs. and contain around 250 L of oxygen. It should be noted that there are
the mean of storage not production.

Drawbacks:
 This Process uses large, bulky and expensive equipment
 Power and energy consuming requirements are quite considerable
unless more than 60 tons of oxygen per day is required.
 Liquid oxygen evaporates back into the atmosphere over time if not
stored properly on time.
 The bulk size of this technology is not suitable to be used for a
POC application.
Figure: 2.2.1 shows a heavy and bulky set-up of cryogenic air distillation
technology.

9
Figure 2.2.1 Cryogenic Air Distillation Plant.

2.2.2 Oxygen Membrane Separation

Oxygen membranes function as filters, removing air
components such as nitrogen and argon via “molecular barriers.” These
molecular barriers use permeable materials and are selectively permeable
used to selectively separate Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Argon. This technique
is inexpensive and used for large and medium scale production but it
utilizes much larger surface areas for the separation of oxygen.
Pressurized air is passed through oxygen membrane and is separated
based on the permeability characteristics of air components in relation
with the molecular sieves.

Drawbacks:
 This procedure produces low concentrations, nearly 40%, of
oxygen because of the similarities in the molecular size of oxygen
and argon. These oxygen membranes fail to remove argon
complete from the oxygen which give low oxygen recovery.
10
  This process require very large surface area therefore, is not
appropriate for use in POC module, which is only few feet in
length.
 This process operates at very high pressures which poses high
safety hazards and requires large compressors.
Figure: 2.2.2: shows the membrane technique to separate air
components for oxygen extraction.

Figure 2.2.2 Membrane based Air Separation Technique.

2.2.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption

PSA is another but the most effective technique used to

separate oxygen from atmospheric air. This method is investigated
throughout our thesis report and is the main focus of our study. This
technology is used in most POC modules and is likely the most proper

11
solution for an emergency response device. An oxygen concentrator using
PSA technique as described by Rao, Farooq, and Krantz:
“An oxygen concentrator using PSA technology consists of
one or more adsorption columns, a compressor and several valves to
control the pressure cycling and flow sequence of atmospheric air fed to
the system. The adsorption columns and the compressor are the two
principal contributing factors to the size and weight of the device. The
main issues for size and weight reduction are miniaturization of the
adsorption column and the compressor.”

PSA uses absorbents such as Zeolites or Carbon Nano-tubes in

two adsorption columns to separate molecules. These two columns allow
for the plant to operate continuously. It is the basic technique to produce
oxygen for medical applications specifically. Many large hospitals have
their own PSA system plant on-site providing all needed oxygen supply
to facilitate patients. There are even larger PSA systems which are being
operated to provide oxygen for an entire community or region. This same
PSA technology can be scaled from larger industrial settings to smaller
and lightweight portable units.

PSA is a four stages process. Figure 2.2.3 illustrates the process

of Pressure Swing Adsorption.

12
Figure 2.2.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption Process.

i. Stage 1: Compressed air is fed into the first bed (adsorption

column 1). Nitrogen and argon molecules are trapped by the
sorbent, while oxygen is allowed to flow through and collected in
storage tank. Figure 2.2.3(i) shows how nitrogen and argon is
trapped in column 1.

13
Figure 2.2.3(i) Stage 1 of PSA Process.

ii. Stage 2: The adsorbent material in the first column/bed becomes

saturated with nitrogen and argon molecules and the airflow that
is being fed is directed into the second bed/column. Figure
2.2.3(ii) demonstrates the nitrogen venting from column 1.

Figure 2.2.3(ii) Stage 2 of PSA Process.

14
 iii. Stage 3: The second bed starts to get saturated with nitrogen and
argon molecules thereby separating oxygen. The first bed vents
the nitrogen back into the air through exhaust valve. Figure
2.2.3(iii) illustrates the process of nitrogen and argon extraction
from air in column 2.

Figure 2.2.3(iii) Stage 3 of PSA Process.

iv. Stage 4: After the oxygen from second column is collected into
the storage tank, the second bed vents the nitrogen and argon
back into the air. The compressed air is once again fed into the
first bed. Figure 2.2.3(iv) illustrates the venting of nitrogen and
argon back in the air through column 2.

15
Figure 2.2.3(iv) Stage 4 of PSA Process.

2.3 ADSORBENT MATERIALS IN PSA PROCESS

Pressure Swing Adsorption technology uses two types

of adsorbent materials.

1. Carbon Nanotubes.
2. Zeolites.

2.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes

These are the sheets of carbon atoms rolled into tubular
(cylindrical) form having varying diameters. Nanotubes have

extraordinary strength. They have potential uses in many

industrial processes, including adsorption of gases such as

16
 nitrogen, argon etc. They are actually the synthetic allotropes of
Carbon. These nanotubes, as described by their name, are of
few nanometers to few millimeters in length. They have unique
electrical properties and are good conductors of heat as well.
Figure 2.3.1 shows the structure of carbon nanotubes.

Figure 2.3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes.

There are two main types of Carbon Nanotubes:

1. Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWNT). Figure 2.3.1(i) shows

the structure of single-wall carbon nanotube.

