ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

LECTURE NOTES

ON

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

MEASUREMENTS

[Link] EEE III YEAR I SEMESTER

(JNTUA-R13)

Mr. [Link]
[Link]

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ANDELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
CHADALAWADA NAGAR, RENIGUNTA ROAD, TIRUPATI (A.P) - 517506

1
 UNIT 1: MEASUREMENTS

ClassificationofMeasuringInstruments
Theelectrical measuringinstrumentscanbeclassifiedasbelowMeasuringIn
struments

Absolute Secondary
instruments instruments

Indicating Recording Integrating

instruments instruments instruments
AbsoluteInstruments
Absoluteinstrumentsshowthequantitytobemeasuredintermsofinstrume
ntsconstantanditsdeflectionand theyrequirenocomparisonwith anyotherstanda
rdinstruments.
TangentGalvanometer,RaleighCurrentandAbsoluteelectrometerareex
[Link] aremostlyusedinlaboratoriesasstandardisi
nginstruments.
SecondaryInstruments
Secondaryinstrumentsarethosewhichgivesthevalueofthequantityonitssc
ale oritsdisplayunitdirectlybyapointer. Thescaleis
calibratedbycomparisonwith [Link] instrum
ents,whicharegenerallyusedareof“SecondaryType”.
TheordinaryVoltmeter,Ammeter,EnergymeterareexamplesforSecond
aryinstruments
Indicatinginstruments
Indicatinginstrumentsare thosewhichindicatethe
magnitudeoftheinstantaneousvaluebeingmeasuredbymeansofapointerover
[Link]
gnoscopetoknowthepreviousvalue.
Ammeter,Voltmeter,Wattmeter,Frequencymeter,Powerfactormeteretc
….fallunderthiscategory.
Recordinginstruments
Theinstrumentswhichnotonlyread theinstantaneousvaluebutalsomakearec
[Link]
[Link],themo
vingsystemcarriesaninkedpenwhichtoucheslightlyasheetofpaperwrappedrou
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
ndoverauniformlyrotatingdrum.
Theseinstrumentsaregenerallyusedinpowerhousesandfactorieswherecont
inuousinformationis requiredaboutthe changesinmagnitudeoftheelectricalquantit
y,suchthattokeepthemwithin well specifiedlimits
2.2.1 IntegratingInstruments
Theseinstrumentsmeasuresandregistersthetotalquantityofelectricityinacir
[Link].
Eg:Ampere-hour,meter,Energymeter.

EeffectsofElectricCurrentUtilizedInMeasuringInstrume
nts
Theprincipleofoperation ofmeasuring instrumentsdepend upon the variouse
[Link]
ownbelow.
Effects Typeofmeasur Instruments
used ements utilizingtheseeffects
MagneticEffect Current,Voltage,Power Ammeter, Voltmeter,
andEnergyonbothA.C.a Integratingmetersandother
[Link]. electricalinstruments
Thermal effect Current,Voltageonboth Ammeter,Voltmeter
[Link]
Electromagnetic Voltage,Current,Power Voltmeter,Ammeter,Watt
InductionEffect [Link] meterenergymeter
ChemicalEffect AmperehoursinD.C.S Voltmeter,Ammeter
ystem
ElectroStatic Voltmeteron bothA.C. Voltmeter
effect [Link]

MainpartsofIndicatingInstruments
Indicatinginstrumentsarethosewhichindicatethevalueofthequantityund
[Link].,
1. Pointer.
2. PreCalibratedScale.
3. Movingsystemwithspindle,pivotedinjewelledbearings.
4. Deflectingoroperatingtorque.
3
 5. Controllingorrestoringtorque.
6. Dampingtorque.
Pointerandscale
Theshapeandsizeofthepointernormallydependsonthetypeandsizeofinstru
ments,usuallyaluminiumtubeorstripisusedasamaterial [Link]
pointerisflattenedtotheshapeofanarrowheadand
ismadetomoveoveramirrorandgraduatedscale.
[Link] pointerusuallyhasado
ublebendto
[Link]
ilendforbalancing.

Fig.2.3Differenttypesofpointers

[Link]
engthofthescaledependsuponthelengthofthepointerandtheangletowhichitcanr
otateforfullscaledeflection.
Thescaleisprintedonastiffcordusuallyglazedandwhitebackgroundandbl
ockmaking.
Therearetwotypesofscales usedinindicatinginstruments,namelyuniformsca
[Link],[Link]
ofscaleisusedinmovingcoilinstruments.
Thenon-
[Link]
canseethistypeofscaleinmovingironinstrumentsand
[Link].
TorquesofIndicatingInstruments
Inmostoftheindicatinginstrumentsthreedistincttorquesarerequiredforoper
[Link]
a) Atorquetomovethepointerfromitszeropositioninsameproportiontothe
[Link]
gtorque.
b) Ifthe pointer hastostopatavalueindicatingthe magnitudeofthe quantity,the
reshouldbeanequalandoppositetorqueatthatinstanttokeepthepointerin
[Link].
c) Whentwotorquesexistsinoppositedirectionoscillationresultsduetowhi
chthepointertakessometimeequaltotheoscillationalternationtimetoseti
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
ntostablepositiontobringthepointertorest,atthequickestpossibletime,an
othertorqueactsinthe directionsopposite to themotionofthepointeratthe
[Link].
1. DeflectingTorque(T)orDeflectingForce
d
Thedeflectingtorquecausesthemovingsystemoftheinstrumenttomovefrom
[Link],the
magnitudeofthemeasurablequantity.
Thetorqueisproducedbytheeffectsofelectriccurrentsuchasmagnetic,elect
ro-
magneting,heating,[Link]
queanditsrelationtothemeasurablequantitydependsuponthetypeofinstrument.

