DEFINITION OF CULTURE

Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/) is the social behavior and normsfound in human societies[citation needed].
Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of
phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural
universals are found in all human societies; these include expressive forms
like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter,
and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture,
such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture
such as principles of social organization(including practices of political organization and
social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature(both written and oral),
and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.[1]
In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the
degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts,
sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes
been used to distinguish civilizationsfrom less complex societies. Such hierarchical
perspectives on culture are also found in class-baseddistinctions between a high
culture of the social eliteand a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower
classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance,
culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic
groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body
modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass
mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of
philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used
politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false
consciousness, and such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In
the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that
human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans
create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found
in evolved biological dispositions.
When used as a count noun, a "culture" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a
society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge
acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and
mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes
"culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society,
a subculture (e.g. "bro culture"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the
ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism holds that cultures cannot easily be
objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within
the value system of a given culture.
What Is Culture?
Kim Ann Zimmermann | Jul 12, 2017 10:12 pm ET

Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion. This giant statue of Buddha overlooks Hong
Kong. Original Image

Credit: Konstantin Sutyagin | Shutterstock

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing

language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.

The Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining
culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and
understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a
group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group.
"Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language,
marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet
visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things," Cristina De Rossi, an
anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London, told Live Science.

The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin
"colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. "It shares
its etymology with a number of other words related to actively fostering growth," De Rossi
said.

Western culture
The term "Western culture" has come to define the culture of European countries as well as
those that have been heavily influenced by European immigration, such as the United
States, according to Khan University. Western culture has its roots in the Classical Period of
the Greco-Roman era and the rise of Christianity in the 14th century.
Other drivers of Western culture include Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic ethnic and
linguistic groups. Today, the influences of Western culture can be seen in almost every
country in the world.
Eastern culture
Eastern culture generally refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East Asia
(including China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea) and
the Indian subcontinent. Like the West, Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion
during its early development, but it was also heavily influenced by the growth and
harvesting of rice, according to the book "Pathways to Asian Civilizations: Tracing the
Origins and Spread of Rice and Rice Cultures" by Dorian Q. Fuller. In general, in Eastern
culture there is less of a distinction between secular society and religious philosophy than
there is in the West.
Latin culture

Many of the Spanish-speaking nations are considered part of the Latin culture, while the
geographic region is widespread. Latin America is typically defined as those parts of the
Central America, South America and Mexico where Spanish or Portuguese are the dominant
languages. Originally, the term "Latin America" was used by French geographers to
differentiate between Anglo and Romance (Latin-based) languages, according to the
University of Texas. While Spain and Portugal are on the European continent, they are
considered the key influencers of what is known as Latin culture, which denotes people
using languages derived from Latin, also known as Romance languages.

Middle Eastern culture

The countries of the Middle East have some but not all things in common. This is not a
surprise, since the area consists of approximately 20 countries, according to PBS. The
Arabic language is one thing that is common throughout the region; however, the wide
variety of dialect can sometimes make communication difficult. Religion is another cultural
area that the countries of the Middle East have in common. The Middle East is the
birthplace of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
African culture
The continent of Africa is essential to all cultures. Human life originated on this continent
and began to migrate to other areas of the world around 60,000 years ago, according to
the Natural History Museumin London. Other researchers, like those from Estonian
Biocentre in Tartu, believe that the first migration may have been much earlier, as early
as 120,000 years ago. Researchers come to these conclusions by studying human genomes
from various cultures to trace their DNA to common ancestors. Fossil records also factor
into some of these theories.
Africa is home to a number of tribes, ethnic and social groups. One of the key features of
this culture is the large number of ethnic groups throughout the 54 countries on the
continent. Nigeria alone has more than 300 tribes, for example.
Currently, Africa is divided into two cultural groups: North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.
This is because Northwest Africa has strong ties to Middle East, while Sub-Saharan Africa
shares historical, physical and social characteristics that are very different from North
Africa, according to the University of Colorado. The harsh environment has been a large
factor in the development of Sub-Saharan Africa culture, as there are a number of
languages, cuisines, art and musical styles that have sprung up among the far-flung
populations.
Constant change

No matter what culture a people are a part of, one thing is for certain, it will change.
"Culture appears to have become key in our interconnected world, which is made up of so
many ethnically diverse societies, but also riddled by conflicts associated with religion,
ethnicity, ethical beliefs, and, essentially, the elements which make up culture," De Rossi
said. "But culture is no longer fixed, if it ever was. It is essentially fluid and constantly in
motion." This makes it so that it is difficult to define any culture in only one way.

