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Deep water wave – a wave at a point where the Mean High Water – the average height of the
water depth is equal to one half of the high waters over a 19-year period
wavelength or greater to be expressed in terms
of the parameters of significant wave. Mean Higher High Water – the average height of
the higher high water over a 19-year period
Significant Wave – a hypothetical wave having a
wave height and period equal respectively to Gravity Wave – waves are formed by the fictional
average values of the wave height and period of drag of wind across the water surface. Water
the largest one third of all the waves in the train particles are moved from their position by the
as counted in the order of greater wave height. wind, and then returned to the original position
by gravity, which is a restoring force.
Highest Wave – a maximum wave height and
wave period of the maximum wave height in Wave length – the horizontal distance between
wave train. two crests of waves.

Equivalent Deepwater Wave – This wave is a Wave length and wave Depth – shape of the
hypothetical one devised for the purpose of wave and wave speeds are governed by the
adjusting the heights of waves which may have displacement of water particles and the
undergone refraction, diffraction and other functions of these variables
transformations, so that the estimation of wave
transformation and deformation can be more Wave height – the elevation of the crest above
easily carried out when dealing with complex the trough of the wave and the distance
topographies. between the highest and lowest point of the
wave.
Design Low Tide – the water level that
guarantees about 98% of tide is safe to ships Wave crest – highest point of the wave.
seems to be suitable from the expression of the
technical resolution of the International Water Wave trough – the lowest point of the wave.
Wave Congress. Such water level, which is
0.15m. ~ 0.4 m. below the MLLW should be used Wave period – the interval of time for two wave
for design of ports. crests to pass the same position in space.

Residual Water Level - The components of water Wave frequency is the number of crests of a
level not attributable to astronomical effects. wave that move past a given point in a given
unit of time.
Residual water level for gravity type is expressed
as the “One third of difference of HWL and LWL Wave shoaling is the process when surface
plus LWL” waves move towards shallow water, such as a
beach, they slow down, their wave height
Residual water level for sheet pile type is increases and the distance between waves
expressed as the “Two thirds of difference of decreases.
HWL and LWL plus LWL”
Large waves can be generated only when the
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) – the datum line fetch (or the distance over which the wind
for design of port facilities in accordance with blows) is large. Waves continue to grow after
the charts which is being used by the Philippine they reach a velocity of one third of the wind
Ports Authority. The average height of the lower speed, but at a decreasing rate.
low water over a 19-year period. The average
height of the lower of the two daily low water. Wave refraction is a change in the dissection of
travel of the wave with change in depth of water
Mean Sea Level – the average height of the sea which distributes wave energy along the
for all stages of the tide obtained from seashore unevenly.
systematic observations of sea level at equal
intervals over a long period of time along a given
coastline. The average of the seawater surface
for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period

Wave diffraction is the flow of energy along the

wave crest in a direction at right angles to the
Mean Low Water – the average height of the direction of wave travel.
lower water over a 19-year period. The average
height of all low waters at any place over a
sufficiently extended period of time.

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Transitional water wave is a type of wave where Storm surge is the abnormal rise of the sea level
the depth is less than one half of wave length that occurs when a typhoon passes by. This rise
but greater than 1 over 20 of the wave length. above the normal level on this open coast is due
to atmosphere pressure reduction as well as that
Shallow water wave is a type of wave where the due to wind stress.
depth is less than 1 over 20 of wave length.
Tsunami is a wave with an extremely long period
Dredging is the process of widening, enlarging, that mainly occur when there is a sudden large-
cleaning, or deepening of channels in harbors, scale sea floor movement usually associated
rivers and canals to maintain the idea depth of severe shallow forces earthquakes.
berthing areas due to fast siltation rate.
Seiche is a phenomenon involving abnormal
Disiltation to remove suspended silt from the oscillations of the water level with a period of
water of a stream. approximately a few minutes to a few tens of
minutes. It occurs when small fluctuations of the
Meander or Meandering is a bend in a sinuous water level are generated by micro scale
watercourse or river. A meander forms when variations of the atmospheric pressure by an air
moving water in a stream erodes the outer front of a low pressure in the outer sea and the
banks and widens its valley, and the inner part components of those oscillations whose period is
of the river has less energy and deposits silt. the same as a natural period of the harbor are
amplified through resonance.
Tide is the regular periodic rise and fall of the
surface of the seas, observable along their Seiche is the flow of seawater in the horizontal
shores. direction that accompanies a tidal variation of
sea level and is thus periodic. Waves, which
Astronomical tide is the periodic rise and fall of have a very long period, typically from 30
sea level in response to the gravitational seconds up to the tidal period of 12 hr. and 24
attraction of the sun and moon as modified by min. and are mostly found in enclosed or semi-
the earth’s rotation. enclosed basins such as bays or port basins.

Bore Tide is a tidal phenomenon in which the Catenary mooring is a mooring method where
leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave the chains or whatever used in the mooring are
(or waves) of water that travels up a river or given sufficient lengths to make them slack. This
narrow bay against the direction of the river or means that the force restraining the motions of
bay's current. the floating body is small but nevertheless the
mooring system fulfills the function of keeping
Neap Tide is when the Sun and Moon form a the floating body in more or less the same
right angle, as when we see a half moon, their position.
gravitational pulls fight each other and we notice
a smaller difference between high and low tides. Taut mooring is a mooring method that reduces
A tide just after the first or third quarters of the the motions of the floating body greatly with this
moon when there is the least difference between method the mooring lines are given initial
high and low water. tensions so that they do not become slack even
when the floating body moves.
Spring Tide is when the Moon, Earth, and Sun fall
in a straight line, which we call syzygy, we notice Breasting dolphins serves the following
the greatest difference between high and low purposes: 1. Assist in berthing of vessels by
tide water levels. These spring tides occur twice taking up some berthing loads, 2. Keep the
each month, during the full and new Moon. If the vessel from pressing against the pier structure
Moon is at perigee, the closest it approaches and 3. Serve as mooring points to restrict the
Earth in its orbit, the tides are especially high longitudinal movement of the berthing vessel.
and low.

Semidiurnal Tide: These are tides occurring twice

a day. This means a body of water with semi-
diurnal tides, like the Atlantic Ocean, will have Mooring dolphins are used for mooring only and
two high tides and two low tides in one day. for securing the vessels by using ropes. They are
Diurnal Tide: These tides occur once a day. A also commonly used near pier structures to
body of water with diurnal tides, like the Gulf of control the transverse movement of berthing
Mexico, has only one high tide and one low tide vessels.
in a 25-hour period.

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Wind drag force – with a structure for which a Littoral transport is the movement of littoral
part of the floating body is above the sea level, drift.
wind exerts a force on the structure.
Longshore transport is the movement of littoral
Current drag force – when there is current such drift or sediment parallel to the shore.
as tidal currents, these currents will exert a force On shore transport is the movement of littoral
on the submerged part of the floating body. drift or sediment perpendicular or towards the
Wave Drift force are the mean forces exerted on shore.
floating or submerged bodies by ambient waves.
When waves act on a floating body, the center of Predominant direction is the direction with the
the floating body’s motion gradually shifts in the larger volume of movement during a year.
direction of wave propagation. Longshore sediment moves in either left or right
along a coast, corresponding to the direction of
Wave-exciting force is the force exerted by incoming waves.
incident waves on the floating body when the
floating body is considered to be fixed in the Foreshore is the zone from low tide shoreline to
water. the location of the upper limit of wave wash at
high tide.
Wave-making resistance is when a floating body
moves in still water, the floating body exerts a Backshore is the zone from landward boundary
force on the surrounding water, and the floating of foreshore to the coastline, where waves will
body receives a corresponding reaction force reach during stormy weather.
from the water.
Offshore is the area on the ocean side where
Restoring force is the force that makes a floating waves do not break normally. In many cases, the
body to return to its original position when the bottom slope is comparatively gentle.
floating body moves in still water.
Inshore is the area between the offshore and the
Mooring force is the force that is generated to low tide shoreline, where waves break and
restrain the motion of the floating body. longshore bars or steps are formed.
Yawning is the motion in the horizontal plane of
a ship which cause the ship to rotate about the Step type beach and bar type beach – when a
vertical axis of the boat, which is caused by model beach is constructed with natural sand in
seawater waves. a wave channel exposed to waves over a long
period of time, the beach profile will approach an
Surging is the horizontal motion of the ship equilibrium condition corresponding to the
along its longitudinal axis caused by seawater waves acting upon it.
waves. It is the movement in the horizontal
plane of a ship moving forward or backward at Astronomical tidal day is when the time of
sea. rotation of the earth with respect to the moon
and the planets, which is approximately 24 hours
Heaving is the motion in the vertical plane of a and 50 minutes.
ship which causes the vertical motion of the ship
(up and down) caused by seawater waves. Lowest astronomical tide or Lower Low Water
Spring is the chart datum for harbor works. This
Rolling is the motion of the ship which tends to does not consider the effects of atmospheric
rotate the ship about its longitudinal axis due to pressure (low pressure increases tide level),
seawater waves. storm surge (increases tide level), wind
(landward wind increases tide level), and heavy
Pitching is the motion in the vertical plane of the rainfall (increased flow in estuaries increases
ship, which tends to rotate the ship about its tide level).
traverse axis caused by seawater waves.

Highest Astronomical Tide is defined as the

Swaying is the motion of the ship, which tends to highest level which can be predicted to occur
move horizontally on its sides caused by under average meteorological conditions and
seawater waves. any combination of astronomical conditions.

Littoral drift is the sedimentary material moved The rise of sea level due to the greenhouse
in the littoral zone under the action of wave and effect between years 2000 and 2050 is assumed
current. to be about 0.25 m. to 0.30 m.

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The rise and fall of the water level due to change constructed to protect or defend a harbor,
in the atmospheric pressure is approximately stretch of coast, or riverbank. A solid structure,
equal to 0.9 cm. rise or fall of the water level for which projects into the sea perpendicular to the
1 m. bar fall or rise in atmospheric pressure. shore to berth vessels.

Swell - wind generated waves but are created in In some ports, especially where the tidal wave
the deep ocean at some distance from the port exceeds 10 feet., ships are berthed in an
site and the wind that created them may be too impounding basin, where the water is kept at
distant to be felt in the port and may have constant level by means of lock. Such basins are
changed its direction by the time the waves called: Docks, Pier and Wharf.
reach the port.
Relieving platform is a platform or deck structure
Flood current is the tidal current setting into the built below the top deck level and supported on
bays and estuaries along the coast. bearing piles. The main function of the platform
is to reduce the lateral soil pressure over the
Ebb is the movement of the tide out to sea. upper portion of the sheet wall.

Ebb current is the return current toward the sea. Sea island is berth structure with no direct
connection to the shore, at which the ships can
Slack water is the period during which the berth. Berthing can take place on either one or
current is negligible while it is changing both sides of the structure.
directions. It is the period during which the
current is less than 1/10 of a knot or less than Sea wall and Revetment are structures intended
0.169 fps. The state of the tide when it is to protect the land from wave erosion.
turning, especially at low tide.
Sea wall is designed to prevent coastal erosion
High water is the maximum height reached by and other damage due to wave action and storm
each rising tide. surge, such as flooding. Seawalls are normally
very massive structures because they are
Low water is the maximum depression of the designed to resist the full force of waves and
falling tide. storm surge.