Pointer

TD Pivot
CounterBalance
(DeflectingTorque)

Fig2.4TheActionofDeflectingTorque

2. ControllingTorque(T)orControllingForce
c
Theforceactingonamovingsystem,inoppositedirectiontodeflectingtorqu
eandmakesthepointer stableatitsfinaldeflectedposition
[Link]
[Link],afterdisco
nnectingthemeterfromthecircuit.

Fig2.5TheActionofControllingTorque

5
 Thecontrollingtorqueisprovidedinthefollowingways.
1. Springcontrol [Link]
a. SpringControl
Inthis,[Link] hairsprin
gusuallymadeofphosphorbronzeisattachedtothemovingsysteminsuchawayt
hatitsoneend(innerside)isfixedtothemovingsystem,whiletheouterendtoarigidb
[Link],atorqueonthemovingmechanismoppositetoth
[Link]
ction.
Initiallywhenthepointerisatzerodeflectedposition,the controllingtorqueisze
[Link] deflectedposition,torquepr
oducedbythespringwouldbecomeequalandoppositetodeflectingtorque.
Graduatedscale

Pointer Jewelbearing

Spring

Counterweight
Fig.2.6TheActionofSpringControlTorque

b. GravityControl
Inthismethod,asmallweightisattachedtothemovingsysteminsuchawayth
atitgetsactivatedatthetimeofdeflectionandproducesacontrollingtorquein pro
[Link]
justingthepositionofthecontrollingweightuponthearm.
Theabovefigureshowsthearrangementsandcorrespondingpositionsofthec
ontrolarm [Link],thecontro
lweightstandsverticalduetowhichtheforceduetogravitydirectlyactsonthepointe
[Link]
oshiftsfromverticalpositionwithan angletovertical(position)tothatofdeflection.
Butthedisadvantagesofgravitycontrolare
(i) Itgivescrampedscale
(ii) Theinstrumenthastobekeptvertical
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

However gravitycontrolhasthefollowing advantages

(i) Itischeap
(ii) Itisunaffectedbytemperature
(iii) Itisnotsubjectedtofatigueordeteriorationwithtime

Fig.2.7GravityControlTorque

DampingTorque
Intheindicatinginstruments,thepointerwilloscillateaboutitsdeflectedpositi
[Link]
ossibletimeatthedeflectedposition,aforceisusedwhichiscalleddampingforce.
[Link] instr
ument provided witha dampingsystemis [Link]
erentdevicesareusedtoprovidesuitabledamping.
Thevariousmethodsadoptedfordampingare.,
d) Airfrictiondamping
e) Fluidfrictiondamping
f) Eddycurrentdamping
The systemused varieswiththe [Link] discussedin
thesucceedingparagraphs.
a. Airfrictiondamping
[Link]
luminiumpistonattachedtothemovingsystemasshowninfigureThepistonmove
sinsidetheairchamberalongwiththepointer.
Asthepistonslidesinthechamber,theairinsidetheclosedspaceiscompresse
dandthepressuresodevelopedopposesthemotionofthepiston.

7
 Theonlycarethatmustbetakensothatthepistonisnotbentorthepistondoesn
ottouchthewallsofthechamber. Itwouldleadtoseriouserrorsin
reading.
Enclosedair
chamber
Spring

Piston
Pointer

Fig.2.8AirFrictionDampingwithPistonairchamber

Thesecondmethodemploysavanemountedonthespindleofthemovingsyste
m.
Itismadeofthinsheetofaluminiumandmovesinaclosedsectorshapedbox.T
[Link]
[Link]
dethesectorbox.

Fig.2.9AirFrictionDampingwithaluminiumvane

b. Fluidfrictiondamping
Inthismethodofdamping,alightvaneisattachedtothespindlewhichisdipped
in [Link]
[Link]
[Link]
nery.
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

Fig.2.10FluidFrictionDamping

c. EddyCurrentDamping
Inthissystem,acirculardisc(copperoraluminium)discismountedonthespindl
[Link]
[Link]
ededdycurrentsopposesthemotionandthusadampingforceisdevelopedintheinstr
ument.
Thereisan anothertypeofeddycurrentdampingsystem,which isusedinperm
[Link] thisaluminiumframe,inw
hicheddycurrentsareproducedwhenthecoilmovesinthefieldofthepermanentma
gnet.