17
 Figure 2.3.1(i) Single-wall Carbon Nanotube
2. Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWNT). Figure 2.3.1(ii) & (iii)
illustrates the structure of multi-wall carbon nanotube.

Figure 2.3.1(ii) Figure 2.3.1(iii)

Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes.

18
Merits:

 Nanotubes have little interaction with nitrogen at high temperatures

due to oxygen’s higher packing efficiency, smaller diameter, and
entropic energies.
 Research has shown that single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT)
of 12.53Å have a selectivity of O2/N2 of 100:1 at 10 bar.
 It has been indicated that Argon will have very little interaction
with nanotubes.
.
Drawbacks:
 Nanotubes are so efficient, the volume of Nanotubes required for
separation of air is much smaller than the volume of feed air.
 Nanotubes’ surface area is not large enough to react with the
volume of air required.
 No current way to disperse nanotubes effectively for PSA air
separation.
 Nanotubes are expensive products with price range of $325 (32500
Pkr) to $500 (50000 pkr) per gram.

2.3.2 Zeolites

Zeolite is microporous mineral made up of Aluminum

(Al), Silicon (Si) and Oxygen (O) with some loosely held
metal atoms and is called as aluminosilicate. This term was
devised by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in
1756. The term Zeolite (meaning “Boiling Stone”) is derived
from Greek words Zeo meaning “to boil” and lithos meaning

19
 “stone”. Zeolite is mainly used as adsorbent and catalyst.
Zeolite adsorb specific gases from atmospheric air when air is
pressurized. Figure 2.3.2 shows a naturally occurring zeolite
mineral stone. Due to the porous structure of Zeolites, they are
termed as “Molecular Sieves” and can accommodate variety
of cations into it such as Na+, Ca+2, k+, Mg+2 etc. These
metal atoms are loosely held and can get exchanged with other
atoms in a contact solution.

Figure 2.3.2 Zeolite Mineral Stone.

2.3.2 (a) Structure of Zeolite

Zeolites have three-dimensional framework of

interconnected tetrahedrons comprising mainly of Si, Al and O atoms.
They consist of a crystalline structure built from [AlO4]-5 and [SiO4]-4
ions bonded together in such a way that all four oxygen atoms located at
corners of each tetrahedron are shared with adjacent tetrahedral crystals
with Si or Al in center of each tetrahedron. Zeolites have a honeycomb
like appearance with openings, pores or spaces which can accommodate

20
small atoms into it such as Alkali or Alkaline Earth Metals or maybe
others as well. These atoms are loosely held and can be exchanged with
other atoms when in a contact with solutions. Figure 2.3.2 (i) shows
interconnected tetrahedral structures of zeolite with channels or spaces.
The general formula of Zeolite is Ma/n (AlO2)a (SiO2)b. wH2O, where
M is the alkali or alkaline earth metal atom, n is the charge of atom, a is
the number of AlO2 molecules, b is the number of SiO2 molecules and w
is the number of water molecules. The ratio a/n defines the number of M
atoms attached to the crystal.

Figure 2.3.2 (i) Tetrahedral Structures of Zeolite

According to the crystal structure of zeolites they are divided into

various families, each depicting a different framework. Table 2.3.2 (i)

depicts the shapes of each family of zeolite. According to the ratio b/a
(also called as Si/Al ratio) zeolites are graded with silicon content.
Table 2.3.2 (ii) depicts the zeolite grading based on Si/Al ratio.

21
Table 2.3.2 (i) Minerals of Zeolite Families

Family
Zeolite Minerals Synthetic/Natural ZeolitesShape
Si/Al (b/a) ratio
Grade
of Zeolite

Analcime Analcime, pollucite, wairakite, tetrahedral

bellbergite, bikitaite,
boggsite, brewsterite

Chabazite Chabazite, willhendersonite, rhombohedral

cowlesite, dachiardite,
edingtonite, epistilbite, erionite,
faujasite, ferrierite

Heulandite Clinoptilolite, heulandite, Monoclinic/orthogonal

laumontite, levyne,
mazzite, merlinoite,
montesommaite, mordenite

Natrolite Mesolite, natrolite, scolecite, Orthogonal/tetrahedral

offretite, paranatrolite,
paulingite, perlialite

Harmotome Harmotome, phillipsite, wellsite Monoclinic

22
Low <2 Analcime (ANA), cancrinite (CAN), Table 2.3.2
silica Na-X (FAU), natrolite (NAT), (ii)

phillipsite (PHI), sodalite (SOD) Grades of

Zeolite
Medium 2-5 Chabazite (CHA), faujasite (FAU),
silica mordenite (MOR), Na-Y (FAU)

High >5 ZSM-5(MFI), zeolite-b (BEA)

silica

2.3.2 (b) Occurrence of Zeolite

Zeolites are either naturally occurring or produce by

artificial synthetic process.

i. Natural Occurrence:
There are more than 40 different types of natural
zeolites, and each has a slightly different composition. Some of
the most commonly occurring natural zeolites
are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, heulandite, natrolite, and
phillipsite. Example of the mineral formula of zeolite is:
Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O (formula of natrolite). Natural zeolites are
produced where volcanic rocks and ashes react with alkaline

23
 ground water. Figure 2.3.2 (ii) shows a natural zeolite in fine
powdered form.