Fetch is the straight-line stretch of open water Revetment is a facing of stone, concrete units or
available for wave growth without the slabs, etc., built to protect a scarp, the foot of a
interruption of land. cliff or a dune, a dike or a seawall against
erosion by wave action, storm surge and
Port is a sheltered place where the ship may currents. It does not protect against flooding.
receive or discharge cargo. It includes the Furthermore, a revetment is often a supplement
harbors with its approach channels and to other types of protection such as seawalls and
anchorage places. dikes.

Ocean port – a port of call for large ships. Inland A revetment is, just as a seawall, a shore parallel
port – located at the entrance of a river. Entry structure. The main difference is that it is more
port – location where foreign goods are cleared sloping than a seawall. A revetment has a
through customs. distinct slope, while a seawall is often almost
vertical.
Quay is a wharf built parallel with the shore. It is
a concrete, stone, or metal platform lying Cofferdam is a watertight enclosure pumped dry
alongside or projecting into water for loading to permit construction work below the waterline,
and unloading ships. as when building bridges or repairing a ship.

Wharf is a platform built parallel to the shore or

breakwater within the harbor to berth vessels. A groyne (groin in the United States) is a rigid
hydraulic structure built from an ocean shore (in
Pier are wharves built at an angle with the shore. coastal engineering) or from a bank (in rivers)
A berth structure projecting out from the that interrupts water flow and limits the
shoreline. movement of sediment. It is built perpendicular
to the shoreline to retard littoral transport of
Slip is the water area between two adjacent sedimentary materials.
piers.
Bollard is the mooring fitting for mooring ships
Jetty is a landing stage or small pier at which during a storm installed at the outside or
boats can dock or be moored and a breakwater outside/inside of the berth far from the water

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line. A vertical post to which the eye of a current velocity between the sea bottom and the
mooring line can be attached. ship.

Bitt is installed close to the waterline of the Trim - to cause a ship to assume a desirable
berth to be used for mooring ships in ordinary position in the water by arrangement of ballast,
condition. cargo, or passengers.

Tee-head shape – generally when bollards are Air draft is the maximum distance from the
pulled upward water level to the highest point of the ship at the
prevailing draft.
Single pillary type – at a small quay wall where
the mooring ropes may not be pulled upward.
Surcharge of a pier at ordinary condition is equal Scantling draft is the draft for which the
to 2.5 tf per meter squared. Surcharge needed structural strength of the ship has been
for computation during wave action is zero. designed.
Surcharge needed during earthquakes is 1.25.
Designed draft is the draft for which the
Maximum speed of ships entering a harbor fundamental design parameters of the ship are
entrance should not exceed approximately 3 based.
knots.
The length of the stopping distance to bring the Harbors are broadly classified as: natural
ship to a complete stop is equal to 8 times the harbors, semi-natural harbors, and artificial
ship’s length. harbors.

Anchorage area – a place where ships may wait Several types of ports are as follows: ocean port,
for their turn at berth, for more favorable inland port, entry port, and free port.
weather conditions, or be held back for
quarantine inspection. Breakwater is the structure that protects the
harbor from stormy waves and permits calm in
Berthing means bringing a vessel to her berth the harbor.
until the ship is made fast. A ship may berth port
or starboard side on or bow or stem on. The term Bulkhead is a structure for retaining or to
“berth” refers to the quay, or wharf, or, pier or prevent earth or fill from sliding into the water.
jetty where the ship comes alongside, but it may
also mean a place in which a vessel is moored or Bathymetry is the physical configuration of the
anchored. seabed, the measurements of depths of water in
the ocean, etc. and information derived from
Squat is the reduction of under keel clearance such measurement
due to the suction effect induced by the higher

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Back of Queue Cycle Length (Cycle Time)
Maximum extent of the queue relative to the stop Time required for one complete sequence of
line or give-way (yield) line during a signal cycle signal displays (sum of phase green and
or gap-acceptance cycle. The last queued vehicle intergreen times). For a given movement, cycle
that joins the back of queue is the last vehicle time is the sum of the durations of red, yellow
that departs at the end of the saturated part of and green signal displays, or sum of Effective
green interval or the available gap interval. Green and Red Times. In gap- acceptance
analysis, this is the equivalent average cycle time
Capacity corresponding to the block and unblock periods in
The maximum sustainable flow rate at which the opposing traffic stream.
vehicles or persons reasonably can be expected
to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane Degree of Saturation
or roadway during a specified time period under The ratio of arrival (demand) flow rate to capacity
given roadway, geometric, traffic, environmental, during a given flow period. Also known as the
and control conditions; usually expressed as volume to capacity ratio.
vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or
persons per hour. Delay
The additional travel time experienced by a
Circulating Flow vehicle or pedestrian with reference to a base
The vehicle flow rate in all lanes of the circulating travel time (e.g. the free-flow travel time).
road in front of a roundabout entry lane,
determined using Stopline Flow Rates. Demand Flow (Demand Volume)
The number of vehicles or pedestrians arriving
Critical Gap during a given period as measured at the back of
The minimum time between successive vehicles queue (as distinct from departure flows measured
in the opposing (major) traffic stream that is in front of the queue). See Stopline Flow Rate.
acceptable for entry by opposed (minor) stream
vehicles. Density
The number of vehicles per unit distance along a
Cycle-Average Queue road segment as measured at an instant in time.
The average queue length that incorporates all
queue states including zero queues as counted at Design Life
regular intervals (e.g. every 5 seconds). The number of years into the future while the
intersection operates satisfactorily considering
Control Delay increases in traffic demand volumes.
Sum of Stop-Line Delay and Geometric Delay.
Detector
Cost (Operating Cost) A device by which vehicle or pedestrian traffic
A measure that includes the direct vehicle registers its presence. The most common
operating cost (the resource cost of fuel and detectors are the inductive loop detectors for
additional running costs including tyre, oil, repair vehicles and the push-button detectors for
and maintenance as a factor of the cost of fuel) pedestrians.
as well as the time cost of vehicle occupants.
Downstream
Critical Intersection In the direction of the movement of traffic.
The intersection in a coordinated signal system
that operates with the highest overall degree of Effective Green and Red Times
saturation during a given period. The movement green and red times for capacity
and performance analysis purposes, which are
Critical Lane determined by adjusting the displayed green and
The lane in a lane group or approach that has the red times for Start Loss and End Gain effects.
highest degree of saturation and places the
highest demand on green time. Effective Intersection Capacity
An aggregate measure of intersection capacity
Critical Movements determined as the ratio of total intersection
The set of movements that determine the demand flow to the intersection degree of
capacity and timing requirements of a signalised saturation, where the intersection degree of
intersection. saturation is the largest lane degree of saturation
considering all lanes of the intersection.
End Gain
Duration of the interval between the end of the
Cycle displayed green period and the end of the
A complete sequence of signal phases. effective green period for a movement. This is
used in signal timing and performance analysis to

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allow for additional departures after the end of Gap Acceptance
green period. The process by which an opposed (minor) stream
vehicle accepts an available gap in the opposing
Equivalent Stop Value (major) stream for entering (departing from
Value of a deceleration-acceleration cycle in queue or merging).
terms of a major stop- start cycle. See Major Stop.
Gap Setting
Exclusive Pedestrian Phase A controller setting equivalent to a predetermined
The phase at an intersection during which all space time measured between successive
pedestrian displays are green and all vehicle vehicles at the given (approach) speed, detection
displays are red, allowing all pedestrian zone length and vehicle length values that will
movements to operate simultaneously while all cause the signal controller to terminate the green
vehicle movements are stopped. Also see display.
Scramble-Crossing Phase.
Geometric Delay
Exclusive Lane Delay due to physical and basic traffic control
A lane (or length of lane) allocated for use only by factors as experienced by a vehicle negotiating
a particular movement or a type of vehicle, e.g. the intersection in the absence of any other
left-turn lane, through lane, right- turn lane, bus vehicles (due to a deceleration from the approach
lane, as opposed to a Shared Lane. cruise speed down to an approach negotiation
speed, travel at that speed, acceleration to an
Filter Turn exit negotiation speed, and then acceleration to
A turning movement that must give way to and the exit cruise speed).
find safe gaps in conflicting (opposing) vehicle or
pedestrian traffic before proceeding, e.g. filter Geometric Stop
right turn, slip-lane left turn, left turn on red. The effective value of a slow-down and speed-up
manoeuvre associated with Geometric Delay,
Fixed-Time Control which is measured in terms of equivalent Major
A signal control method that allows for only a Stops.
fixed sequence and fixed duration of displays.
Green Time
Flow Rate Duration of the green display for a phase or a
Number of vehicles or pedestrians per unit time movement.
passing (arriving or departing) a given reference
point. Headway
The time between passage of the front ends of
Flow Ratio two successive vehicles. See Spacing.
The ratio of arrival (demand) flow rate to
saturation flow rate. Intergreen Time
Duration of the clearance part of the phase
Follow-up Headway corresponding to the period between the phase
The average headway between successive change point (the end of running intervals) and
opposed (minor) stream vehicles entering a gap the beginning of the green display for the next
available in the opposing (major) traffic stream. phase (end of phase). Normally, it comprises
Yellow Time and All-Red Time.
Free-Flow Speed
The uninterrupted traffic speed when density is Intra-Bunch Headway
approximately zero, i.e. when only few vehicles Average headway between vehicles in a moving
are present in the traffic stream. queue (minimum headway in a traffic stream).
This is used in order to define moving queues
(bunches) of vehicles for the purpose of
modelling headway distribution of vehicles.
Lane Group
A set of lanes with one or two shared lanes (e.g.
Lane 1: Left Turn and Through, Lane 2: Through)
Full Control or a set of exclusive turn lanes (e.g. a single
Control of a turning movement using three-aspect Right-Turn lane).
(red, yellow, green) turn arrows on a six-aspect
signal face, where the green arrow indicates that Lane Utilisation
the vehicle can turn unopposed (with no opposing The distribution of vehicles among lanes when
vehicle or pedestrian traffic) and the red arrow two or more lanes are available for a movement.
indicates that the vehicle is not permitted to turn
(filter turns not permitted). Lane Utilisation Ratio

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Ratio of the lane degree of saturation to the A signalised pedestrian movement that runs at
highest (critical) lane degree of saturation in a the same time as the parallel vehicle movement
Lane Group. (s) that are controlled by circular green displays.

Level of Service Peak Flow Factor (PFF)

An index of the operational performance of traffic Ratio of the average demand flow rate in the
on a given traffic lane, roadway or intersection, Total Flow Period (e.g. one hour) to the demand
based on service measures such as delay, degree flow rate in the Peak Flow Period (e.g. 15
of saturation, density and speed during a given minutes). This is equivalent to the more
flow period. traditional term Peak Hour Factor (PHF) when the
Total Flow Period is one hour.
Major Stop
A drive cycle element that involves a deceleration Peak Period
from the approach cruise speed to zero speed The period that has the highest demand volume
and an acceleration from zero speed to the exit of traffic during the day (peak hour, peak half
cruise speed. hour, etc).