Fig2.11EddyCurrentDampingByThinAluminiumFrame

9
 Fig2.12EddyCurrentDampingByThinAluminiumDisc

AmmeterandVoltmeter
Ammeterisaninstrumentinwhichtorqueisproducedby thecurrenttobemeas
[Link],sothatitcanbeconnectedinseriestothecircuitwitho
[Link] resistancecoila
nditcarriesa currentwhich isproportionaltovoltageacrossthecircuittobemeasure
dandthetorqueisproducedduetothiscurrent.
Theonlydifferencebetweenthetwo(Ammeterandvoltmeter)isinthemagn
itudeofthecurrentandmethod ofconnectingin
[Link]
arallelwiththecircuit.
Ammeterandvoltmeteraregroupedtogetherbecausethereisnoessentialdiffe
renceintheprinciplebetweenthem.

Fig2.13Ammeter Voltmeter
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

Ammeterandvoltmetersareclassifiedasfollows.
a) Movingcoilinstrument
(i) Permanentmagnetictype (ii)Electrodynamicordynamictype
b) Movingironinstrument
(i) Attractiontype (ii)Repulsiontype
c) Hotwiretype
d) Inductiontype
(i) Splitphasewinding (ii)Shadedpoletype
e) Electrostatictype
PermanentMagnetTypeMovingCoilInstrument
[Link],sensiti
veandhas [Link] forDCmeasurements.
Principle
Itworkson [Link]
esthat,wheneveracurrentcarryingconductorisplacedinamagneticfield,itexper
iencessomemechanical forceandmovesinaparticulardirection.
Construction
ItconsistsofaU-
[Link]
ofmanyturnswoundonlightaluminiumframeiskeptinsidethepolepiecesasshown
[Link]
[Link]
gdevicebyeddycurrent.
Working

Fig ConstructionofPermanentMagnetMovingCoilinstrument

11
 Whenthisinstrumentisconnectedinacircuit,thecurrentispassedthroughtheco
[Link] magnetic field,itexperiencesatorqueanddeflectedduetoelectr
[Link] deflectingtorqueisproportionaltothequantityofelectricityor
currentwhichisundermeasurement.
ControllingTorque
Controlofthecoilmomentisbyspringcontrolmethod,byusingtwophosph
orbronzehairspring-
[Link] additionallyservesthepurposeofpassingofcurrent
inandoutthecoil.
Dampingtorque
EddycurrentdampingisprovidedbytheAluminumframe,onwhichthecopp
ercoil was [Link] the coilrotatesinthemagnetic field,theAluminiumframeals
[Link]
bydampingtorqueisdeveloped.
Applications
Thistypeofinstrumentsaremovesensitive,accurateandhas uniformscale.
TheycanbeusedformeasurementofDCvoltagesandcurrents.
MovingIronInstruments
Thistypeofinstrumentsworkontheprinciplesof magnetismi.e.,attractionorre
[Link] movingironinstr
uments.
Theyare
1) Attractiontypemovingironinstrument
2) Repulsiontype movingironinstrument
MovingIronInstrument-AttractiontypePrinciple
Movingiron instrumentworkson the principleof magnetism.i.e.,Amagnetatt
ractstheironpieceorUnlikemagneticpolesattracteachother.
Constructionandworking
Itconsistsofafixedaircorecoilmadebyinsulatedcopperwireandanovalsha
[Link]
[Link],whichmovesonapre-
calibratednonuniformscale.
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

Thedeflecting torque isproduced

bycurrentpassingthroughthecoil(magneticeffectofelectriccurrent).Thecontrol
lingtorqueisprovidedbyeithergravityorspringcontrolmethodanddampingisbya
irfrictionmethod.
Whentheinstrumentisconnectedinacircuit,thecurrentpassingthroughtheco
[Link],
[Link]
epointerisdependsonthemagnitudeofcurrentpassingthrough thecoil.

Fig.2.15AttractiontypeMovingIronInstrument

Ifthe currentinthecoilchangesitsdirection,the polarityofinducedmagneticfiel

[Link],thecoilattractstheirondiscinsidethecoilbyindu
[Link]
DC.
Theattractionforceisdirectlyproportionaltosquareofcurrent(FI2).
Therefore,thescaleiscrowded/crampedatstartingandfinishingends.
Applications
TheMovingIronattractiontypeinstrumentcanbeusedforACandDCmeas
urements(VoltmeterandAmmeter)
MovingIronInstrument-RepulsionTypePrinciple
MovingIronInstrumentworksontheprinciplesofmagnetism.i.e.,thelikemag
neticpolesrepeleachotherorwhenthesametypeofmagneticmaterialsareplaced
inamagneticfieldtheywillmagnetiseduniformlyandhencetherepulsionistakesp
lacebetweenthem.

13
 ConstructionandWorking
Inthis,afixedcoilisusedasanelectromagnetandtwosoftironrods/stripsa
[Link]/rodcarriersapoin
terthatmovesoverthecalibratedscale.
[Link]
lingtorqueisbyspringsorgravitysystemanddampingisbyairfrictionsystem.