While change is inevitable, the past should also be respected and preserved. The United
Nations has created a group called The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) to identify cultural and natural heritage and to conserve and
protect it. Monuments, building and sites are covered by the group's protection, according
to the international treaty, the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage. This treaty was adopted by UNESCO in 1972.
Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science Contributor
Additional resources
 University at Albany: History of the Middle East
 Texas A&M University: Definition of Culture
 United Nations World Heritage Convention
 DEFINITION OF NATURE
Nature
phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general

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Hopetoun Falls, Australia

Lightning strikes during the eruption of the Galunggung volcano, West Java, in 1982.

The words nature and natural are used for all the things that are normally not made
by humans. Things like weather, organisms, landforms, celestial bodiesand much more
are part of nature. Scientists study the way the parts of nature work. Things that have
been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.
There are natural sciences that study different parts of nature, for example the science
of ecology is about plants and animals as a whole, while biology studies every type of
living thing.
From one point of view, humans are a prime example of nature, and are the most
widely studied natural inhabitants of the planet earth. Humans interact with each
other in their natural environment on a constant basis. Every part of nature –
everything from the air to the dirt on the ground – is interdependent. Medicine studies
humans in health and sickness.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in conflict. Nature is
often seen by humans as natural resources. People cut down trees, mine ores, and
grow crops. Fires, cars, and factoriesmake a lot of smoke and harm many places.
 People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of
nature often fight about what they should do. In the modern world, with many more
people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.
Nature, in the broadest sense, means the physical world as a whole. This is the
meaning that physics, the study of nature (etymologically), takes.

Characteristics of Nature
1. Nature is not created by human beings. Nature has its own universe and is governed by
its own laws.

2. Nature is not dependent on human beings. Nature can survive even without the
existence of human beings.

3. Nature sustains human beings. Nature provides fruits, vegetables and other food
grains. Nature provides raw materials for various commodities.

4. Nature has a well-ordered system. Nature self-sustains itself and all lives by its
process which is well-ordered.

5. Nature has beauty. This beauty captivates the poetic tendency hidden within human
beings. There is beauty in the flowers, beauty in the clouds and beauty in the rivers.

6. Nature has vastness. In this vastness human soul often tend to lose itself. There is
vastness in the mountain ranges, there is vastness in the horizon and the sky, there is
vastness in the ocean.

7. Nature has peace. The vastness of Nature tend to permeate the core of human beings
with peace. Once can sense the presence of that peace by standing amidst a mountain
range or a forested valley.

8. Nature has dynamism. Day moves on and becomes night. Seasons come and affect
lives all around. Lightning and thunder sends a sense of thrill within.

9. Nature has diversity. The dynamism of Nature presents itself in diverse forms.
different colours and patterns appear in different seasons and adds colour to our lives.

10. Nature operates on a large scale. Same vegetation grow covering many miles, rain
falls covering many cities and Sun shines covering many countries.

11. Nature operates for all. The Sun shines for all. The rain falls for all. This
unselfishness of Nature makes us think that Nature is close to divinity.

12. Nature points to the source of life. This is what the Vedic seers discovered through
their spiritual insight. Thus Nature has a very important place in Sanatana Dharma.