Occupancy Time Pedestrian Clearance Period

The time that starts when the front of a vehicle The Flashing Don't Walk period that immediately
enters the detection zone and finishes when the follows the termination of pedestrian Walk display
back of the vehicle exits the detection zone, i.e. to enable pedestrians, who have just stepped off
the duration of the period when the detection the kerb at the commencement of this period, to
zone is occupied by a vehicle. complete their crossing to the nearest kerb or
refuge.
Off-Peak Period
The periods that have low demand volumes of Pedestrian Crossing
traffic during the day (24-hour period). A transverse strip of roadway marked for the use
of pedestrians crossing the road (midblock or at
Offset intersections) at a place with a pedestrian
The difference between the start or end times of crossing sign, and with or without alternating
green periods at adjacent (upstream and flashing twin yellow lights. Also called Zebra
downstream) signals. Crossing where indicated by parallel white stripes
on the road surface.
Opposed Movement
A movement (Filter Turn, Permitted Turn, Minor Pedestrian Minimum Green Time
Movement) that gives way to one or more Minimum time required for both Walk and
opposing traffic streams at a signalised or Flashing Don't Walk displays, but excluding any
unsignalised intersection. overlaps with terminating intergreen displays.

Opposing Movement Performance Index

A movement that conflicts with, and has priority A measure that combines several performance
over, another (opposed) movement. statistics such as delay, number of stops and
Overflow queue length.
An interrupted traffic condition when a number of
queued vehicles are not able to depart due to
insufficient capacity during a traffic signal or gap-
acceptance cycle (also known as cycle failure).

Phase
Overflow Queue That part of a signal cycle during which one or
Average number of vehicles per cycle left over at more movements receive right of way subject to
the end of green periods at signals or at the end resolution of any vehicle or pedestrian conflicts
of acceptable gap (unblock) periods during gap- by priority rules. A phase is identified by at least
acceptance process. one movement gaining right of way at the start of
it and at least one movement losing right of way
Overlap Movement at the end of it.
A movement that runs in consecutive phases
without stopping during the associated intergreen Phase Sequence
period(s). The order of phases in a signal cycle.

Parallel Pedestrian Movement Phase Split

Duration of each phase (Green Time and
Intergreen Time) within a signal cycle. It is

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normally expressed as a percentage of cycle Queue Storage Ratio
length. The ratio of the queue length to the available
queue storage distance.
Platoon
A group of vehicles or pedestrians travelling Red Time
together because of signal control, geometric Duration of the red signal display for a phase or a
conditions or other factors. movement.

Platoon Ratio Saturation Flow Rate

Ratio of the average arrival flow rate during the The maximum departure (queue discharge) flow
green period to the average arrival flow rate rate achieved by vehicles departing from the
during the signal cycle. queue during the green period at traffic signals.
See SCATS Maximum Flow.
Practical Degree of Saturation
A target, or maximum, degree of saturation that SCATS Maximum Flow (MF)
corresponds to an acceptable level of traffic A maximum departure flow rate during a fully
performance. saturated green period averaged over the green
and intergreen times as a special measure of
Practical Spare Capacity saturation flow rate. See Saturation Flow Rate.
The amount of increase possible in the demand
flow rate to obtain a degree of saturation equal to Scramble-Crossing Phase
the practical (target) degree of saturation. An Exclusive Pedestrian Phase at an intersection
where pedestrians are allowed to cross in any
Progression direction including diagonally within the limits of
Progression is a time-relationship, between the crosswalk lines.
adjacent traffic signals, which allows vehicle Shared Lane
platoons to be given a green signal as they pass A lane allocated for use by two or more
through the sequence of intersections. movements, e.g. shared through and right-turn
lane, as opposed to an Exclusive Lane.
Progression Factor Method
A simple technique to determine signal Short Lane
coordination effect on delay, queue length, stop A lane of limited length, e.g. a turn bay or part of
rate, etc. where detailed platoon patterns a lane available downstream of parked vehicles.
generated at upstream signals are not available.
Signalised Crossing
Proportion Queued An area of the road used by pedestrians when
Proportion of traffic that is queued due to the crossing the road with the guidance of pedestrian
effects of traffic control and the existence of signals at a midblock or intersection location, and
other vehicles. This is related to the Major Stops can be used by cyclists if bicycle signals are
or Slow Downs from the approach cruise speed. provided.

Signal Phasing
Sequential arrangement of separately controlled
groups of vehicle and pedestrian movements
within a signal cycle to allow all vehicle and
Queue pedestrian movements to proceed.
A line of vehicles or pedestrians waiting to
proceed through an intersection. Slowly moving Slip Lane
vehicles or pedestrians joining the back of the A turning movement lane separated from an
queue are usually considered part of the queue. adjacent lane by a triangular island.
The internal queue dynamics can involve starts
and stops. A faster-moving line of vehicles is Slow Down
often referred to as a moving queue or a platoon. A drive cycle element that involves a deceleration
See Back of Queue and Cycle-Average Queue. from the approach cruise speed to a non-zero
intermediate speed and an acceleration from the
Queuing Delay intermediate speed to the exit cruise speed.
Part of the Stop-Line Delay that includes the
Stopped Delay (while vehicle is idling at near-zero Space Length (Gap Distance)
speed) and the Queue Move-up delay (while a The following distance between two successive
queued vehicle accelerates towards the stop-line vehicles as measured between the rear end of
but stops again, e.g. because the signal display one vehicle and the front end of the next vehicle
changes to red). in the same traffic lane (spacing less vehicle
length).

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Space Time Stop Rate

The time between the detection of two Average number of all acceleration-deceleration
consecutive vehicles when the presence manoeuvres including the queue move-ups,
detection zone is not occupied. partial stops and geometric stops, expressed in
terms of equivalent Major Stops.
Spacing
The distance between the front ends of two T-Intersection
successive vehicles in the same traffic lane. An intersection where two roads meet (whether
or not at right angles) and one of the roads ends.
Speed
Distance travelled per unit time. In a time- Traffic-Actuated Control
distance diagram, the slope of the time-distance A control method that allows a variable sequence
trace of a vehicle is its speed. Approach Speed is and variable duration of signal displays
the uninterrupted (midblock) cruise speed of depending on vehicle and pedestrian traffic
vehicles before being affected by traffic signals. demands.
This can be represented by the speed limit.
Negotiation Speed is the safe speed of a vehicle Traffic Volume
moving through the controlled area of the The number of vehicles or pedestrians passing a
intersection. For turning vehicles, this can be given point on a lane or roadway during a
determined as a function of the negotiation specified period of time.
radius. Running Speed is the average speed
including the effect of delays due to interrupted Total Delay
conditions but not including any stopped (idling) Sum of delay experienced by all vehicles or
times. Travel Speed is the average speed pedestrians (vehicle- hours per hour or
including the effect of all delays. pedestrian-hours per hour). Obtained as the
product of average delay per vehicle or
Staged Signalised Crossing pedestrian and the flow rate.
A system by which a long signalised crossing is
divided or “staged” into several time-separated Traffic Delay
sections, each being a separate group controlled Delay that results when the interactions between
by individual signals. vehicles cause drivers to reduce speed below the
free-flow speed.

Total Travel Distance

Sum of distance travelled by all vehicles (vehicle-
kilometres per hour or vehicle-miles per hour).
Start Loss Obtained as the product of travel distance per
Duration of the interval between the start of the vehicle and the flow rate.
displayed green period and the start of the
effective green period for a movement. This is Uninterrupted Flow
used in signal timing and performance analysis to A condition in which vehicles travelling in a traffic
allow for queue discharge time losses at the start stream do not have to stop or slow down for
of green period due to vehicles accelerating to reasons other than those caused by the presence
saturation speed, or due to giving way to of other vehicles in that stream.
opposing vehicle or pedestrian movements.
Unopposed Turn
Stop-Line Delay A left-turn or right-turn movement at a signalised
Delay determined by projecting vehicle time- intersection that is made with no opposing or
distance trajectories from the approach and exit conflicting vehicular or pedestrian flow allowed.
negotiation speeds to the stop line (or give-way/
yield line), which includes the Queuing Delay and Upstream
the deceleration and acceleration delay In the direction opposite to the movement of
associated with the negotiation speeds. traffic.

Stopline Flow Rate Walk Time

Departure flow rate measured at the stop line (or Duration of the Walk display (steady green
give-way / yield line), which is the same as the person) for pedestrians.
demand (arrival) flow rate for undersaturated
cases, and is limited to the capacity rate for Yellow Time
oversaturated cases. See Demand Flow.

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Duration of the yellow display for a phase or a
movement.

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Abutment - In coal mining, (1) the weight of the Anticline - An upward fold or arch of rock strata.
rocks above a narrow roadway is transferred to
the solid coal along the sides, which act as Aquifer - A water-bearing bed of porous rock,
abutments of the arch of strata spanning the often sandstone.
roadway; and (2) the weight of the rocks over a
longwall face is transferred to the front abutment, Arching - Fracture processes around a mine
that is, the solid coal ahead of the face and the opening, leading to stabilization by an arching
back abutment, that is, the settled packs behind effect.
the face.
Area (of an airway) - Average width multiplied by
Acid deposition or acid rain – Refers loosely to a average height of airway, expressed in square
mixture of wet and dry "deposition" (deposited feet.
material) from the atmosphere containing higher
than "normal" amount of nitric and sulfuric acids. Auger - A rotary drill that uses a screw device to
The precursors or chemical forerunners of acid penetrate, break, and then transport the drilled
rain formation result from both natural sources, material (coal).
such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and
man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur Auxiliary operations - All activities supportive of
and nitrogen oxides resulting from fossil fuel but not contributing directly to mining.
combustion.
Auxiliary ventilation - Portion of main ventilating
Acid mine water - Mine water that contains free current directed to face of dead-end entry by
sulfuric acid, mainly due to the weathering of iron means of an auxiliary fan and tubing.
pyrites.
Azimuth - A surveying term that references the
Active workings - Any place in a mine where angle measured clockwise from any meridian (the
miners are normally required to work or travel established line of reference). The bearing is used
and which are ventilated and inspected regularly. to designate direction. The bearing of a line is the
acute horizontal angle between the meridian and
Adit - A nearly horizontal passage from the the line.
surface by which a mine is entered and
dewatered. A blind horizontal opening into a Back - The roof or upper part in any underground
mountain, with only one entrance. mining cavity.

Advance - Mining in the same direction, or order Backfill – Mine waste or rock used to support the
of sequence; first mining as distinguished from roof after coal removal.
retreat.
Barren - Said of rock or vein material containing
Air split - The division of a current of air into two no minerals of value, and of strata without coal,
or more parts. or containing coal in seams too thin to be
workable.
Airway - Any passage through which air is carried.
Also known as an air course. Barricading - Enclosing part of a mine to prevent
inflow of noxious gasses from a mine fire or an
Anemometer - Instrument for measuring air explosion.
velocity.
Barrier - Something that bars or keeps out.
Angle of dip - The angle at which strata or Barrier pillars are solid blocks of coal left between
mineral deposits are inclined to the horizontal two mines or sections of a mine to prevent
plane. accidents due to inrushes of water, gas, or from
explosions or a mine fire.
Angle of draw - In coal mine subsidence, this
angle is assumed to bisect the angle between the Beam - A bar or straight girder used to support a
vertical and the angle of repose of the material span of roof between two support props or walls.
and is 20° for flat seams. For dipping seams, the
angle of break increases, being 35.8° from the Beam building - The creation of a strong,
vertical for a 40° dip. The main break occurs over inflexible beam by bolting or otherwise fastening
the seam at an angle from the vertical equal to together several weaker layers. In coal mining
half the dip. this is the intended basis for roof bolting.