SectionalView PlanView
Fig.2.16RepulsiontypeMovingIronInstrument

Whentheinstrumentisconnectedinacircuitthecurrentpassedthroughthefix
edcoilandsetsupamagneticfieldwhichmagnetisesthetworodsofsimilarpolarit
[Link].
Thenthepointerattachedtothespindlemovesonthescaleshowingthevalue
ofelectrical [Link]
areof thecurrentpassingthrough thecoilandhencethescaleiscrowdedatends.
Whateverthedirectionofcurrentinthecoil,thepolarityinducedontheironst
[Link]
orACandDCmeasurements.
Applications
TheMovingIronrepulsiontypeinstrumentcanbeusedforACandDCmeas
urements(VoltmeterandAmmeter)
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

AdvantageandDisadvantagesofMovingIronInstruments

1. [Link].
2. Theseinstrumentsarerobustandfreefrommaintenance
3. Itpossesseshighstartingtorque.
4. Itcanwithstandmomentaryoverloads.
5. Itcangivereasonableaccuracyinthereading.
6. Inthisinstrumentthescaleisnonuniform.
7. Powerconsumptionishighatlowvoltage
8. Thestiffnessofthespringdecreaseswithincreaseintemperature.
9. Hysteresisandstraymagneticfieldcauseserrorsinthereading.
10. Changeinfrequencyofoperationcausesseriouserror.
DifferencesbetweentheMovingCoilandMovingIronInstrum
ents
Movingcoilinstruments MovingIroninstruments
1. ItworksontheprincipleofD [Link]
Cmotor gnetism.
2. Deflectiontorqueisproportionalt 2. Deflectiontorqueisproportional
ocurrent tosquareofcurrentDampin
3. [Link] 3. gisprovidedby airdamping
rrent [Link]
4. Springcontrolledinstruments 4. ntrollingtorqueisproportionaltoSi
5. Controllingtorqueisproportional5. n
toangleofdefection 6. Nonuniformscale.
6. Scaleisuniform 7. Robust,reliableaccurate.
7. Delicate,sensitiveanda
ccurate.
8. Costly. 8. Cheap.
9. Lowpowerconsumption 9. high powerconsumptionthan
movingcoil.
10. ItisusedonlyinD.C. [Link].C.
Circuits. Circuits.
11. Canbeusedasvoltmeter,Am-
[Link],meter,Galvanometer,ohmmeter
VoltmeterandWattmeter.

15
ExtensionofRangeofMCandMIInstruments-
NeedofShuntsandMultiplier
Normallyallthemeasuringinstrumentsaredesignedfora(current)rangebetw
[Link] tobe use
dforhigherranges of currentandvoltagecertain amountof resistanceisaddedinserie
sorparalleltocoil.
Ityouobserveanammeterasmallwireisconnectedtothecoilandahighvaluere
[Link]
partsoutsideoftheinstrument.
[Link]
[Link]
tingsurfacemangainisemployedintheformofthinstrips.
a. Shunt(Rsh)
Shuntisasmall amountofresistanceconnectedinparallel [Link]
edtoextendtherangeofAmmeter.
Im
Rm I

Ish

V Rsh Load

2.17Shunt-extensionofammeter

Letthecurrentforfullscaledeflection(FSD)of Ammeteris=
Im,Amps.
ThemeterresistanceofcoilresistanceRm,
Loadcurrentornewrange-I,Amps
Currentisshuntresistance,IshAmpsShuntre
sistance=Rsh,ohms.
ImRm .ohms
Shuntresistance Rsh II
m
b. Multiplier(R)
se
AMultiplier isalargeamount of resistence connectedinserieswith voltmeter.
Itisusedtoextendtherange(measuringcapacityofvoltmeter.
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

I=I+I
m L IL
Voltmeter
Rm
Load
V
R se

Fig.2.18Multiplier-

extensionofVoltmeterLetthefullscaledeflection(FSD)voltag

e=V,VoltsThemeterresistence =Rm,ohms,
Loadvoltageornewrange =V,Volts
VV
ThemultiplierresistanceRse .[Link]
 V 

17
Introduction to CRO – Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile laboratory instrument
used for studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for meas-
urement of voltage, current, power and frequency, in fact, almost any quantity that
involves amplitude and waveform.
 It allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a function of time on the
screen.
 It is widely used for trouble shooting radio and TV receivers as well as laboratory work
involving research and” design.
 It can also be employed for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude
distortion and deviation from the normal.
 In true sense the cathode ray oscilloscope has been one of the most important tools in
the design and development of modern electronic circuits.
The CRO consists of the following:
 (i) CRT
 (ii) Vertical amplifier
 (iii) Delay line
 (iv) Horizontal amplifier
 (v) Time-base generator
 (vi) Triggering circuit
 (vii) Power supply

CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting system and the fluorescent
screen are the three major components of a general purpose CRT

Electron Gun
In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a sharp beam
and focused upon the fluorescent screen. The electron beam consists of an indirectly
heated cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode. The
electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded
by a control grid with a fine hole at its centre. The accelerated electron beam passes
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

through the fine hole. The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of electrons in
the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is
controlled.
Deflection Systems:
Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose oscilloscope. The
deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. Let us consider
two parallel vertical deflecting plates P1 and P2. The beam is focused at point O on the screen in
the absence of a deflecting plate voltage. If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with respect
to plate P2, the negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive plate P1, and
these electrons will come to focus at point Y1 on the fluorescent screen.