Figure 2.3.2 (ii) Powdered Natural Zeolite.

ii. Synthetic Zeolites

There more than 200 synthetic zeolites available. They are

synthesized by the process of crystallization of silica-alumina gel in the
presence of alkaline solutions. This process is termed as “sol-gel”. In
synthetic versions of zeolites many other atoms are added to make them
chemically unique and to enhance their usability. The properties of the
artificial zeolite produced depend on composition of reaction mixture, pH
of the system, operating temperature, pre-reaction time, reaction time and
the organic and alkaline solutions used. Figure 2.3.2 (iii) shows artificial
zeolites in powdered, granular and pallet forms.

24
Figure 2.3.2 (iii) Artificial Zeolites

2.3.2 (c) Properties of Zeolite

There are many properties of zeolites including physical,

chemical, thermal, surface properties etc.

 Most common physical properties of zeolites include bulk density

and specific gravity.
 Chemical properties include cation exchange capacity, pH and
adsorption.
 Thermal properties include thermal resistance, thermal stability,
thermal conductivity and heat capacity.
 Morphological properties include size and shape of crystals and
pores/cages which are usually few micro-meters in size.

25
  Surface properties include hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity and
binding to reactant molecule.

2.3.2 (d) Applications of Zeolite

Zeolites have wide variety of uses including industrial,

commercial and domestic, gemstones, biological and medicinal.

i. Industrial Uses:

Artificial zeolites are widely used as catalysts in the

petrochemical industry, such as in fluid
catalytic cracking and hydrocracking. Synthetic acidic forms of zeolites
are powerful solid acids and are used in facilitating acid-catalyzed
reactions.

ii. Commercial and Domestic Uses:

Zeolites can be used as solar thermal collectors and as

adsorption refrigerators. In these applications, high heat of adsorption
of zeolites and their ability to hydrate and dehydrate while maintaining
structural stability is exploited. Zeolites are also used as molecular
sieves to be used in cryo-sorption style vacuum pumps. Their largest
commercial use is in detergent markets.

iii. Biological and Medicinal Uses:

There are several uses of zeolites either natural or
artificial for medical and biological purposes such as zeolite-
based oxygen concentrators for adsorption and filtration of
atmospheric air to produce medical grade oxygen gas, zeolite-
based hemostatic or coagulating agent to stop severe bleeding,
naturally occurring zeolite called clinoptilolite is used for soil

26
 treatment, they also act as water-moderators and water-purifiers
so as to be used as sewerage water treatment.
iv. Gemstones:
Some zeolites are collected as gemstones by the series of
lava or volcano eruptions. One of such naturally occurring
zeolite gemstone is Thomsonite which have concentric rings of
blue, green, red, orange, pink, purple, black or white colors.

2.4 TYPES OF ZEOLITES USED IN PSA TECHNIQUE

There are two types of zeolites which can be used in
PSA process.
i. LiAgX.
ii. AgA.

2.4.1 LiAgX Zeolite

This type of zeolite is the most suitable for the extraction of

Nitrogen. It can give about 97% pure O2 but gives only 63% recovery of
O2. One kg of LiAgX zeolite gives 1kg of O2 per hour. It gives lesser
recovery because the molecular size of O2 and Ar is almost similar due to
which the selectivity ratio of LiAgX for Ar and O2 is 1:1.

2.4.2: AgA Zeolite

This type of zeolite is most suitable for the extraction of Argon

from air but gives lesser selectivity for N2. The selectivity ratio of AgA
for Ar and O2 is 1.63:1 which gives better trap for Ar. But due to the
selectivity ratio of AgA for N2 and O2 is 5:1 it cannot trap N2 efficiently.

27
 2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
 There are many techniques and technologies designed to separate
oxygen from ambient air. Many of them are not appropriate for use
with a POC application.
 Oxygen membranes filter component gases from atmospheric air.
This technique is primarily used to isolate nitrogen because argon
to oxygen ratio is 1:1 and can only generate oxygen concentrations
around 40%.
 Cryogenic air separation is used to produce 99% of the oxygen
supply in the world. However, this technique of isolating oxygen
requires a large, industrial facility and does not scale to a portable
device size.
 Pressure swing adsorption is the technique most commonly used in
POC devices because it is more efficient and can be miniaturized.
 There are also different adsorbent materials such as carbon
nanotubes and different types of zeolites but not all are suitable for
POC design and efficiency.
 Zeolites are alumina silicate minerals with a precise crystalline
structure that can be used as a molecular sieve. Zeolites can be
designed to adsorb specific gases from atmospheric air when the
air is pressurized. Zeolites have variety of properties and
applications

28
 CHAPTER NO: 03

COMPONENTS OF PSA-BASED OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR

AND PROPOSED DESIGN

3.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we’ll discuss about the functioning of

different components used in PSA based Oxygen Concentrators. This
chapter is aimed to study the importance of each component in the design
of Oxygen Concentrator. We’ll also learn how size, weight and cost of
components effect the design of OC. We’ll propose the design
specifications to assure the efficiency of OC and to get about 99% pure
oxygen for medical use. We’ll compare the proposed design with
commercially available OCs.