Angle of repose - The maximum angle from

horizontal at which a given material will rest on a
given surface without sliding or rolling.

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Bearing – A surveying term used to designate
direction. The bearing of a line is the acute Blasting cap - A detonator containing a charge of
horizontal angle between the meridian and the detonating compound, which is ignited by electric
line. The meridian is an established line of current or the spark of a fuse. Used for
reference. Azimuths are angles measured detonating explosives.
clockwise from any meridian.
Blasting circuit - Electric circuits used to fire
Bearing plate - A plate used to distribute a given electric detonators or to ignite an igniter cord by
load. In roof bolting, the plate used between the means of an electric starter.
bolt head and the roof.
Bleeder or bleeder entries - Special air courses
Bed - A stratum of coal or other sedimentary developed and maintained as part of the mine
deposit. ventilation system and designed to continuously
move air-methane mixtures emitted by the gob or
Belt conveyor - A looped belt on which coal or at the active face away from the active workings
other materials can be carried and which is and into mine-return air courses. Alt: Exhaust
generally constructed of flame-resistant material ventilation lateral.
or of reinforced rubber or rubber-like substance.
Bolt torque - The turning force in foot-pounds
Belt idler - A roller, usually of cylindrical shape, applied to a roof bolt to achieve an installed
which is supported on a frame and which, in turn, tension.
supports or guides a conveyor belt. Idlers are not
powered but turn by contact with the moving Borehole - Any deep or long drill-hole, usually
belt. associated with a diamond drill.

Belt take-up - A belt pulley, generally under a Bottom - Floor or underlying surface of an
conveyor belt and inby the drive pulley, kept underground excavation.
under strong tension parallel to the belt line. Its
purpose is to automatically compensate for any Boss - Any member of the managerial ranks who
slack in the belting created by start-up, etc. is directly in charge of miners (e.g., "shift-boss,"
"face-boss," "fire-boss," etc.).
Bench - One of to or more divisions of a coal
seam separated by slate or formed by the Box-type magazine - A small, portable magazine
process of cutting the coal. used to store limited quantities of explosives or
detonators for short periods of time at locations
Beneficiation - The treatment of mined material, in the mine which are convenient to the blasting
making it more concentrated or richer. sites at which they will be used.

Berm - A pile or mound of material capable of Brattice or brattice cloth - Fire-resistant fabric or
restraining a vehicle. plastic partition used in a mine passage to
confine the air and force it into the working place.
Binder - A streak of impurity in a coal seam. Also termed "line brattice," "line canvas," or "line
curtain."
Bit - The hardened and strengthened device at
the end of a drill rod that transmits the energy of Break line - The line that roughly follows the rear
breakage to the rock. The size of the bit edges of coal pillars that are being mined. The
determines the size of the hole. A bit may be line along which the roof of a coal mine is
either detachable from or integral with its expected to break.
supporting drill rod.
Breakthrough - A passage for ventilation that is
Bituminous coal – A middle rank coal (between cut through the pillars between rooms.
subbituminous and anthracite) formed by
additional pressure and heat on lignite. Usually Bridge carrier - A rubber-tire-mounted mobile
has a high Btu value and may be referred to as conveyor, about 10 meters long, used as an
"soft coal." intermediate unit to create a system of
articulated conveyors between a mining machine
Black damp - A term generally applied to carbon and a room or entry conveyor.
dioxide. Strictly speaking, it is a mixture of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. It is also applied to an
atmosphere depleted of oxygen, rather than Bridge conveyor - A short conveyor hung from the
having an excess of carbon dioxide. boom of mining or lading machine or haulage
system with the other end attached to a receiving
Blasting agent - Any material consisting of a bin that dollies along a frame supported by the
mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer. room or entry conveyor, tailpiece. Thus, as the

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machine boom moves, the bridge conveyor keeps Carbide bit - More correctly, cemented tungsten
it in constant connection with the tailpiece. carbide. A cutting or drilling bit for rock or coal,
made by fusing an insert of molded tungsten
Brow - A low place in the roof of a mine, giving carbide to the cutting edge of a steel bit shank.
insufficient headroom.
Cast - A directed throw; in strip-mining, the
Brushing - Digging up the bottom or taking down overburden is cast from the coal to the previously
the top to give more headroom in roadways. mined area.

Btu – British thermal unit. A measure of the Certified - Describes a person who has passed an
energy required to raise the temperature of one examination to do a required job.
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Chain conveyor - A conveyor on which the
Bug dust - The fine particles of coal or other material is moved along solid pans (troughs) by
material resulting form the boring or cutting of the action of scraper crossbars attached to
the coal face by drill or machine. powered chains.

Bump (or burst) - A violent dislocation of the mine Chain pillar - The pillar of coal left to protect the
workings which is attributed to severe stresses in gangway or entry and the parallel airways.
the rock surrounding the workings.
Check curtain - Sheet of brattice cloth hung
Butt cleat - A short, poorly defined vertical across an airway to control the passage of the air
cleavage plane in a coal seam, usually at right current.
angles to the long face cleat.
Chock - Large hydraulic jacks used to support roof
Butt entry - A coal mining term that has different in longwall and shortwall mining systems.
meanings in different locations. It can be
synonymous with panel entry, submain entry, or Clay vein - A body of clay-like material that fills a
in its older sense it refers to an entry that is void in a coal bed.
"butt" onto the coal cleavage (that is, at right
angles to the face). Cleat - The vertical cleavage of coal seams. The
main set of joints along which coal breaks when
Cage - In a mine shaft, the device, similar to an mined.
elevator car, that is used for hoisting personnel
and materials. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 – A
comprehensive set of amendments to the federal
Calorific value - The quantity of heat that can be law governing the nation's air quality. The Clean
liberated from one pound of coal or oil measured Air Act was originally passed in 1970 to address
in BTU's. significant air pollution problems in our cities. The
1990 amendments broadened and strengthened
Cannel coal - A massive, non-caking block coal the original law to address specific problems such
with a fine, even grain and a conchoidal fracture as acid deposition, urban smog, hazardous air
which has a high percentage of hydrogen, burns pollutants and stratospheric ozone depletion.
with a long, yellow flame, and is extremely easy
to ignite. Clean Coal Technologies – A number of
innovative, new technologies designed to use
Canopy - A protective covering of a cab on a coal in a more efficient and cost-effective manner
mining machine. while enhancing environmental protection.
Several promising technologies include: fluidized-
Cap - A miner's safety helmet. Also, a highly bed combustion, integrated gasification
sensitive, encapsulated explosive that is used to combined cycle, limestone injection multi-stage
detonate larger but less sensitive explosives. burner, enhanced flue gas desulfurization (or
"scrubbing"), coal liquefaction and coal
Cap block - A flat piece of wood inserted between gasification.
the top of the prop and the roof to provide
bearing support.
Car - A railway wagon, especially any of the Coal - A solid, brittle, more or less distinctly
wagons adapted to carrying coal, ore, and waste stratified combustible carbonaceous rock, formed
underground. by partial to complete decomposition of
vegetation; varies in color from dark brown to
Car-dump - The mechanism for unloading a black; not fusible without decomposition and very
loaded car. insoluble.

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Coal dust - Particles of coal that can pass a No. 20 which must stop the extraction process in order
sieve. for loading to commence.

Coal Gasification – The conversion of coal into a Contour - An imaginary line that connects all
gaseous fuel. points on a surface having the same elevation.

Coal mine - An area of land and all structures, Conventional mining – The first fully-mechanized
facilities, machinery, tools, equipment, shafts, underground mining method involving the
slopes, tunnels, excavations, and other property, insertion of explosives in a coal seam, the
real or personal, placed upon, under, or above blasting of the seam, and the removal of the coal
the surface of such land by any person, used in onto a conveyor or shuttle car by a loading
extracting coal from its natural deposits in the machine.
earth by any means or method, and the work of
preparing the coal so extracted, including coal Conveyor - An apparatus for moving material
preparation facilities. British term is "colliery". from one point to another in a continuous fashion.
This is accomplished with an endless (that is,
Coal reserves - Measured tonnages of coal that looped) procession of hooks, buckets, wide rubber
have been calculated to occur in a coal seam belt, etc.
within a particular property.
Core sample – A cylinder sample generally 1-5" in
Coal washing – The process of separating diameter drilled out of an area to determine the
undesirable materials from coal based on geologic and chemical analysis of the overburden
differences in densities. Pyritic sulfur, or sulfur and coal.
combined with iron, is heavier and sinks in water;
coal is lighter and floats. Cover - The overburden of any deposit.

Coke – A hard, dry carbon substance produced by Creep - The forcing of pillars into soft bottom by
heating coal to a very high temperature in the the weight of a strong roof. In surface mining, a
absence of air. very slow movement of slopes downhill.

Collar - The term applied to the timbering or Crib - A roof support of prop timbers or ties, laid
concrete around the mouth or top of a shaft. The in alternate cross-layers, log-cabin style. It may or
beginning point of a shaft or drill hole at the may not be filled with debris. Also may be called
surface. a chock or cog.

Colliery - British name for coal mine. Cribbing - The construction of cribs or timbers laid
at right angles to each other, sometimes filled
Column flotation – A precombustion coal cleaning with earth, as a roof support or as a support for
technology in which coal particles attach to air machinery.
bubbles rising in a vertical column. The coal is
then removed at the top of the column. Crop coal - Coal at the outcrop of the seam. It is
usually considered of inferior quality due to
Comminution - The breaking, crushing, or partial oxidation, although this is not always the
grinding of coal, ore, or rock. case.

Competent rock - Rock which, because of its Crossbar - The horizontal member of a roof
physical and geological characteristics, is capable timber set supported by props located either on
of sustaining openings without any structural roadways or at the face.
support except pillars and walls left during mining
(stalls, light props, and roof bolts are not
considered structural support).

Crosscut - A passageway driven between the

Contact - The place or surface where two different entry and its parallel air course or air courses for
kinds of rocks meet. Applies to sedimentary ventilation purposes. Also, a tunnel driven from
rocks, as the contact between a limestone and a one seam to another through or across the
sandstone, for example, and to metamorphic intervening measures; sometimes called
rocks; and it is especially applicable between "crosscut tunnel", or "breakthrough". In vein
igneous intrusions and their walls. mining, an entry perpendicular to the vein.