The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the plates. If the polarity of
the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot appears at the point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).

To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting
plates and the spot on the screen horizontally, as shown in Fig. 14-3(b). The electrons will
focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the beam will focus at point X1. Thus, the
horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2 line.

Spot Beam Deflection Sensitivity:

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Fluorescent Screen:

Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner surface of a CRT. Phosphor absorbs
the energy of the incident electrons. The spot of light is produced on the screen where the
electron beam hits. The bombarding electrons striking the screen, release secondary emission
electrons. These electrons are collected or trapped by an aqueous solution of graphite called
“Aquadag” which is connected to the second anode. Collection of the secondary electrons is
necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical equilibrium. The type of phosphor used,
determines the color of the light spot. The brightest available phosphor isotope, P31, produces
yellow–green light with relative luminance of 99.99%.

DISPLAY WAVEFORM ON THE SCREEN:

Figure 14-5(a) shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a
repetitive ramp or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates. The ramp waveform at
the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be deflected horizontally across the
screen. If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave applied
to the vertical display appears on the CRO display screen
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

TRIANGULAR WAVEFORM:
Similarly the display of the triangular waveform is as shown in Fig

TIME-BASE GENERATORS:
The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the wave form is to
be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity. As the beam
velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage must increase linearly with
time. A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage decreases rapidly
to zero—with the waveform repeatedly produced, as shown in Fig. 14-6—we observe a pattern
which is generally called a saw-tooth waveform. The time taken to return to its initial value is
known as flyback or return time.
MEASUREMENTS USING THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:

1)Measurement of Frequency:

2) Measurement of Phase:
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:

Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:

Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures

Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures

 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:

TYPES OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES

The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they are digital or
analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as storage oscilloscopes.
 1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and frequency are measured
from the displayed waveform, through direct manual reading.
 2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information, i.e., the time,
voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of an electronic counter along
with the main body of the CRO.
 3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial amount of time
after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The storage CRO is also useful for the
display of waveforms of low-frequency signals.
 4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a single CRT.
The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
 These two beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen
which make the simultaneous observation of two different signal waveforms possible. The
comparison of input and its corresponding output becomes easier using the dual-beam
CRO.
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

UNIT II

CLASSIFICATION OFRESISTANCES
Forthepurposesofmeasurements,theresistancesareclassifiedintothreemajorgroupsbased
on their numericalrange of values as under:
• Lowresistance (0 to 1 ohm)
• Medium resistance (1 to100 kilo-ohm) and
• Highresistance(>100 kilo-ohm)

Accordingly, the resistancescanbe measuredbyvarious ways, dependingon their range

ofvalues,as under:

1. Lowresistance(0to1ohm):AVMethod,KelvinDoubleBridge,potentiometer,doctoroh
mmeter, etc.
2. Medium resistance(1 to 100 kilo-ohm): AV method, wheatstone’s bridge,
substitution method, etc.
3. Highresistance(>100kilo-ohm):AVmethod,Fallofpotentialmethod,Megger,loss of
charge method, substitution method, bridge method, etc.

MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCES

AVMethod
Hereanammeterandavoltmeterareusedrespectivelyinseriesandinparallelwiththeresistoru
[Link]
btainedforeachtrialasperohmic-principle,usingequation(1).

heaverage value of all the trails will give the measured valueofresistance.

[Link],themeterrangesar
e tobe chosencarefullybasedonthecircuitconditionsandtheresistancevaluetobe obtained. This
methodsuffers from the connectionerrors.

(a) Wheatstone’s bridge

Thisbridgecircuithasfourresistivearms:arm-ABandarm-BCtherationarmswithresistances
R1andR2,arm-ADwith theunknownresistanceR3 andarmCDwith
astandardknownvariableresistanceR4,asshowninfigure-
[Link]-ACandthearm-
BDcontainsagalvanometerusedasadetectorconnectedacross it.

Wheatstone bridge

[Link]
position of null readingin thegalvanometer,which is used here as anull detector ofthebridge
under thebalanced conditions.

Thus under thebalanceconditions of thebridge,wehave,Ig=0;

VAB= VADandVBC= VCD, so that,
I1R1=I2R3andI1R2=I2R4 (4)

Solvingfurther,we get,R1/R2= R3/R4andR1R4= R2R3

(5)
This is thebalance equationofthe bridge.
Thus, unknown resistance,R3= R1R4/ R2ohms. (6)

5.4. Expression for Galvanometer current

InaWSbridgePQRSasshowninfigure2,below,undertheunbalancedconditionsofthebridge,
the current flowingin thegalvanometer isgivenby:
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

Ig=ETh/ [RTh+Rg] (7)

Where,
RTh= {PQ/(P+Q)+RS/(R+S)}
ETh=E {P/(P+Q) -R/(R+S)} (8)

Fig.2Wheatstone bridge PQRS

Errors inWS bridgemeasurements

(i) Limitingerrors:InaWSbridgePQRS,thepercentagelimitingerrorinthemeasurandresistance
,Risequaltothesumofthepercentagelimitingerrorsinthebridgearmresistances P, Q and S.