3.2 PSA BASED OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR COMPONENTS

Figure 3.2 demonstrates the design of an Oxygen
Concentrator using PSA technology with 99% oxygen production.
This design consist of the commonly used PSA components such as
two adsorption columns for the purification of air to get medical
grade oxygen, storage tank for the storage of O2, silica gel column to
get rid of air impurities such as CO2, dust, and water vapors, valves
for N2 and Ar removal from the system, valves to allow O2 to pass
into storage tank and compressor to get pressurized air. In addition to
these components, power supply is required to operate the system and
testing equipment such as O2 analyzer, flow meter, pressure

29
 sensor/pressure gauge are required for testing the product to assure its
working.

Figure 3.2 Components of Oxygen Concentrator

The description of each component is given below:

3.2.1 Power Source

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical power

to the electrical load. It is used to drive the electrical device. In case of an
oxygen concentrator, the power supply is the most important part as a
continuous power is required for the operation of OC to supply
uninterrupted O2 for oxygen-dependent patient. It may either be an AC
power or DC battery powered. Stationary versions may use AC power but
POCs usually require a DC battery with sufficient life. Most commonly

30
Lithium batteries are used in portable version. Oxygen Concentrators are
always is need of power back-up in case of any power breakdown or
power outage.
Figure 3.2.1 shows a DC-battery power supply.

Figure 3.2.1 Power Supply.

3.2.2 Air Compressor:

An air compressor is a power tool that is capable of

converting air at atmospheric pressure into highly pressurized air. This
pressurized or compressed air changes from gaseous state to liquid
one. A power supply drives the air compressor, an inlet sucks the air in
and piston compresses the air, this compressed air is then discharged
through a valve and moved into a storage tank through a pump. In OCs,
the air compressor takes the air in, compresses it and pass it to the silica
gel columns for impurities extraction. The compressors usually used in
OCs increase the air pressure to between two to three atmospheres.
Figure 3.2.2 shows an air compressor used in PSA process.

31
 Figure 3.2.2 Air Compressor

3.2.3 Silica Gel Column

Silica Gel is used to dry the compressed air systems. Air

from the compressor flows through a bed of silica gel beads. The silica
gel adsorbs moisture from the air, preventing damage during the use of
the compressed air due to condensation or moisture. It also helps to
extract impurities from air such as Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide and
dust particles, leaving behind only air mixture. Figure 3.2.3 depicts
different synthetic silica gel globules.

32
Figure 3.2.3 Silica Gel Globules

3.2.4 Molecular Sieve Beds

The molecular sieve beds are the adsorbent cylinders filled

with an aluminosilicate compound, ZEOLITE which is the molecular
sieve material. The compressed air is forced into one of these cylinders
for purification. Oxygen concentrators utilize the pressure swing
adsorption method in which the zeolite material adsorbs or extracts the
nitrogen gas from the ambient air. This action produces a nearly pure
oxygen gas emanating from molecular sieve bed. Figure 3.2.4 depicts two
adsorption columns filled with molecular sieves called zeolite for
nitrogen and argon extraction.

33
Figure 3.2.4 Molecular Sieve Beds

3.2.5 Valves

A valve controls, regulates or directs the flow of a gas by

opening, closing or partially obstructing various passageways. In an
oxygen concentrator, various valves are used depending upon the desired
action. The inlet valve is used to allow the air to enter into the system.
Two exhaust valves are used, one in each column passage, to allow
venting of nitrogen and argon back into air. Two other valves are used in
the way to storage tank which allows the flow of oxygen from each
adsorption column into the storage tank for its safe storage. Valves are
either mechanical or digital. Digital valves required programming to set
the timing and control of flow. Figure 3.2.5 shows the valves used to
control the flow of gases in and out of the system.

34
Figure 3.2.5 Mechanical Valves

3.2.6 Storage Tank:

This is the last part of the oxygen concentrator used to store

pure oxygen gas produced by PSA process. This tank is then connected to
a mask which provide patients with continuous supply of oxygen to solve
various oxygen related health issues. Figure 3.2.6 shows a storage tank
for the storage of oxygen gas.

O2

Figure 3.2.6 Storage Tank

35
3.3 PROPOSED DESIGN:
Now that we have learnt the details about what oxygen
concentrator is, what is PSA technology, how the adsorption is
achieved, what type of adsorbent materials are used in PSA system,
what advantages each type of zeolite serves for, and what is the
design of oxygen concentrator, we’ll proposed our design
specifications for portable oxygen concentrator to assure that all
consumer requirements meet. We did a brief market assessment and
jumped on a conclusion that each commercially available POC lacks
in something like some do not have a power back-up, some weigh a
bit heavier (the main cause of size and weight are adsorption
columns and compressor), some provide low flow rates even less
than 5L/min, some require large volumes of zeolite, some cannot
fulfil the hospital need, some require very large volumes of inlet air
to give 96-97% pure oxygen and most of them do not provide 99%
pure oxygen. To get everything in a single package with 99% pure
oxygen, we have proposed a theoretical design of a POC and we’ll
work in all possible dimensions to achieve this design in near future.