Continuous miner - A machine that constantly Cross entry - An entry running at an angle with
extracts coal while it loads it. This is to be the main entry.
distinguished from a conventional, or cyclic, unit

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Crusher - A machine for crushing rock or other Dip - The inclination of a geologic structure (bed,
materials. Among the various types of crushers vein, fault, etc.) from the horizontal; dip is always
are the ball mill, gyratory crusher, Handsel mill, measured downwards at right angles to the
hammer mill, jaw crusher, rod mill, rolls, stamp strike.
mill, and tube mill.
Dragline – A large excavation machine used in
Cutter; Cutting machine - A machine, usually surface mining to remove overburden (layers of
used in coal, that will cut a 10- to 15-cm slot. The rock and soil) covering a coal seam. The dragline
slot allows room for expansion of the broken coal. casts a wire rope-hung bucket a considerable
Also applies to the man who operates the distance, collects the dug material by pulling the
machine and to workers engaged in the cutting of bucket toward itself on the ground with a second
coal by prick or drill. wire rope (or chain), elevates the bucket, and
dumps the material on a spoil bank, in a hopper,
Cycle mining - A system of mining in more than or on a pile.
one working place at a time, that is, a miner
takes a lift from the face and moves to another Drainage - The process of removing surplus
face while permanent roof support is established ground or surface water either by artificial means
in the previous working face. or by gravity flow.

Demonstrated reserves – A collective term for the Draw slate - A soft slate, shale, or rock from
sum of coal in both measured and indicated approximately 1 cm to 10 cm thick and located
resources and reserves. immediately above certain coal seams, which
falls quite easily when the coal support is
Deposit - Mineral deposit or ore deposit is used to withdrawn.
designate a natural occurrence of a useful
mineral, or an ore, in sufficient extent and degree Drift - A horizontal passage underground. A drift
of concentration to invite exploitation. follows the vein, as distinguished from a crosscut
that intersects it, or a level or gallery, which may
Depth - The word alone generally denotes vertical do either.
depth below the surface. In the case of incline
shafts and boreholes it may mean the distance Drift mine – An underground coal mine in which
reached from the beginning of the shaft or hole, the entry or access is above water level and
the borehole depth, or the inclined depth. generally on the slope of a hill, driven horizontally
into a coal seam.
Detectors - Specialized chemical or electronic
instruments used to detect mine gases. Drill - A machine utilizing rotation, percussion
(hammering), or a combination of both to make
Detonator - A device containing a small holes. If the hole is much over 0.4m in diameter,
detonating charge that is used for detonating an the machine is called a borer.
explosive, including, but not limited to, blasting
caps, exploders, electric detonators, and delay Drilling - The use of such a machine to create
electric blasting caps. holes for exploration or for loading with
explosives.
Development mining - Work undertaken to open
up coal reserves as distinguished from the work Dummy - A bag filled with sand, clay, etc., used
of actual coal extraction. for stemming a charged hole.

Dump - To unload; specifically, a load of coal or

Diffusion - Blending of a gas and air, resulting in a waste; the mechanism for unloading, e.g. a car
homogeneous mixture. Blending of two or more dump (sometimes called tipple); or, the pile
gases. created by such unloading, e.g. a waste dump
(also called heap, pile, tip, spoil pike, etc.).
Diffuser fan - A fan mounted on a continuous
miner to assist and direct air delivery from the Electrical grounding - To connect with the ground
machine to the face. to make the earth part of the circuit.

Dilute - To lower the concentration of a mixture; Entry - An underground horizontal or near-

in this case the concentration of any hazardous horizontal passage used for haulage, ventilation,
gas in mine air by addition of fresh intake air. or as a mainway; a coal heading; a working place
where the coal is extracted from the seam in the
Dilution - The contamination of ore with barren initial mining; same as "gate" and "roadway,"
wall rock in stopping. both British terms.

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Evaluation - The work involved in gaining a Fill - Any material that is put back in place of the
knowledge of the size, shape, position and value extracted ore to provide ground support.
of coal.
Fire damp - The combustible gas, methane, CH4.
Exploration - The search for mineral deposits and Also, the explosive methane-air mixtures with
the work done to prove or establish the extent of between 5% and 15% methane. A combustible
a mineral deposit. Alt: Prospecting and gas formed in mines by decomposition of coal or
subsequent evaluation. other carbonaceous matter, and that consists
chiefly of methane.
Explosive - Any rapidly combustive or expanding
substance. The energy released during this rapid Fissure - An extensive crack, break, or fracture in
combustion or expansion can be used to break the rocks.
rock.
Fixed carbon – The part of the carbon that
Extraction - The process of mining and removal of remains behind when coal is heated in a closed
coal or ore from a mine. vessel until all of the volatile matter is driven off.

Face – The exposed area of a coal bed from which Flat-lying - Said of deposits and coal seams with a
coal is being extracted. dip up to 5 degrees.

Face cleat - The principal cleavage plane or joint Flight - The metal strap or crossbar attached to
at right angles to the stratification of the coal the drag chain-and-flight conveyor.
seam.
Float dust - Fine coal-dust particles carried in
Face conveyor - Any conveyor used parallel to a suspension by air currents and eventually
working face which delivers coal into another deposited in return entries. Dust consisting of
conveyor or into a car. particles of coal that can pass through a No. 200
sieve.
Factor of safety - The ratio of the ultimate
breaking strength of the material to the force Floor - That part of any underground working
exerted against it. If a rope will break under a upon which a person walks or upon which
load of 6000 lbs., and it is carrying a load of 2000 haulage equipment travels; simply the bottom or
lbs., its factor of safety is 6000 divided by 2000 underlying surface of an underground excavation.
which equals 3.
Flue Gas Desulfurization – Any of several forms of
Fall - A mass of roof rock or coal which has fallen chemical/physical processes that remove sulfur
in any part of a mine. compounds formed during coal combustion. The
devices, commonly called "scrubbers," combine
Fan, auxiliary - A small, portable fan used to the sulfur in gaseous emissions with another
supplement the ventilation of an individual chemical medium to form inert "sludge" which
working place. must then be removed for disposal.

Fan, booster - A large fan installed in the main air

current, and thus in tandem with the main fan.
Fluidized Bed Combustion – A process with a high
degree of ability to remove sulfur from coal
Fan signal - Automation device designed to give during combustion. Crushed coal and limestone
alarm if the main fan slows down or stops. are suspended in the bottom of a boiler by an
upward stream of hot air. The coal is burned in
Fault - A slip-surface between two portions of the this bubbling, liquid-like (or "fluidized") mixture.
earth's surface that have moved relative to each Rather than released as emissions, sulfur from
other. A fault is a failure surface and is evidence combustion gases combines with the limestone to
of severe earth stresses. form a solid compound recovered with the ash.

Fault zone - A fault, instead of being a single Fly ash – The finely divided particles of ash
clean fracture, may be a zone hundreds or suspended in gases resulting from the
thousands of feet wide. The fault zone consists of combustion of fuel. Electrostatic precipitators are
numerous interlacing small faults or a confused used to remove fly ash from the gases prior to
zone of gouge, breccia, or mylonite. the release from a power plant's smokestack.

Feeder - A machine that feeds coal onto a Formation – Any assemblage of rocks which have
conveyor belt evenly. some character in common, whether of origin,
age, or composition. Often, the word is loosely

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used to indicate anything that has been formed Grizzly - Course screening or scalping device that
or brought into its present shape. prevents oversized bulk material form entering a
material transfer system; constructed of rails,
Fossil fuel – Any naturally occurring fuel of an bars, beams, etc.
organic nature, such as coal, crude oil and natural
gas. Ground control - The regulation and final arresting
of the closure of the walls of a mined area. The
Fracture - A general term to include any kind of term generally refers to measures taken to
discontinuity in a body of rock if produced by prevent roof falls or coal bursts.
mechanical failure, whether by shear stress or
tensile stress. Fractures include faults, shears, Ground pressure - The pressure to which a rock
joints, and planes of fracture cleavage. formation is subjected by the weight of the
superimposed rock and rock material or by
Friable - Easy to break, or crumbling naturally. diastrophic forces created by movements in the
Descriptive of certain rocks and minerals. rocks forming the earth's crust. Such pressures
may be great enough to cause rocks having a low
Fuse - A cord-like substance used in the ignition compressional strength to deform and be
of explosives. Black powder is entrained in the squeezed into and close a borehole or other
cord and, when lit, burns along the cord at a set underground opening not adequately
rate. A fuse can be safely used to ignite a cap, strengthened by an artificial support, such as
which is the primer for an explosive. casing or timber.

Gallery - A horizontal or a nearly horizontal Gunite - A cement applied by spraying to the roof
underground passage, either natural or artificial. and sides of a mine passage.

Gasification – Any of various processes by which Haulage - The horizontal transport of ore, coal,
coal is turned into low, medium, or high Btu supplies, and waste. The vertical transport of the
gases. same is called hoisting.

Gathering conveyor; gathering belt - Any Haulageway - Any underground entry or

conveyor which is used to gather coal from other passageway that is designed for transport of
conveyors and deliver it either into mine cars or mined material, personnel, or equipment, usually
onto another conveyor. The term is frequently by the installation of track or belt conveyor.
used with belt conveyors placed in entries where
a number of room conveyors deliver coal onto the Headframe - The structure surmounting the shaft
belt. which supports the hoist rope pulley, and often
the hoist itself.
Geologist - One who studies the constitution,
structure, and history of the earth's crust,
conducting research into the formation and
dissolution of rock layers, analyzing fossil and Heading - A vein above a drift. An interior level or
mineral content of layers, and endeavoring to fix airway driven in a mine. In longwall workings, a
historical sequence of development by relating narrow passage driven upward from a gangway in
characteristics to known geological influences starting a working in order to give a loose end.
(historical geology).
Head section - A term used in both belt and chain
Gob - The term applied to that part of the mine conveyor work to designate that portion of the
from which the coal has been removed and the conveyor used for discharging material.
space more or less filled up with waste. Also, the
loose waste in a mine. Also called goaf. Heaving - Applied to the rising of the bottom after
removal of the coal; a sharp rise in the floor is
Global climate change – This term usually refers called a "hogsback".
to the gradual warming of the earth caused by
the greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe Highwall – The unexcavated face of exposed
this is the result of man-made emissions of overburden and coal in a surface mine or in a
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, face or bank on the uphill side of a contour mine
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and methane, although excavation.
there is no agreement among the scientific
community on this controversial issue. Highwall miner – A highwall mining system
consists of a remotely controlled continuous
Grain - In petrology, that factor of the texture of a miner which extracts coal and conveys it via
rock composed of distinct particles or crystals augers, belt or chain conveyors to the outside.
which depends upon their absolute size. The cut is typically a rectangular, horizontal cut

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from a highwall bench, reaching depths of several which estimates of the quality and size are based
hundred feet or deeper. on geologic evidence and projection. Quantitative
estimates are based largely on broad knowledge
Hogsback - A sharp rise in the floor of a seam. of the geologic character of the deposit and for
which there are few, if any, samples or
Hoist - A drum on which hoisting rope is wound in measurements. The estimates are based on an
the engine house, as the cage or skip is raised in assumed continuity or repletion of which there is
the hoisting shaft. geologic evidence; this evidence may include
comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies
Hoisting - The vertical transport coal or material. that are completely concealed may be included if
there is specific geologic evidence of their
Horizon - In geology, any given definite position presence. The points of observation are 1 ½ to 6
or interval in the stratigraphic column or the miles apart.
scheme of stratigraphic classification; generally
used in a relative sense. In situ - In the natural or original position. Applied
to a rock, soil, or fossil when occurring in the
Horseback - A mass of material with a slippery situation in which it was originally formed or
surface in the roof; shaped like a horse's back. deposited.

