Protection strategies against overvoltages include using surge absorbers with circuit breakers during switching operations, SF6 breakers, surge arresters, and spark gaps against lightning strokes . Surge arresters are placed between conductors and ground to divert overvoltage currents away from equipment, reducing risk from lightning and switching surges . Additionally, fast-acting static VAR sources and on-load tap changers help manage overvoltages from sudden load rejection and resonance phenomena . Collectively, these methods are effective because they address different overvoltage sources and dynamics, offering comprehensive protection.

Commutation failure primarily affects the converter's ability to maintain current flow, leading to potential disruptions in AC current and increasing DC current. When commutation fails, valves meant to extinguish continue conducting, causing the bridge voltage to remain zero for an extended period, leading to an increase in DC current . Furthermore, if unchecked, commutation failure can propagate to multiple series-connected bridges, affecting the initial current's rate of rise. This can necessitate additional smoothing reactors to limit these effects, underscoring the impact on system stability .

Converter faults in DC systems include arc backs, arc through, misfire, quenching or current extinction, and commutation failure. Arc back causes the valve to lose its capability to block in the reverse direction, leading to conduction in both directions; it requires blocking the converter valves and opening the backup AC breaker . Arc through happens when a valve fails to block during a non-conduction period due to gate pulse malfunctions, primarily occurring at inverter stations . Misfire involves the absence of a required gate pulse, leading to commutation failure; its effects are more pronounced in inverter stations . Current extinction occurs when the current through a valve drops below holding current, which may cause overvoltages . Commutation failure, self-clearing in single instances, occurs when commutation does not complete before voltage reversal, potentially leading to sequence failures if not managed .

Surge arresters protect equipment by providing a low-resistance path for overvoltage surges, such as those from lightning or switching operations, directing these surges safely into the ground . Under normal voltage conditions, their impedance is high to avoid interference with regular operations . Zinc oxide arresters are preferred due to their high energy absorption capability and do not rely on gaps, which makes them reliable in consistently protecting against surges. In contrast, gapless arresters provide continuous protection without the interrupting effect of gaps used in older technologies .

Smoothing reactors are high-inductance coils placed in series with converters to reduce the ripple component of the DC current output by rectifiers . By smoothing the ripple, these reactors enhance the quality of current flow, reducing harmonic disturbances that can affect the performance and stability of the DC system. Their inductance ensures that load current is streamlined, thus preventing potential side effects of current fluctuations on the overall electrical system .

Gate pulse system failures contribute to faults such as arc through and misfire by causing unintended valve conduction or inability to fire a valve, respectively. Arc through occurs when a malfunction in the gate pulse (either a premature positive pulse or failure of a negative pulse) triggers an unintended valve conduction during the non-conduction period . Misfire results from the absence of a necessary gate pulse, preventing proper valve ignition, which is self-clearing but can lead to commutation failure if recurrent . Preventive measures include improving the reliability and precision of gate pulse generators and monitoring pulse patterns to quickly address discrepancies.

Radio interference (RI) caused by corona discharge in DC systems challenges communication and control signal reliability, especially within the 0.5 to 1.6 MHz band range where it's most active . The interference is quantified using the formula RI = 25 + 10 log(n) + 10 log(r) + 1.5(g-go), representing the RI level in millivolts per meter . Mitigating these effects requires focusing on conductor design and placement to minimize corona inception, alongside strategic filtering and shielding to protect sensitive circuits from interference. This holistic approach helps reduce operational impacts and improve system resilience.

The primary risk of overcurrents in converter stations is equipment damage due to excessive current flow, which can lead to thermal degradation or outright failure . Protection methods include comparative measurements between rectified and smoothing reactor currents to detect anomalies. Overcurrent trips are configured to activate at levels set above normal operational variances to prevent unnecessary shutdowns, acting as a backup to manage ground faults and commutation failures . This layered approach ensures that overcurrents are effectively managed, thus preserving converter station integrity and functionality.

Corona discharge impacts DC transmission by causing power losses through the generation of additional current pulses and ionized air, which can affect conductor performance . Additionally, it produces radio interference (RI) and audible noise (AN), being more prominent on positive conductors . These phenomena contribute to operational inefficiencies and require careful management to minimize their impact on system performance and signal quality, posing challenges in maintaining effective and reliable transmission.

Lightning strokes can cause severe and rapid overvoltages in converter stations, potentially damaging sensitive equipment due to their high energy. The primary protection measure against such impacts is the use of surge arresters, designed to redirect surge currents safely into the ground, sparing the equipment . Additionally, grounding methods, including overhead ground wires and neutral grounding, enhance protections by offering alternative discharge paths . These measures are critical as they reduce the risk of catastrophic failures due to lightning impacts.