3.3.1 Goals

 Using PSA technology to produce 99% pure oxygen.

 Considerably reduced size and weight of POC (less than 5lbs.
or near to 3lbs. in weight and few inches in height and width).
 Higher flow rates (greater than 5L/min) with less inlet air and
less zeolite volumes.
 Low power consumption with power back-up and battery life
of about 10 hrs.

36
  Cost reduction.
3.3.2 Design Specifications
After brief market analysis we have finalized some specifications
of POC:
 Using LiAgX and AgA zeolites together but separated by a
partition ensures almost 99% purity of oxygen because LiAgX 96-
97% pure oxygen and the rest of purity is given by AgA by
trapping the argon.
 Considerably low volume of these zeolites can give high purity of
oxygen, thereby reducing the size of adsorption columns.
 Considerable reduction in compressor size also reduces power
consumption. This provides low power operation of POC and
increases the battery life.
 Reduction in sizes of columns and compressor and reduction in
volumes of zeolite also reduces the overall cost of the product.

3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

 There are many components used in a PSA-based oxygen
concentrator. Each component performs a specific task to bring
about the process of oxygen purification.
 Power supply is compulsory to derive the system.
 Compressor compresses the air, increases the pressure and move it
to silica gel column.
 Silica gel column extracts the impurities such as carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, dust particles and water molecules from air.
 Adsorption columns trap nitrogen and argon and move oxygen to
storage tank.

37
  Valves direct the flow of gases in and out of the system.
 Storage cylinder stores the oxygen gas.
 There are many commercially available modules of POC but each
lacks in something. We have proposed a theoretical design which
comprehends all the design specifications that satisfy all the
requirements of consumers.
 Further detailed study is required to achieve the practical version of
above given design.

CHAPTER: 04

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN, RESULTS AND APPLICATIONS

OF OXYGEN CONCENTRATORS

4.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

This chapter is designed to demonstrate a simple

experiment we have performed to illustrate the process of pressure swing
adsorption. It also enlightens the performance of Zeolite we purchased.
This chapter also discuss the results we achieved through this analysis
and also give detailed description on the vast variety of oxygen
concentrator applications.

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We develop a PSA testbed system to check the

performance of the zeolite we bought. Figure 4.2 gives the flow diagram
of our system.

38
Figure 4.2 System Flow Diagram

This system requires an AC power (220V) to derive the

compressor which sucks in the air through inlet and compresses the
atmospheric air, this compressed air passes into a chamber through a
valve which have a built-in flow meter and pressure gauge to give
pressure and flow readings of air. This chamber contains zeolite which
will adsorb the nitrogen from the compressed air and vents the filtered
oxygen into the atmosphere through an opening. An oxygen analyzer is
connected to this opening to measure the concentration of oxygen gas.

4.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Following are the components we used in our experimental

design:

1. Air Compressor.
2. Flow Meter Regulator.
3. A-3 Granular Zeolite.
4. Oxygen Analyzer.
5. Stop Watch.

39
4.3.1 Air Compressor

A Jenway Air Compressor (Model No: 8515 and Serial No:

7278) was bought with following specifications:

Voltage rating: 220V.

Frequency: 50/60 Hz.

Pressure range: 150-200 psi.

Atmospheric air pressure is 1 atm or 14.7 psi, this compressor

compresses the atmospheric air to the pressure of around 150-200 psi. An
inlet of AC power is required for its operation. This compressor is
connected with flowmeter regulator to pass the air into it. Figure 4.3.1
shows an air compressor from Jenway Ltd.

Figure 4.3.1 Jenway Air Compressor

4.3.2 Flow Meter Regulator

A Medicare Flowmeter Regulator (Model No: OR-003)

was bought which have following specifications:
40
 Inlet Pressure: 1-15 MPa

Outlet Pressure: 0.2-0.3 MPa

Flow Rate: 1-15 L/min

This flow regulator have a humidifier which we used as an adsorption

column and filled it with zeolite. It also includes a pressure gauge which
indicates the inlet pressure received by the flow regulator. The
compressed air with 150 psi (1.03 MPa) pressure from compressor passed
into it through a valve attached to it. When passing through the chamber,
the nitrogen is adsorb into the zeolite giving off oxygen. Oxygen is
discharged through the safety valve at the pressure of 0.2-0.3 MPa or 30-
45 psi. Figure 4.3.2 shows a flowmeter regulator from Medicare
Equipment (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Figure 4.3.2 Medicare Flowmeter Regulator

41
4.3.3 Zeolite

A 500 gm synthetic granular A-3 LiAgX zeolite (Cat: No: 8595-

1405) was bought from Dae-Jung Chemicals and Metals Co. Ltd. This
zeolite is used to extract only nitrogen from air mixture. We measure the
outlet oxygen through the analyzer until the zeolite is completely
saturated. Figure 4.3.3 shows Zeolite, A-3 Granular from Dae-Jung
Chemical and Metals Co. Ltd.