Hydraulic - Of or pertaining to fluids in motion. Intake - The passage through which fresh air is
Hydraulic cement has a composition which drawn or forced into a mine or to a section of a
permits it to set quickly under water. Hydraulic mine.
jacks lift through the force transmitted to the
movable part of the jack by a liquid. Hydraulic Intermediate section - A term used in belt and
control refers to the mechanical control of various chain conveyor network to designate a section of
parts of machines, such as coal cutters, loaders, the conveyor frame occupying a position between
etc., through the operation or action of hydraulic the head and foot sections.
cylinders.
Immediate roof - The roof strata immediately
Hydrocarbon – A family of chemical compounds above the coalbed, requiring support during the
containing carbon and hydrogen atoms in various excavation of coal.
combinations, found especially in fossil fuels.

Inby - In the direction of the working face.

Isopach - A line, on a map, drawn through points
of equal thickness of a designated unit. Synonym
for isopachous line; isopachyte.
Incline - Any entry to a mine that is not vertical
(shaft) or horizontal (adit). Often incline is Jackleg - A percussion drill used for drifting or
reserved for those entries that are too steep for a stopping that is mounted on a telescopic leg
belt conveyor (+17 degrees -18 degrees), in which has an extension of about 2.5 m. The leg
which case a hoist and guide rails are employed. and machine are hinged so that the drill need not
A belt conveyor incline is termed a slope. Alt: be in the same direction as the leg.
Secondary inclined opening, driven upward to
connect levels, sometimes on the dip of a Jackrock – A caltrop or other object manufactured
deposit; also called "inclined shaft". with one or more rounded or sharpened points,
which when placed or thrown present at least one
Incompetent - Applied to strata, a formation, a point at such an angle that it is peculiar to and
rock, or a rock structure not combining sufficient designed for use in puncturing or damaging
firmness and flexibility to transmit a thrust and to vehicle tires. Jackrocks are commonly used during
lift a load by bending. labor disputes.

Indicated coal resources – Coal for which Job Safety Analysis (J.S.A.) - A job breakdown that
estimates of the rank, quality, and quantity have gives a safe, efficient job procedure.
been computed partly from sample analyses and
measurements and partly from reasonable Joint - A divisional plane or surface that divides a
geologic projections. The points of observation rock and along which there has been no visible
are ½ to 1 ½ miles apart. Indicated coal is movement parallel to the plane or surface.
projected to extend as an ½ mile wide belt that
lies more than ¼ mile from the outcrop or points Kettle bottom - A smooth, rounded piece of rock,
of observation or measurement. cylindrical in shape, which may drop out of the
roof of a mine without warning. The origin of this
Inferred coal resources – Coal in unexplored feature is thought to be the remains of the stump
extensions of the demonstrated resources for of a tree that has been replaced by sediments so

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that the original form has been rather well
preserved. Manhole - A safety hole constructed in the side of
a gangway, tunnel, or slope in which miner can
Kerf - The undercut of a coal face. be safe from passing locomotives and car. Also
called a refuge hole.
Lamp - The electric cap lamp worn for visibility.
Also, the flame safety lamp used in coal mines to Man trip - A carrier of mine personnel, by rail or
detect methane gas concentrations and oxygen rubber tire, to and from the work area.
deficiency.
Manway - An entry used exclusively for personnel
Layout - The design or pattern of the main to travel form the shaft bottom or drift mouth to
roadways and workings. The proper layout of the working section; it is always on the intake air
mine workings is the responsibility of the side in gassy mines. Also, a small passage at one
manager aided by the planning department. side or both sides of a breast, used as a traveling
way for the miner, and sometimes, as an airway,
Lift - The amount of coal obtained from a or chute, or both.
continuous miner in one mining cycle.
Measured coal resources – Coal for which
Liquefaction – The process of converting coal into estimates of the rank, quality, and quantity have
a synthetic fuel, similar in nature to crude oil been computed from sample analyses and
and/or refined products, such as gasoline. measurements from closely spaced and
geologically well-known sample sites, such as
Lithology - The character of a rock described in outcrops, trenches, mine workings, and drill
terms of its structure, color, mineral composition, holes. The points of observation and
grain size, and arrangement of its component measurement are so closely spaced and the
parts; all those visible features that in the thickness and extent of coals are so well defined
aggregate impart individuality of the rock. that the tonnage is judged to be accurate within
Lithology is the basis of correlation in coal mines 20 percent of true tonnage. Although the spacing
and commonly is reliable over a distance of a few of the points of observation necessary to
miles. demonstrate continuity of the coal differs from
region to region according to the character of the
coal beds, the points of observation are no
Load - To place explosives in a drill hole. Also, to greater than ½ mile apart. Measured coal is
transfer broken material into a haulage device. projected to extend as a ¼-mile wide belt from
the outcrop or points of observation or
Loading machine - Any device for transferring measurement.
excavated coal into the haulage equipment.
Meridian -– A surveying term that establishes a
Loading pocket - Transfer point at a shaft where line of reference. The bearing is used to
bulk material is loaded by bin, hopper, and chute designate direction. The bearing of a line is the
into a skip. acute horizontal angle between the meridian and
the line. Azimuths are angles measured clockwise
Longwall Mining – One of three major from any meridian.
underground coal mining methods currently in
use. Employs a steal plow, or rotation drum, Methane – A potentially explosive gas formed
which is pulled mechanically back and forth naturally from the decay of vegetative matter,
across a face of coal that is usually several similar to that which formed coal. Methane, which
hundred feet long. The loosened coal falls onto a is the principal component of natural gas, is
conveyor for removal from the mine. frequently encountered in underground coal
mining operations and is kept within safe limits
Loose coal - Coal fragments larger in size than through the use of extensive mine ventilation
coal dust. systems.

Low voltage - Up to and including 660 volts by Methane monitor - An electronic instrument often
federal standards. mounted on a piece of mining equipment, that
detects and measures the methane content of
Main entry - A main haulage road. Where the coal mine air.
has cleats, main entries are driven at right angles
to the face cleats. Mine development - The term employed to
designate the operations involved in preparing a
Main fan - A mechanical ventilator installed at the mine for ore extraction. These operations include
surface; operates by either exhausting or blowing tunneling, sinking, cross-cutting, drifting, and
to induce airflow through the mine roadways and raising.
workings.

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Mine mouth electric plant – A coal burning Overcast (undercast) - Enclosed airway which
electric-generating plant built near a coal mine. permits one air current to pass over (under)
another without interruption.
Miner - One who is engaged in the business or
occupation of extracting ore, coal, precious Panel - A coal mining block that generally
substances, or other natural materials from the comprises one operating unit.
earth's crust.
Panic bar - A switch, in the shape of a bar, used to
Mineral - An inorganic compound occurring cut off power at the machine in case of an
naturally in the earth's crust, with a distinctive emergency.
set of physical properties, and a definite chemical
composition. Parting - (1) A small joint in coal or rock; (2) a
layer of rock in a coal seam; (3) a side track or
Mining Engineer - A person qualified by turnout in a haulage road.
education, training, and experience in mining
engineering. A trained engineer with knowledge Peat – The partially decayed plant matter found in
of the science, economics, and arts of mineral swamps and bogs, one of the earliest stages of
location, extraction, concentration and sale, and coal formation.
the administrative and financial problems of
practical importance in connection with the Percentage extraction - The proportion of a coal
profitable conduct of mining. seam which is removed from the mine. The
remainder may represent coal in pillars or coal
Misfire - The complete or partial failure of a which is too thin or inferior to mine or lost in
blasting charge to explode as planned. mining. Shallow coal mines working under
townships, reservoirs, etc., may extract 50%, or
less, of the entire seam, the remainder being left
as pillars to protect the surface. Under favorable
MSHA - Mine Safety and Health Administration; conditions, longwall mining may extract from 80
the federal agency which regulates coal mine to 95% of the entire seam. With pillar methods of
health and safety. working, the extraction ranges from 50 to 90%
depending on local conditions.
Mud cap - A charge of high explosive fired in
contact with the surface of a rock after being Percussion drill - A drill, usually air powered, that
covered with a quantity of wet mud, wet earth, or delivers its energy through a pounding or
sand, without any borehole being used. Also hammering action.
termed adobe, dobie, and sandblast (illegal in
coal mining). Permissible - That which is allowable or
permitted. It is most widely applied to mine
Natural ventilation - Ventilation of a mine without equipment and explosives of all kinds which are
the aid of fans or furnaces. similar in all respects to samples that have
passed certain tests of the MSHA and can be
Nip - Device at the end of the trailing cable of a used with safety in accordance with specified
mining machine used for connecting the trailing conditions where hazards from explosive gas or
cable to the trolley wire and ground. coal dust exist.

Open end pillaring - A method of mining pillars in Permit – As it pertains to mining, a document
which no stump is left; the pockets driven are issued by a regulatory agency that gives approval
open on the gob side and the roof is supported by for mining operations to take place.
timber.
Piggy-back - A bridge conveyor.
Outby; outbye - Nearer to the shaft, and hence
farther from the working face. Toward the mine Pillar - An area of coal left to support the
entrance. The opposite of inby. overlying strata in a mine; sometimes left
permanently to support surface structures.
Outcrop – Coal that appears at or near the
surface. Pillar robbing - The systematic removal of the coal
pillars between rooms or chambers to regulate
Overburden – Layers of soil and rock covering a the subsidence of the roof. Also termed "bridging
coal seam. Overburden is removed prior to back" the pillar, "drawing" the pillar, or "pulling"
surface mining and replaced after the coal is the pillar.
taken from the seam.
Pinch - A compression of the walls of a vein or the
roof and floor of a coal seam so as to "squeeze"
out the coal.

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Ramp - A secondary or tertiary inclined opening,
Pinch – A compression of the roof and floor of a driven to connect levels, usually driven in a
coal seam so as to "squeeze" out the coal. downward direction, and used for haulage.