(ii) Errors dueto heating ofelements in thebridge arms:

Rt=R0[1+αt];P =I2R Watts; Heat=I2Rt Joules
TheI2Rlossoccurringintheresistorsofeacharmmighttendtoincreasethetemperature,whichi
nturncanresultinachangeintheresistancevalue,differentfromthenormalvalue.

(iii) Errorsduetotheeffectoftheconnectingwiresandleadresistors:theconnectingleadwireresi
stance will affect the value of theunknown resistance, especiallywhen it is a

[Link],theconnectingleadwireresistanceshavetobeaccountedforwhile
measuringalow resistance.

(iv) Contactresistanceerrors:Thecontactresistanceoftheleadsalsoaffectsthevalueofthemeasu
randresistance,justasinpoint(iii)[Link] of
thecontactsurfaces andthe pressure applied to the circuit.

Limitations of WS bridge
TheWSbridgemethodisusedformeasurementofresistancesthatarenumericallyintherange
[Link]
unbalancecausedbythe highresistances, as per theequation (7).

Sensitivity ofWS bridge

InaWSbridgePQRSasinfigure2,withtheresistanceSinanarmchangedtoS+S,thebridgebec
[Link] also referredas
the unbalancedoperation oftheWS [Link] suchcircumstances,with Svas the voltage
 sensitivityof the galvanometer, wehave,
GalvanometerDeflection, θ =Sve=Sv[ES R/(R+S)2] (10)
Bridge Senstivity, SB=θ/(R/R) (11)
Rearranging,we get,
SB=Sve/{(R/S)+2+(S/R)} (12)

Thus,theWSbridgesensitivityishighwhen(R/S)=[Link](R/S)becomeseit
[Link] which
thebridgeisbalanced.

MEASUREMENT OFLOW RESISTANCES

theKelvin’sDoubleBridge
Ofthevariousmethodsusedformeasurementoflowresistances,theKelvin’sDoubleBridge(
KDB)[Link],thebridgeisdesignedasanimprovedormodifiedWSB
[Link]
[Link],Sisthestandardlo
wresistance,ristheverysmalllinkresistancebetweenRandS,calledtheyokeresistance,P,Q,p,qare
thenoninductiveresistances,onesetofwhich,[Link]
[Link],connectedasshown, is
usedas a nulldetector.

Fig.3Kelvin’sDouble Bridge

Balance EquationofKDB

[Link]-deltaconversionprinciple,
theKDBcircuit of figure 3 can be simplifiedas shown in figure-4 below.
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

(a) (b) (c)

Simplified circuitKDB

It is thus observed that the KDB has now become a simplified WS bridge-
ABCD as showninfigure4(c). Itistobe noted that they oke resistancer1 is
ineffective now, since itisinth ezero current branch, in series withth
egalvanometer. Thus, under balance conditions ,wehave,
P (S+r3) =Q (R+r2) (13)
 Where,

CBridges

Maxwell Bridge

TheMaxwellbridge measures an unknowninductance in terms ofaknown

 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

capacitance.
Themaxwellbridge is limited to the measurement of medium-Qcoils(1<Q<10).

Hay Bridge

 TheHaycircuit is more convenient for measuring high-Qcoils

 Haybridge for inductance measurements
 forQ>10 :Lx= R2R3C

ScheringBridge:
TheScheringbridge, oneof themost importantbridges, is usedextensivelyfor
themeasurement ofcapacitors.
Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance
Wien Bridge:

Applications :
– Frequencymeasureent
– Notchfilter
– Frequency-determiningelement

Frequencymeasurementwith theWien bridge

AndersonBridge:
 In theAndersonBridge the unknown inductanceismeasured in terms
ofaknowncapacitanceandresistance.
 this method is capable of precisemeasurements ofinductance over
awiderangeofvaluesfrom a fewmicro-henrys to severalhenrysand is the best
bridge method
Capacitance Bridge:

Wewill consider onlyDeSautybridgemethod ofcomparingtwo capacitances the bridge

has
maximumsensitivitywhen C2 =C3.
 Thesimplicityof this method is offsetbythe impossibilityof obtaininga
perfectbalance if both thecapacitors arenot freefrom thedielectric loss.
 A perfect balancecan onlybeobtained if aircapacitorsare [Link] shown in fig
 UNIT 3
BasicElementsofInductiontypeEnergyMeter
Anenergymeter,similartoindicatinginstrumenthasfollowingthreeimportantele
ments.
i) OperatingSystem
ii) BrakingSystem
iii) RecordingSystem
(i)Anoperatingsystemwhichproducesanoperatingtorqueproportionaltothe
currentorpowerinthecircuitandwhichcausestherotationof therotatingsystem.
(ii)Aretardingorbrakingdeviceusuallyapermanentmagnetwhichproduce
[Link]
ingsystem/discimmediately whenthemeterwasdisconnectedfromthesupply.
(iii)Aregisteringorrecordingmechanismformtherevolutionsoftherotatin
[Link],itconsistsofatrainofwheeldrivenbythespindleofrotatingsyste
[Link]
ewheelcompletesonerevolution,theothermovesonlyonetenthofarevolution.