Figure 4.3.3 Dae-Jung A-3 Zeolite (Granular)

4.3.4 Oxygen Analyzer

A Palm D Oxygen Analyzer (Model No: ADI-PalmO2D) was

bought with following specifications:

It has AII-11-75-PO2D Oxygen Sensor.

An On/Off Switch.

Durable sealed impact resistant housing.

One button calibration.

42
 Sensor life up to 36 months.
1.5V AA Battery.
This analyzer is attached to the safety valve of flowmeter regulator to
measure the concentration of O2. We also measured the %age of oxygen
in atmospheric air.
Figure 4.3.4 shows an oxygen analyzer with its oxygen sensor from
Analytical Industries Ltd.

Figure 4.3.4 Oxygen Analyzer and Oxygen Sensor.

4.3.5 Stop Watch

Used to measure concentration (% O2) with respect to time. A

30sec cycle was considered.

43
4.4 RESULTS

 We measured the effect of inlet air pressure on the concentration

of oxygen (% O2) we get. The pressure readings were calculated
using the pressure gauge attached with the flow regulator and
choosing the PSI scale.
 We measured the concentration of oxygen w.r.t time. A 30
seconds cycle was considered to test what %age of oxygen we get
after every 10 seconds.

4.4.1 Observations:

Table 4.4 (1) Effect of inlet pressure on O2 concentration

Sr. Inlet Air Pressure Outlet O2 Conc:

No. (PSI) (%age)

1. 25 30.5 %

2. 50 38.9 %

3. 100 43.0 %

4. 125 50.05%

5. 150 61.94%

After observing the results, we jumped to the conclusion

that inlet air pressure specification have vast impact on the concentration

44
of oxygen produced. Increasing the inlet pressure enhances the oxygen
filtration and thus we get more concentrated oxygen gas. Though the
results we achieved are not of medical grade as the oxygen we get is not
85-95% pure, but we do get a bit purified oxygen. This shows that the
zeolite is not that much efficient and cannot recover oxygen sufficiently.

Table 4.4 (2) Effect of time on O2 concentration

Sr: TIME (sec) OXYGEN

No. CONCENTRATION
30 sec Cycle
(%age)

1. 00 - 10 0.7 – 25%

2. 11 - 20 25.58 – 39.08%

3. 21 - 30 40.02 – 55.94%

After observing the results, we jumped to the conclusion

that with the passage of time concentration of oxygen increases which
shows that zeolite adsorbed more and more nitrogen with the passage of
time until it is fully saturated. But one thing was also obvious that first we
check the effect of pressure on concentration and then we observed the
concentration of oxygen w.r.t time and the differences in concentrations

45
of two tables show that nitrogen was not completely exhausted from the
column in first experiment which reduces the efficiency of zeolite and we
observed less concentrations in experiment 2.

4.5 APPLICATIONS OF OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR

Both portable and stationary oxygen concentrators have

numerous uses for those patients needing oxygen therapy. Oxygen
concentrators are much less dangerous than traditional oxygen cylinders,
which can, if ruptured or leaking, cause or increase the combustion rate of
a fire. Oxygen concentrators, on the other hand, pose no such danger. The
other main benefit of oxygen concentrators is the ease and increased
ability to be mobile with oxygen. Portable oxygen concentrators provide
the necessary oxygen anywhere the user goes, even on airplanes.

4.5.1 Medical Applications

Oxygen Concentrators running on the principle of PSA

technique are being widely used to provide purified oxygen to the
patients who are in need. However, Portable oxygen concentrators
are rapidly replacing oxygen cylinders for the supply of oxygen in
hospitals in the western countries. Medical applications of oxygen
mainly involve oxygen therapy, emergency medical services such
as resuscitation, anaphylaxis, major trauma, major bleeding,
shock, active convulsions, and hypothermia, treatment of COPDs
and cystic fibrosis in which patient suffers from chronically low
level of oxygen. It provides continuous supply of medical grade
oxygen to patients who are oxygen-dependent. It is also used to

46
 provide a continuous supply of fresh air through masks to military
personnel flying at very high altitude. Self-filling ambulatory
oxygen cylinders are rapidly emerging. They can offer a relatively
purified and unlimited supply of ambulatory oxygen in suitably
assessed people who require long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT),
providing they can use these systems safely and effectively. People
suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or other
respiratory diseases can be highly benefited by these systems.

4.5.2 Other Uses

 Sports and Fitness: In safe doses, oxygen can improve muscle

endurance, muscle recovery, and muscle power. It is also said to
increase energy in a natural, healthy way; for example, without any
caffeine, or without any need of steroids.

 Altitude Acclimation: Oxygen levels in the air decline at higher

altitudes. The effects on our bodies can include nausea, vomiting,
lack of appetite, fatigue, light-headedness, rapid pulse, and a
prickly feeling in our skin, especially in our extremities that
mountain climbers have referred to as a "pins and needles" feeling.
Taking a spray of oxygen could supplement the lack of oxygen in
the air that our bodies crave at higher altitudes.