Pinning - Roof bolting. Ranks of coal – The classification of coal by

degree of hardness, moisture and heat content.
Pitch - The inclination of a seam; the rise of a "Anthracite" is hard coal, almost pure carbon,
seam. used mainly for heating homes. "Bituminous" is
soft coal. It is the most common coal found in the
Plan - A map showing features such as mine United States and is used to generate electricity
workings or geological structures on a horizontal and to make coke for the steel industry.
plane. "Subbituminous" is a coal with a heating value
between bituminous and lignite. It has low fixed
Pneumoconiosis - A chronic disease of the lung carbon and high percentages of volatile matter
arising from breathing coal dust. and moisture. "Lignite" is the softest coal and has
the highest moisture content. It is used for
Portal - The structure surrounding the immediate generating electricity and for conversion into
entrance to a mine; the mouth of an adit or synthetic gas. In terms of Btu or "heating"
tunnel. content, anthracite has the highest value,
followed by bituminous, subbituminous and
Portal bus - Track-mounted, self-propelled lignite.
personnel carrier that holds 8 to 12 people.
Reclamation – The restoration of land and
Post - The vertical member of a timber set. environmental values to a surface mine site after
the coal is extracted. Reclamation operations are
usually underway as soon as the coal has been
Preparation plant - A place where coal is cleaned, removed from a mine site. The process includes
sized, and prepared for market. restoring the land to its approximate original
appearance by restoring topsoil and planting
Primary roof - The main roof above the immediate native grasses and ground covers.
top. Its thickness may vary from a few to several
thousand feet. Recovery - The proportion or percentage of coal
or ore mined from the original seam or deposit.
Primer (booster) - A package or cartridge of
explosive which is designed specifically to Red dog - A nonvolatile combustion product of the
transmit detonation to other explosives and oxidation of coal or coal refuse. Most commonly
which does not contain a detonator. applied to material resulting from in situ,
uncontrolled burning of coal or coal refuse piles. It
Prop - Coal mining term for any single post used is similar to coal ash.
as roof support. Props may be timber or steel; if
steel--screwed, yieldable, or hydraulic. Regulator - Device (wall, door) used to control the
volume of air in an air split.
Proximate analysis - A physical, or non-chemical,
test of the constitution of coal. Not precise, but Reserve – That portion of the identified coal
very useful for determining the commercial value. resource that can be economically mined at the
Using the same sample (1 gram) under controlled time of determination. The reserve is derived by
heating at fixed temperatures and time periods, applying a recovery factor to that component of
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash the identified coal resource designated as the
content are successfully determined. Sulfur and reserve base.
Btu content are also generally reported with a
proximate analysis. Resin bolting - A method of permanent roof
support in which steel rods are grouted with resin.
Pyrite - A hard, heavy, shiny, yellow mineral, FeS2
or iron disulfide, generally in cubic crystals. Also Resources – Concentrations of coal in such forms
called iron pyrites, fool's gold, sulfur balls. Iron that economic extraction is currently or may
pyrite is the most common sulfide found in coal become feasible. Coal resources broken down by
mines. identified and undiscovered resources. Identified
coal resources are classified as demonstrated and
Raise - A secondary or tertiary inclined opening, inferred. Demonstrated resources are further
vertical or near-vertical opening driven upward broken down as measured and indicated.
form a level to connect with the level above, or to Undiscovered resources are broken down as
explore the ground for a limited distance above hypothetical and speculative.
one level.

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Respirable dust - Dust particles 5 microns or less Roof fall - A coal mine cave-in especially in
in size. permanent areas such as entries.

Respirable dust sample - A sample collected with Roof jack - A screw- or pump-type hydraulic
an approved coal mine dust sampler unit extension post made of steel and used as
attached to a miner, or so positioned as to temporary roof support.
measure the concentration of respirable dust to
which the miner is exposed, and operated Roof sag - The sinking, bending, or curving of the
continuously over an entire work shift of such roof, especially in the middle, from weight or
miner. pressure.

Retreat mining - A system of robbing pillars in Roof stress - Unbalanced internal forces in the
which the robbing line, or line through the faces roof or sides, created when coal is extracted.
of the pillars being extracted, retreats from the
boundary toward the shaft or mine mouth. Roof support – Posts, jacks, roof bolts and beams
used to support the rock overlying a coal seam in
Return - The air or ventilation that has passed an underground mine. A good roof support plan is
through all the working faces of a split. part of mine safety and coal extraction.

Return idler - The idler or roller underneath the

cover or cover plates on which the conveyor belt
rides after the load which it was carrying has Roof trusses - A combination of steel rods
been dumped at the head section and starts the anchored into the roof to create zones of
return trip toward the foot section. compression and tension forces and provide
better support for weak roof and roof over wide
Rib - The side of a pillar or the wall of an entry. areas.
The solid coal on the side of any underground
passage. Same as rib pillar. Room and pillar mining – A method of
underground mining in which approximately half
Rider - A thin seam of coal overlying a thicker of the coal is left in place to support the roof of
one. the active mining area. Large "pillars" are left
while "rooms" of coal are extracted.
Ripper - A coal extraction machine that works by
tearing the coal from the face. Room neck - The short passage from the entry
into a room.
Rob - To extract pillars of coal previously left for
support. Round - Planned pattern of drill holes fired in
sequence in tunneling, shaft sinking, or stopping.
Robbed out area - Describes that part of a mine First the cut holes are fired, followed by relief,
from which the pillars have been removed. lifter, and rib holes.

Roll - (1) A high place in the bottom or a low place Royalty - The payment of a certain stipulated sum
in the top of a mine passage, (2) a local on the mineral produced.
thickening of roof or floor strata, causing thinning
of a coal seam. Rubbing surface - The total area (top, bottom,
and sides) of an airway.
Roll protection - A framework, safety canopy, or
similar protection for the operator when Run-of-mine - Raw material as it exists in the
equipment overturns. mine; average grade or quality.

Roof - The stratum of rock or other material Safety fuse - A train of powder enclosed in cotton,
above a coal seam; the overhead surface of a jute yarn, or waterproofing compounds, which
coal working place. Same as "back" or "top." burns at a uniform rate; used for firing a cap
containing the detonation compound which in
Roof bolt - A long steel bolt driven into the roof of turn sets off the explosive charge.
underground excavations to support the roof,
preventing and limiting the extent of roof falls. Safety lamp - A lamp with steel wire gauze
The unit consists of the bolt (up to 4 feet long), covering every opening from the inside to the
steel plate, expansion shell, and pal nut. The use outside so as to prevent the passage of flame
of roof bolts eliminates the need for timbering by should explosive gas be encountered.
fastening together, or "laminating," several
weaker layers of roof strata to build a "beam." Sampling - Cutting a representative part of an ore
(or coal) deposit, which should truly represent its
average value.

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before leasing, accomplishes a severance as does
Sandstone - A sedimentary rock consisting of his execution of a mineral lease.
quartz sand united by some cementing material,
such as iron oxide or calcium carbonate. Shaft - A primary vertical or non-vertical opening
through mine strata used for ventilation or
Scaling - Removal of loose rock from the roof or drainage and/or for hoisting of personnel or
walls. This work is dangerous and a long bar materials; connects the surface with underground
(called a scaling bar) is often used. workings.

Scoop - A rubber tired-, battery- or diesel- Shaft mine – An underground mine in which the
powered piece of equipment designed for main entry or access is by means of a vertical
cleaning runways and hauling supplies. shaft.

Scrubber – Any of several forms of Shale - A rock formed by consolidation of clay,

chemical/physical devices that remove sulfur mud, or silt, having a laminated structure and
compounds formed during coal combustion. composed of minerals essentially unaltered since
These devices, technically known as flue gas deposition.
desulfurization systems, combine the sulfur in Shearer - A mining machine for longwall faces
gaseous emissions with another chemical that uses a rotating action to "shear" the material
medium to form inert "sludge," which must then from the face as it progresses along the face.
be removed for disposal.
Shift - The number of hours or the part of any day
Seam - A stratum or bed of coal. worked.

Secondary roof - The roof strata immediately Shortwall – An underground mining method in
above the coalbed, requiring support during the which small areas are worked (15 to 150 feet) by
excavating of coal. a continuous miner in conjunction with the use of
hydraulic roof supports.
Section - A portion of the working area of a mine.
Shuttle car – A self-discharging truck, generally
Selective mining - The object of selective mining with rubber tires or caterpillar-type treads, used
is to obtain a relatively high-grade mine product; for receiving coal from the loading or mining
this usually entails the use of a much more machine and transferring it to an underground
expensive stopping system and high exploration loading point, mine railway or belt conveyor
and development costs in searching for and system.
developing the separate bunches, stringers,
lenses, and bands of ore. Sinking - The process by which a shaft is driven.

Self-contained breathing apparatus - A self- Skid - A track-mounted vehicle used to hold trips
contained supply of oxygen used during rescue or cars from running out of control. Also, it is a
work from coal mine fires and explosions; same flat-bottom personnel or equipment carrier used
as SCSR (self-contained self-rescuer). in low coal.

Self-rescuer – A small filtering device carried by a Skip - A car being hoisted from a slope or shaft.
coal miner underground, either on his belt or in
his pocket, to provide him with immediate Slack - Small coal; the finest-sized soft coal,
protection against carbon monoxide and smoke in usually less than one inch in diameter.
case of a mine fire or explosion. It is a small
canister with a mouthpiece directly attached to it. Slag - The waste product of the process of
The wearer breathes through the mouth, the nose smelting.
being closed by a clip. The canister contains a
layer of fused calcium chloride that absorbs water Slate - A miner's term for any shale or slate
vapor from the mine air. The device is used for accompanying coal. Geologically, it is a dense,
escape purposes only because it does not sustain fine-textured, metamorphic rock, which has
life in atmospheres containing deficient oxygen. excellent parallel cleavage so that it breaks into
The length of time a self-rescuer can be used is thin plates or pencil-like shapes.
governed mainly by the humidity in the mine air,
usually between 30 minutes and one hour. Slate bar - The proper long-handled tool used to
pry down loose and hazardous material from roof,
Severance – The separation of a mineral interest face, and ribs.
from other interests in the land by grant or
reservation. A mineral dead or grant of the land Slickenside - A smooth, striated, polished surface
reserving a mineral interest, by the landowner produced on rock by friction.

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Slip - A fault. A smooth joint or crack where the Subbituminous – Coal of a rank intermediate
strata have moved on each other. between lignite and bituminous.

Slope - Primary inclined opening, connection the Subsidence – The gradual sinking, or sometimes
surface with the underground workings. abrupt collapse, of the rock and soil layers into an
underground mine. Structures and surface
Slope mine – An underground mine with an features above the subsidence area can be
opening that slopes upward or downward to the affected.
coal seam.
Sump - The bottom of a shaft, or any other place
Sloughing - The slow crumbling and falling away in a mine, that is used as a collecting point for
of material from roof, rib, and face. drainage water.

Solid - Mineral that has not been undermined,

sheared out, or otherwise prepared for blasting. Sumping - To force the cutter bar of a machine
Sounding - Knocking on a roof to see whether it is into or under the coal. Also called a sumping cut,
sound and safe to work under. or sumping in.