SinglePhase(1- )InductionTypeEnergyMeter

Principle
Thesinglephaseinductiontypeenergymeterworksontheprincipleofelectr
[Link]
tointeractionof currentin pressurecoil andcurrentcoilwith
aluminiumdiscplacednearcoils.
ConstructionandWorking
Thefigureshowsessential [Link]
ressurecoilmadeofthincopperwireofmanyturns(alsocalledshuntmagnet);acu
rrentcoilmadeofthickcopperwireofoneortwoturns(alsocalledseriesmagnet),a
n aluminium discmountedonspindleandplacedbetweentwojeweledbearingsanda
recordingmechanismconsistsofwormandwheelthroughwhichtherotationofspi
ndleisrecordedoncyclometer.
 ConstructionalDetailsofSinglePhaseEnergymeter

Abrakingmagnetisarrangedonadisctocontrolitsmovementandtostopthemo
[Link]/[Link]
mofdampingisused.Aphasedifferenceof900issetbetweencurrentcoilandpress
urecoilwiththehelpofcoppershadedrings.
Thetwofieldfluxesproducedby the twocoilsacton aluminiumdiscinduceeddy
currentsandhencethediscrotatesduetotheinteractionofthetwofluxesdeveloped.
Thespeedofdiscisproportionaltotheenergyconsumed/powerconsumedbythel
oad.
Thenumberofrevolutionscompletedbythediscforone‘Kwh’iscalledmeter
[Link].

Fig3.4InternalpartsofEnergymeter
Errorsin1- Induction typeenergymeter
(1) PhaseerrororPowerfactorerror
Thiserrorisduetoimproperphasedifferencebetweenfluxandvoltagedueto
[Link] this,[Link]
hepositionoftheshadingrings.
(2) Speederror
Sometimesthespeedofdiscisnotproportionfornon-
[Link] beeli
minatedbyrepositioningthebrakemagnet.
(3) FrictionCompensationorfrictionerror
Inmanycasesanunwantedbrakingtorqueondiscwilldevelopedduetofrictio
[Link]
djustedbyrepositioningtheshadedringsoncentrallimb/shuntmagnet.

(4) CreepingError
Sometimesenergymeterrunsslowly,evenat no
[Link]
rfrictioncompensation,[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
nwireisattachedtotheedgeofthediscwhichwhenattractedbybrakingmagnet.
(5) Temperatureerror
[Link]
ratureresultsinincreasedresistancetotheeddycurrentpath reducingthedrivingtor
[Link]
ercurrenttoflow,[Link]
[Link] netresultisto
neutralizeeachotherseffectand error causeddueto
temperatureisnotappreciable.
(6) Frequencyeffect
Increaseinfrequencyrisestheimpedanceofthecoilswiththeresultlesscurrent
[Link].
Hencethemeterhastobeadjustedatfixedfrequencytoobtainminimumerror.

PolyphaseInductionTypeEnergyMeter
Polyphaseenergymetersareobtainedbycombiningtwoormoresinglephase
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
eenergymeter.
ThreePhase(3 EnergyMeters
Thethreephaseenergymetersworksonthesameprincipleassinglephaseener
[Link]
tesinglephaseenergymetersorthreeseparateenergymetersorsingleThreephase
energy meter
Thesearealsocalledpolyphaseenergymeters.Theyweretwotypes1)3-
Phase,3-wireACEnergymeter.2)3-Phase,4-wireACEnergymeter.

(1) 3-Phase,3-wireACEnergymeter.
Thethreephasethree
wireenergymeterworksontheprincipleofmeasurementofpowerby twowattme
[Link]
[Link],theremay betwodiscsattac
hedtoacommonspindlewithoneelementattopandtheotheratbottom.

Threephase,Threewireenergymeter

(2) 3-Phase,4-wireACEnergymeter.
Thismeterhasthree1-
Phaseelementsworkingonthreediscsfixedtothesamespindlepivotedonajewelle
dbottombearingandapintypetopbearing.
Thediscsarearrangedtorevolveintheairgapofthetwoelectromagnetsonesup
pliedwithcurrentcoilsandothertothevoltage(potentialcoil)Thefluxduetothetwoe
lectromagnetsproducesarotatingfield.
[Link]
thetimethenthenumberof [Link]
ustmentofpowerfactorandfriction,[Link]
 [Link]
rwhichindicatestheenergy suppliedthroughthemeter.

Theprincipleofthismeterissameasofthree wattmetermethodmeasuringpow
er,asshowninthefigure,thepowerisW+W+W 1 2 3

ThreePhase,FourwireEnergymeter.
\
 PowerFactorMeter
Thepowerfactormeterisusedtomeasurethecosinevalueofphaseanglebetwe
[Link]
[Link].f.
[Link].e.,[Link]
otypes.,
(1)Singlephase [Link] (2)Threephase [Link].