 Elderly/Seniors: As we hit middle age, the body becomes less

efficient at collecting and distributing oxygen throughout our

47
 circulatory system. The lungs and heart become weaker and
therefore pump less oxygen to the other organs of our body,
including the brain. So, doses of oxygen therapy could improve
brain function, as well as supplement the oxygen the other organs
need.

 Hangovers: In simple terms, drinking alcohol causes oxygen

deficiency in the brain, and also inhibits the brain's ability to use
oxygen. Oxygen bars have become popular in trendy hotels and
specially in gambling casinos because it enables the patrons to visit
the bar for a dose of oxygen, which restores their vitality, energy,
alertness, and keeps them away from spending the day in their
hotel room's bed--where they are not spending money. Just get
yourself to the oxygen bar, or inhale from your own portable
oxygen concentrator. Thousands of people each year have claimed
that this reverses the impacts of their hangover and gets them
energized to tackle the day.

 Concentration, Focus, and Stress: The brain controls everything

else in our body. It also uses a large percentage of the oxygen to
keep our body working. The brain, therefore, will shut down
quickly if it is not fed enough oxygen. But before total "shut
down", there are things that will happen first when oxygen to the
brain declines symptoms that we all can recognize: memory loss,
the inability to concentrate, poor physical dexterity, mood swings,
poor judgment, and dizziness. Handy Oxygen Concentrators are

48
 best to provide sufficient doses of oxygen to keep the brain and
body functioning.

4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

 We performed an experiment to illustrate the PSA process and to

check the effect of pressure and time on the purity of oxygen gas.
 We used different components to achieve the results and performed
two experiments which illustrate the factors affecting the
concentration of oxygen gas.
 Our experimental design was not too much efficient to give us 99%
pure oxygen. It was just a simple set-up based on cheap products to
determine if the zeolite is even working. Our results proved that
zeolite was efficient enough to get at least 60-62% pure oxygen.
 Many applications of OCs were discussed such as medical uses of
OCs, other uses include sports, fitness, concentration, focus and
stress etc.

CHAPTER NO: 05

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

This chapter comprehends the whole study we have
conducted on the oxygen concentrators and PSA process. After
learning a great dealt about the design of oxygen concentrators and
PSA technology, there are still many aspects which are not being

49
 covered in this study and are the main focus of our future work. This
chapter concludes the results of the experiment we have performed
to illustrate the separation of oxygen from air. Our experimental set-
up was not something of very advance level but a simple experiment
in which we checked the efficiency of zeolite we bought. The future
work of this research is mainly focused on the thermodynamics of
the system, size, power, and noise reduction of compressor. Area
and volume reduction of adsorption column etc.

5.2 THESIS OVERVIEW

The purpose of this thesis was to develop and investigate
an oxygen concentrator using a pressure swing adsorption system to
determine system characteristics and the feasibility of developing a
unique concentrator which can fulfil the demands of consumers.
The work began by reviewing the oxygen concentrators
and their demand in medicine, many techniques of oxygen
separation were studied to sort out the best one to be used in oxygen
concentrators. PSA technology turns out to be the most useful for
OC application. The PSA process and adsorbent materials were
studied in details. Zeolite being the best adsorbent material was
studied in detail and we also comprehended the design
specifications and proposed a theoretical design for an all-purpose
POC. We performed a simple experiment to illustrate the process of
PSA and air filtration. We learnt many industrial, domestic and
medical applications of oxygen concentrators. But many aspects of

50
 oxygen concentrators are remain untouched in this thesis report
which will be focus in near future.

5.3 CONCLUSION
An Oxygen Concentrator is a medical device used to deliver
oxygen to those who require it. People may require it if they have a
condition that causes or results in low levels of oxygen in their blood.
Oxygen concentrators are powered by plugging in to an electrical outlet
or by battery. If the concentrator is powered by an electric battery, that
battery will need to be charged by plugging into an outlet. Several parts
make up a concentrator, including a compressor, sieve bed filter, and
circuit boards. An oxygen concentrator filters in air, compresses it, and
delivers air continuously. The air supply will never run out. Instead of
refilling compressed air, the concentrator just needs access to power.
An oxygen concentrator works much like a window air
conditioning unit. It takes in air, filters and modifies it and delivers it in a
new form. An oxygen concentrator takes in air and purifies it for use by
people requiring medical oxygen due to low oxygen levels in their blood.
It works by Taking in air from its surroundings then Compressing air,
while the cooling mechanism keeps the concentrator from overheating. It
then Removes nitrogen from the air via filter and sieve beds containing
Zeolite material using the Pressure Swing Adsorption Technique. It
adjusts the delivery settings with an electronic interface. Finally,
delivering the purified oxygen via a nasal cannula or mask. Most patients
will require a stationary source of oxygen which is usually provided by an

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oxygen concentrator. Since concentrators are relatively inexpensive and
require less frequent home visits than liquid oxygen, they have become
the system of choice for suppliers. These electrically powered devices
utilize a molecular sieve to separate oxygen from air resulting in delivery
of oxygen to the patient, while nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere.
After detailed study we conclude that it is possible to design OC with
99% purity level. However, due to their voltage requirement and their
weight, they are now a fixed source of oxygen. It is now possible to
deliver 99% oxygen to patients in a hospital, and to those who want to
enjoy a life without the restriction of bulky liquid oxygen bottles. This
technology would change the lives of millions of patients and those
needing oxygen around the world for years to come.