Spad – A spad is a flat spike hammered into a Support - The all-important function of keeping
wooden plug anchored in a hole drilled into the the mine workings open. As a verb, it refers to
mine ceiling from which is threaded a plumbline. this function; as a noun it refers to all the
The spad is an underground survey station similar equipment and materials--timber, roof bolts,
to the use of stakes in marking survey points on concrete, steel, etc.--that are used to carry out
the surface. A pointer spad, or sight spad, is a this function.
station that allows a mine foreman to visually
align entries or breaks from the main spad. Surface mine – A mine in which the coal lies near
the surface and can be extracted by removing the
Span - The horizontal distance between the side covering layers of rock and soil.
supports or solid abutments along sides of a
roadway. Suspension - Weaker strata hanging from
stronger, overlying strata by means of roof bolts.
Specific gravity - The weight of a substance
compared with the weight of an equal volume of Syncline - A fold in rock in which the strata dip
pure water at 4 degrees Celsius. inward from both sides toward the axis. The
opposite of anticline.
Split - Any division or branch of the ventilating
current. Also, the workings ventilated by one Tailgate - A subsidiary gate road to a conveyor
branch. Also, to divide a pillar by driving one or face as opposed to a main gate. The tailgate
more roads through it. commonly acts as the return airway and supplies
road to the face.
Squeeze - The settling, without breaking, of the
roof and the gradual upheaval of the floor of a Tailpiece - Also known as foot section pulley. The
mine due to the weight of the overlying strata. pulley or roller in the tail or foot section of a belt
conveyor around which the belt runs.
Steeply inclined - Said of deposits and coal seams
with a dip of from 0.7 to 1 rad (40 degrees to 60 Tail section - A term used in both belt and chain
degrees). conveyor work to designate that portion of the
conveyor at the extreme opposite end from the
Stemming - The noncombustible material used on delivery point. In either type of conveyor, it
top or in front of a charge or explosive. consists of a frame and either a sprocket or a
drum on which the chain or belt travels, plus such
Strike - The direction of the line of intersection of other devices as may be required for adjusting
a bed or vein with the horizontal plane. The strike belt or chain tension.
of a bed is the direction of a straight line that
connects two points of equal elevation on the Tension - The act of stretching.
bed.
Tertiary - Lateral or panel openings (e.g., ramp,
Stripping ratio – The unit amount of overburden crosscut).
that must be removed to gain access to a similar
unit amount of coal or mineral material. Through-steel - A system of dust collection from
rock or roof drilling. The drill steel is hollow, and a
Stump - Any small pillar. vacuum is applied at the base, pulling the dust
through the steel and into a receptacle on the
machine.

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Ultimate analysis - Precise determination, by
Timber - A collective term for underground chemical means, of the elements and compounds
wooden supports. in coal.

Timbering - The setting of timber supports in Undercut - To cut below or undermine the coal
mine workings or shafts for protection against face by chipping away the coal by pick or mining
falls from roof, face, or rib. machine. In some localities the terms
"undermine" or "underhole" are used.
Timber set - A timber frame to support the roof,
sides, and sometimes the floor of mine roadways
or shafts. Underground mine – Also known as a "deep"
Tipple - Originally the place where the mine cars mine. Usually located several hundred feet below
were tipped and emptied of their coal, and still the earth's surface, an underground mine's coal is
used in that same sense, although now more removed mechanically and transferred by shuttle
generally applied to the surface structures of a car or conveyor to the surface.
mine, including the preparation plant and loading
tracks. Underground station - An enlargement of an
entry, drift, or level at a shaft at which cages stop
Ton – A short or net ton is equal to 2,000 pounds; to receive and discharge cars, personnel, and
a long or British ton is 2,240 pounds; a metric ton material. An underground station is any location
is approximately 2,205 pounds. where stationary electrical equipment is installed.
This includes pump rooms, compressor rooms,
Top - A mine roof; same as "back." hoist rooms, battery-charging rooms, etc.

Torque wrench - A wrench that indicates, as on a Unit train – A long train of between 60 and 150 or
dial, the amount of torque (in units of foot- more hopper cars, carrying only coal between a
pounds) exerted in tightening a roof bolt. single mine and destination.

Tractor - A battery-operated piece of equipment Universal coal cutter - A type of coal cutting
that pulls trailers, skids, or personnel carriers. machine which is designed to make horizontal
Also used for supplies. cuts in a coal face at any point between the
bottom and top or to make shearing cuts at any
Tram - Used in connection with moving self- point between the two ribs of the place.
propelled mining equipment. A tramming motor
may refer to an electric locomotive used for Upcast shaft - A shaft through which air leaves
hauling loaded trips or it may refer to the motor the mine.
in a cutting machine that supplies the power for
moving or tramming the machine. Valuation - The act or process of valuing or of
estimating the value or worth; appraisal.
Transfer - A vertical or inclined connection
between two or more levels and used as an ore Velocity - Rate of airflow in lineal feet per minute.
pass.
Ventilation - The provision of a directed flow of
Transfer point - Location in the materials handling fresh and return air along all underground
system, either haulage or hoisting, where bulk roadways, traveling roads, workings, and service
material is transferred between conveyances. parts.

Trip - A train of mine cars. Violation - The breaking of any state or federal
mining law.
Troughing idlers - The idlers, located on the upper
framework of a belt conveyor, which support the Virgin - Unworked; untouched; often said of areas
loaded belt. They are so mounted that the loaded where there has been no coal mining.
belt forms a trough in the direction of travel,
which reduces spillage and increases the carrying Void - A general term for pore space or other
capacity of a belt for a given width. reopenings in rock. In addition to pore space, the
term includes vesicles, solution cavities, or any
Tunnel - A horizontal, or near-horizontal, openings either primary or secondary.
underground passage, entry, or haulageway, that
is open to the surface at both ends. A tunnel (as Volatile matter - The gaseous part, mostly
opposed to an adit) must pass completely hydrocarbons, of coal.
through a hill or mountain.
Waste - That rock or mineral which must be
removed from a mine to keep the mining scheme
practical, but which has no value.

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Water Gauge (standard U-tube) - Instrument that Wire rope - A steel wire rope used for winding in
measures differential pressures in inches of shafts and underground haulages. Wire ropes are
water. made from medium carbon steels. Various
constructions of wire rope are designated by the
Wedge - A piece of wood tapering to a thin edge number of strands in the rope and the number of
and used for tightening in conventional wires in each strand. The following are some
timbering. common terms encountered: airplane strand;
cablelaid rope; cane rope; elevator rope; extra-
Weight - Fracturing and lowering of the roof strata flexible hoisting rope; flat rope; flattened-strand
at the face as a result of mining operations, as in rope; guy rope; guy strand; hand rope; haulage
"taking weight". rope; hawser; hoisting rope; lang lay rope; lay;
left lay rope; left twist; nonspinning rope; regular
White damp - Carbon monoxide, CO. A gas that lay; reverse-laid rope; rheostat rope; right lay;
may be present in the afterdamp of a gas- or right twist; running rope; special flexible hoisting
coal-dust explosion, or in the gases given off by a rope; standing rope; towing hawser; transmission
mine fire; also one of the constituents of the rope.
gases produced by blasting. Rarely found in
mines under other circumstances. It is absorbed Working - When a coal seam is being squeezed by
by the hemoglobin of the blood to the exclusion pressure from roof and floor, it emits creaking
of oxygen. One-tenth of 1% (.001) may be fatal in noises and is said to be "working". This often
10 minutes. serves as a warning to the miners that additional
support is needed.
Width - The thickness of a lode measured at right
angles to the dip. Working face - Any place in a mine where
material is extracted during a mining cycle.
Winning - The excavation, loading, and removal of
coal or ore from the ground; winning follows Working place - From the outby side of the last
development. open crosscut to the face.

Winze - Secondary or tertiary vertical or near- Workings - The entire system of openings in a
vertical opening sunk from a point inside a mine mine for the purpose of exploitation.
for the purpose of connecting with a lower level Working section - From the faces to the point
or of exploring the ground for a limited depth where coal is loaded onto belts or rail cars to
below a level. begin its trip to the outside.

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Turnouts
Turnouts and crossovers, including switches, frogs, A single crossover consists of two turnouts positioned
guard rails, stock rails, and closure rails; rail fastening in two tracks that allow the vehicle to go from one
assemblies unique to turnouts; and miscellaneous track to another. The two tracks are usually, but not
components associated with turnouts, including switch always, parallel, and the turnouts are usually identical.
rods and gauge plates. Crossover tracks, double A pair of single crossovers—one right hand and one left
crossovers including the central crossing frogs or hand—that are arranged sequentially along the tracks
diamond area, and single and double slip switches are is called a universal crossover.
included in this category. The cross ties to support
turnouts and crossovers can also be considered part of Double Crossover
special trackwork, especially concrete switch ties,
which require far more design and fabrication effort A double crossover —sometimes called a scissors
than ordinary timber switch ties. crossover—consists of two crossovers of opposite hand
orientation superimposed upon each other. In addition
Track crossings that permit one track to cross another to the four turnouts involved, a track crossing diamond
at grade. Such crossings can be designed as a rigid is needed between the two main tracks. A double
block or can include movable center points. crossover is typically used only when it is necessary to
be able to switch from both tracks to the other in either
Points (switch rails or point blades) are the movable direction, but there is insufficient space to install a
rails which guide the wheels towards either the straight universal crossover as described above.
or the diverging track. They are tapered on most
switches, but on stub switches they have square ends. Track Crossing
In ordinary conversation, it is common to use the word
“switch” when referring to a “turnout,” which is Track crossings, as the name implies, permit two tracks
technically incorrect. to cross each other. Track crossings are often called
either crossing diamonds or simply diamonds, due to
Stock rails are the running rails immediately alongside their plan view shape.
of the switch rails against which the switch rails lay
when in the closed position. The stock rails are Slip Switch
otherwise ordinary rails that are machined, drilled, and
bent as required to suit the design of the turnout A single slip switch works on the same principle as a
switch and the individual switch point rails. double slip but provides for only one switching
possibility. Trains approaching on one of the two
Frog is a component placed where one rail crosses crossing tracks can either continue over the crossing,
another, refers to the crossing point of two rails. The or switch tracks to the other line. However, trains from
rest of the English-speaking world calls such units by the other track can only continue over the crossing,
the more obvious term “crossings.” and cannot switch tracks. This is normally used to allow
access to sidings and improve safety by avoiding
Closure rails are the straight or curved rails that are having switch blades facing the usual direction of
positioned in between the heel of switch and the toe of traffic. To reach the sidings from what would be a
frog. facing direction, trains must continue over the
crossing, then reverse along the curved route (usually
Guard rail (check rail) is a short piece of rail placed onto the other line of a double track) and can then
alongside the main (stock) rail opposite the frog. These move forward over the crossing into the siding.
exist to ensure that the wheels follow the appropriate
flangeway through the frog and that the train does not A double slip switch (double slip) is a narrow-angled
derail. diagonal flat crossing of two lines combined with four
pairs of points in such a way as to allow vehicles to
Heel block assemblies are units placed at the heel of change from one straight track to the other, as well as
the switch that provide a splice with the contiguous going straight across. A train approaching the
closure rail and a location for the switch point rail to arrangement may leave by either of the two tracks on
pivot at a fixed spread distance from the stock rail. the opposite side of the crossing. To reach the third
possible exit, the train must change tracks on the slip
Switch point rail stops act as spacers between the and then reverse.
switch point rail and the stock rail. Stops laterally
support the switch point from flexing laterally under a Lapped Turnouts
lateral wheel load and thereby possibly exposing the
open end of switch point rail to head-on contact from Lapped turnouts can be used to achieve a more
the next wheel. compact track layout in constrained locations. In a
lapped turnout, as seen in following picture, the switch
A switch operating device moves switch rails. Switch rails for a second turnout will be placed between the
rails can be thrown (moved) from one orientation to switch and the frog of the initial turnout. This
another by either a hand-operated (manual) switch introduces a third frog where a closure rail of the first
stand or a mechanically or electro-mechanically turnout crosses a closure rail of the second turnout.
(power-operated) switch machine. In both cases, the
operating devices are positioned at the beginning of
the turnout opposite the switch-connecting rods near
the point of the switch rails.
Turnout Types;

Single Crossover

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