The Vedic Vision of Nature combines Nature with Sadhana. The first step is to embrace
Nature by reflecting on its characteristics. The next step is to connect with Nature.
Introduction -2 – The Three Characteristics of Nature
1. In the previous post, we discussed two of the three main ways that suffering arises,
the viparināma dukkha (suffering due to our inability to maintain things to one’s
satisfaction) and the sankhāra dukkha (suffering due to our excess attachment for
things). Both these are experienced in this very life, but unless we take time and
contemplate on those, we may not even be aware of those.
 There is nothing much we can do about the viparināma dukkha, other than to eat well,
exercise regularly, and keep up with healthy habits for maintaining a healthy body and
a mind.
 We can lessen the sankhāra dukkha by gradually losing excess attachment to worldly
things. This happens automatically when we start grasping the Three Characteristics of
nature, which we will discuss below.
2. The third category of suffering arises directly: getting burned, stabbed/shot, etc. Beings
in the apayas encounter this more, and in the niraya(lowest realm) that is all one feels.
For example, a person who made money by killing another or by stealing from another
may live well in this life (at least outwardly), but will be subjected to much suffering in the
upcoming births. This is the worst category of dukkha dukkha, which arises due to
immoral actions of the past. Until the death of the physical body, even an Arahant is
subjected to dukkha dukkha.
 Therefore, the third category of suffering, dukkha dukkha, arises basically due to
immoral acts; see below. The severity of suffering of course depends on the severity of
the violation. We will discuss this in detail in the paticca samuppāda(“pati+ichcha”
leading to “sama”+”uppāda”) steps in future posts; see, “Paticca Samuppada –
“Pati+ichcha”+”Sama+uppäda“, where it is briefly discussed how one’s actions lead to
effects that are similar “in kind”.
3. All our acts (including speech and thoughts) are sankhāra, thus dukkha
dukkha arises due to the worst forms of sankhāra, which we call immoral acts.
Everything happens due to a reason (cause). If one does a good deed, that will lead to
good results, and bad deeds will lead to bad results. This is the basis of science and also
how nature works. “Every action has a reaction”; it is guaranteed, sooner or later.

 This is why rebirth is a reality of nature. There are people who live lavishly with money
earned by immoral deeds; the consequences will be realized in the future rebirths.
 It also explains why different people are born with different levels of health, wealth,
beauty, etc., and also why there are innumerable varieties of animals with different levels
of suffering.
The Three Characteristics
4. Most people can distinguish between moral and immoral acts. Immoral acts are killing,
stealing, inappropriate sexual behavior, lying, slandering, gossiping, harsh speech, and
getting “drunk” with not only drugs or alcohol, but also with wealth, fame, power, etc (The
BIG EIGHT as discussed in the Meditation section).
 When we also include the wrong views/hate in the mind, there are ten, which are called
the ten defilements or “dasa akusala” in Pali. These acts not only are inappropriate but
also will have adverse consequences for the well being of everyone. Societies cannot
function well if people act immorally.
5. Most religions teach how to live a moral life, may be with some exceptions for example
of killing of animals as immoral. Basically all religions encourage “building better
societies”. Therefore morality and moral laws are common to all cultures and religions.