5.4 FUTURE WORK

This research was not focused on the thermodynamics of a
POC. However, while testing, there were many questions that should be
considered in upcoming research. Power availability and consumption is
one of the largest factors that should be taken into an account while
designing a POC. The compressor uses the majority of the power and
wastes some of this power as heat. The compressor and inlet hosing
become hot to the touch during normal operation and this temperature
differential could be used to harvest energy back to the system. It would
beneficial to study this heat loss and determine if it can be captured or
harnessed in some way.
As shown in Figure 5.4 (i), there has been a significant
amount of patents issued in the last 30 years regarding the separation of

52
air via adsorption. The sizeable field of gas separation technology,
particularly for use in isolating oxygen, must be recognized when
considering development of a unique portable oxygen concentrator. There
are many competing technologies and companies developing POC’s for
specific applications.

Figure 5.4 (i) “Air Separation by Adsorption” Patent Search.

Because this technology is very well established, the
next step should be adapting an existing POC that concentrates oxygen
>90% and developing it to operate at the more efficient system
performance with a lower oxygen concentration. Two example POC’s
that would be appropriate for this adaptation include the Airsep Focus
and the Inova Labs Activox. Both of these units are small, around 100
cubic inches and 300 cubic inches respectively. The units weight 3 and 5
pounds, respectively. They both concentrate oxygen at 90% (+3%/-5%),
which is typical of commercialized PSA systems. They both utilize a
pulsed flow rather than a constant flow in order to maximize battery life,

53
which varies between 2-8 hours for both units depending on usage, flow
setting, environment, etc.
Further testing would determine if these POC systems can
produce more oxygen per minute generating lower concentrations of
oxygen at a higher flow rate. It would be useful to test the systems with
their compressor as well as other lighter, more efficient compressor.
Lastly it would be easy to design our own POC after testing the
performance of these modules by replacing there parts with more efficient
ones and observing the results. Figure 5.4 (ii) show the Airsep Focus and
Inova Lab Activox POCs.

Figure 5.4 (ii) Airsep Focus and Inova Lab Activox.

After successfully designing the most efficient and cost

effective portable oxygen concentrator module, we would like to
introduce it to local manufacturing and consumer markets. It will help us
decrease the unemployment rate in Pakistan and helps increase the
research study, education and development in pulmonology and
respiratory instrumentation.

5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

54
  PSA system used within POC can be manipulated to work more
efficiently and providing enhanced purification of oxygen with
much higher flow rates and less air volume consumption requiring
only little volumes of zeolite to achieve it.
 A smaller compressor can be used to reduce power requirements
for a POC thereby extending operational hours or reducing the
battery size.
 An existing POC module should be used in testing to determine its
performance by changing its parts such as compressor etc. to check
the effect on battery life, power consumption, increase in O2
production with increased flow rate etc. This will help us in
designing our own POC.
 After successful accomplishment of this product, we’ll target the
local market of Pakistan to get the collaboration.

55
GLOSSARY
1. COPDs Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases are respiratory diseases
that obstruct airways and lungs restricting the oxygen supply.
2. Resuscitation is the process of correcting physiological disorders (such as
lack of breathing or heartbeat) in an acutely unwell patient.
3. Active Convulsion is the epileptic seizure during an epilepsy attack in which
oxygen supply to brain cut-off.
4. Hypothermia is a medical emergency that occurs when your body loses heat
faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously low body temperature.
5. Pneumonia is an infection in one or both lungs. It can be caused by bacteria,
viruses, or fungi. Bacterial pneumonia is the most common type in adults.
Pneumonia causes inflammation in the air sacs in your lungs, which are
called alveoli.
6. Electrolysis chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current
through a liquid or solution containing ions.
7. Distillation is the process of separating the components or substances from a
liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation.
8. Crystallization is the process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or
molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal.
9. PH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous
solution.
10. Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat.
11. Thermal resistance is a heat property and a measurement of a temperature
difference by which an object or material resists a heat flow.
12. Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a measurable physical quantity equal to
the ratio of the heat added to an object to the resulting temperature change.

56
 13. Cation-exchange capacity is a measure of how many cations can be retained
on particle surfaces.
14. Bulk Density is the density of powders, granules, pallets. globules etc.
15. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance
16. Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or
dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the
surface of the adsorbent.
17. Fluid catalytic cracking is one of the most important conversion processes
used in petroleum refineries. It is widely used to convert the high-boiling,
high-molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils into
more valuable gasoline, olefinic gases, and other products.
18. Hydrocracking is a process by which the hydrocarbon molecules of
petroleum are broken into simpler molecules
19. Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.

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