SinglePhaseDynamometerType [Link]
Principle
PowerfactormeterisusedtomeasurethePowerFactorofacircuit/[Link]
[Link]
t,wheneveracurrentcarryingconductorisplacedinamagneticfield,itexperiences
aforceandmovesawayfromthemagneticfield.
Construction
TheconstructionaldetailsofPowerfactormeterisasshown [Link]
nstrumenthasastationarycoilwhichisdividedintotwosectionsFandF 1 2
andtwomovingcoils1 a whicharerigidlyattachedtoeachotherand
C ndC 2
[Link]
coilsarepressurecoilsorvoltagecoils.

[Link]

Working
 WhenPowerfactormeterisconnectedinthecircuit,aphasedifference
900iscreatedbetween,thecurrentI 1 a becauseoftheresistanceand
ndI 2

[Link]
1 2 flowinthe
[Link],dependinguponthepower
factorandshowsthereadingwiththehelpofpointer.

4.2.1 ThreePhase(3- )PowerFactormeter

Theprincipleofoperationof3-phaseDynamometertypep.f.meterissimilarto1-
[Link].
Thethreephasepowerfactormeterconsistsofthreefixedcoils(currentcoils)
,[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
eeendsareconnectedatonejunctiontoformstarpointandtheotherendsarejoinedt
othelinethroughfixedresistances.
Thebasicconstructionaldetailsareasshowninfigure.

F1
F2

R1 I1
Sup-
ply

Load
R2

ThreePhaseDynamometerTypeP.F. meter

MeasurementofPower-Watt-meters

Tillnowwehavestudiedaboutmeasurementofcurrentandvoltage(acordc)by
[Link]
Wattmeter.
Wattmetermeasurestheelectricpowerbeingconsumedinthecircuit/equip
[Link]
ewattmetersinelectricsubstationsandpowerstationsmeasuresthepowerinkilowat
ts(Kw)andmega watts(Mw). Wattmetersmainlyarefollowingtypes

[Link]
[Link].

Fig2.19Wattmeter
DynamometerTypeInstruments
Electrodynamometertypeinstrumentisalsoamovingcoilinstrumentandcanb
[Link],Voltageand
[Link]
sedaswattmeter.
Principle
Thedynamometertypeinstrumentworkson the principleofElectrodynamiceff
ectofelectriccurrent(PrincipleofMotor).Itstatesthat“whenacurrentcarryingc
onductoris placedinamagneticfield,itexperiencesaforceandmovesawayfromthe
magneticfield”.

a) Sectionalview b)SchematicRepresentation
Dynamometertypeinstrument

Construction
TheinstrumentconsistsoftwofixedcoilsandamovablecoilThefixedcoilsar
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link].
Working
Whentheinstrumentisconnectedinacircuit,thecurrentpassesthroughthebo
[Link] currentcoilisproportionaltoloadcurrentandthecurr
[Link]
hesetwotypes
offluxes,[Link]
ncesaforceandmoves(deflects).
Thedeflectingtorqueisproportionaltothe productofvoltageand currentinthetwo
coils.
Applications
TheDynamometertypeinstrumentcanbeusedasVoltmeter,Ammeterand
Wattmeter.

InductiontypeInstruments
Theinductiontypeofinstrumentshaswideapplicationsaswattmeterandener
[Link]
oducedby theeddycurrents inducedinanlightaluminiumorcopperdiscordrumby
revolvingfluxcreatedbyelectromagnets.Ithasawidescalespreadover3000
[Link].
InductionWattmeterPrinciple
ThePrincipleofinductionwattmetersisthe sameasthat
[Link]
ontheproductionoftorqueduetothereactionbetweentheflux( )andtheeddy
currentin ametaldiscduetootherflux.
Constructionandworking
Thewattmeterhastwolaminatedelectromagnets,oneofwhichisexcitedbyth
ecurrentinthemain [Link]
whichisproportionaltothevoltageofthecircuitandcalledshuntmagnet.

Fig2.21Inductiontypewatt-meter

[Link]
twoeddycurrentsareproducedinthedisc,[Link]
eflectiontorqueisproducedduetotheinteractionoftheseeddycurrentsandinduci
[Link] theshuntmagneta
ndcanbealsoadjustedtomaketheresultantfluxintheshuntmagnetlagbehindtheap
pliedvoltageby900.
Inductionwattmetershownaboveisspring-
[Link]
rriesthepointer.Thescaleisuniformlyevenandextendsover3000.
[Link]
[Link]
epressurecoilispurposelymadeasmuchinductiveaspossibleorderthatthefluxthr
oughitshouldlagbehindthevoltageby900.
AdvantagesandlimitationofInductionWattmeter
Thesewattmeterspossestheadvantagesoffairlylongscaleextendingover3000
.
Theyarefreeformtheeffectsofstrayfields,[Link] arepra
[Link](sometimes)seri
oustemperatureerrors,becausethemain effectoftemperatureisontheresistanceo
ftheeddycurrentpaths.
 UNIT 4
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
UNIT5