 Without having this moral foundation, it is hard to comprehend the deeper aspects that
we will discuss next, and analyze in the paticca samuppāda.
 However, it is important to realize that one will be free of all ten defilements only upon
reaching the Arahant stage. Keeping the five conventional precepts is a good start.
 When one starts following the Path, one is bound to break the trend once in a while. A
child learning to walk will fall many times. Many people get discouraged when they do
an immoral act occasionally; but just to realize that one did a mistake, and that it bothers
one’s mind, means one HAS MADE PROGRESS.
6. The uniqueness in Buddha Dhamma is to show that in the wider world view, building
better societies (i.e., living a moral life) is NOT ENOUGH in the LONG TERM in the rebirth
process. In this wider world view, anyone can be born anywhere in the 31 realms,
including those dreaded lower four realms. It is a much bigger world than we normally
experience.
 Doing immoral acts makes one eligible to be born the lower four realms, and be
subjected to dukkha dukkha. However, even if one does not do a single immoral act
in this life, that does not guarantee avoidance of rebirth in the lower four realms,
BECAUSE we all have done immoral deeds in our previous [Link] we have in
the past remain until that kammic power is exhausted OR until one attains Nibbāna.
Again this is part of the “bigger world view” now spanning time.
7. This was the core message of the Buddha: That no matter how well we live this life
(and it is essential to do that), that does not guarantee a “suffering-free” future. Until one
attains at the least the Sōtapanna stage of Nibbāna, one is not free from suffering in the
four lower worlds.
 We can look at it this way too: Even if we live a good, moral life in this life, we do not
know under what conditions we will be born in the next life, even if it is a human life. If
we are born to an immoral family, or be exposed to immoral friends, in the next life we
may commit acts that deserves birth in the four lower realms.
 This is why we need to strive to attain the Sōtapanna stage in this very life.
8. This is what is embedded in the three characteristics of “this wider world” of 31 realms.
We may be born in the highest Brahma world, but one day that life will end and we will
inevitably get to the four lowest realms (apāyas) at some point. The Buddha said, “there
is no refuge” anywhere in these 31 realms.
9. In the previous post we discussed why we “cannot keep any part of our physical body
to our satisfaction”. If we think through how dukkha dukkha arises, we can see that “we
cannot maintain anything to our satisfaction” anywhere in these 31 realms in the long
term. This is the first characteristic of “this world of 31 realms”: anicca. Just one word
says it all.
 Because of anicca, no matter how much we struggle to achieve sense pleasures, we
will eventually encounter suffering, especially in the four lower realms. We always
have viparināma dukkha and sankhāra dukkha(both may be hidden in the apparent
 sense pleasures temporarily), and we cannot avoid dukkha dukkha without attaining
the Sōtapanna stage of Nibbāna.
 Thus anicca leads to the second characteristic of dukkha.
 Therefore, as long as we crave for existence and sense pleasures “in this world”, we are
truly helpless in the LONG TERM; this is the third characteristic of anatta. There is “no
refuge” in this world of 31 realms.
10. At first it is difficult to see why these three characteristics are a such a big deal. They
are the KEY to stop the causes for suffering.

 Just the realization that it is harmful and unfruitful to attach to things in this world leads
to the first stage of Nibbāna, the Sōtapanna stage. Buddha Dhamma is a complete
description of nature. Just being able to comprehend the unfruitfulness of
attachment to worldly things (and aversion, which arises from attachment as we
will see), is the first and most important step in the Noble Eightfold Path, Samma
Ditthi or “clear comprehension”.
11. It is important to realize that detachment to worldly things CANNOT be done by forcing
the mind. If someone tries to give away one’s wealth without truly realizing the benefits of
that, one will likely to generate friction or remorse later, which could have adverse effects.

 It may be hard to believe, but the real happiness ARISES (and one will be able to donate
things with joy, because one will automatically see the fruitless of craving for worldly
things) as one starts comprehending the true meanings of anicca, dukkha, anatta, and
realize that it is possible to stop all three form of suffering. It is permanent sense of relief,
and not like a sense pleasure that lasts only for a short time.
 As we go through the steps in the paticca samuppāda cycles, the meanings of anicca,
dukkha, anatta will become clear. One could and should read other related posts too. At
some point, things will start “clicking” into place and then it will become easier. Just a
glimpse of the “light” will make it easier to “see”.
12. The lack of this knowledge (or even better stated as wisdom or panna), is called
ignorance (avijjā). Thus the whole paticca samuppāda cycle starts with ignorance (avijjā),
and explains how avijjā gives rise to dukkha under different conditions. There is
another paticca samuppādacycle that explains how dukkha can be stopped from
arising. We will discuss both starting with the next post. Thus avijjā leads not only to
immoral acts, but also to unfruitful acts; both immoral and unfruitful actions are
included in sankhāra.
13. I know I am using more and more Pali words as we proceed. But by now one should
be able to grasp the meaning of those key words; one can always go back to earlier posts
in this series to refresh memory. It is cumbersome to keep stating “it is not possible to
maintain things to one’s satisfaction”; it is much easier to say, “anicca”. No other language
can succinctly state the nature of the “whole world” in just three
words: anicca (pronounced “anichcha”), dukkha, anatta (pronounced “anaththa”).
 As we saw above, dukkha has much deeper meaning than the “feeling of discomfort or
pain”.
 Even avijjā and panna do not have corresponding words in English to convey the exact
meaning. As we discuss further, the meanings will become more clear.
 Thus my goal to is to first describe these key Pali words in plain English and then use
them in the subsequent posts, while staying away from other Pali words that are not
critical for understanding the core message of the Buddha.