DEP 31.40.10.19-Gen.

February 2011
Page 26

7. SYSTEM DESIGN

7.1 GENERAL
Pipeline and piping systems shall be designed so that mechanical integrity is maintained
under all coincident loading conditions and process temperatures to which these systems
can be exposed, and shall represent the most severe anticipated conditions experienced
during installation and within the service life of the system.
GRP pipe systems are more sensitive to mechanical overloading, surge, and water
hammer effects than steel systems and this requires special care when designing GRP
pipe systems.
The system designer shall be knowledgeable and experienced, and have a proven track
record in designing GRP pipeline and piping systems, to be agreed by the Principal.
The designer of the GRP pipe system shall be actively involved throughout the entire
project from start to finish, including late installation changes, system hydrotesting, up to
commissioning.
For critical applications, e.g. piping or pipeline systems transporting sour gas, a
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) shall be carried out to determine risk-mitigating
measures, e.g. higher design safety factors, increase of burial depth to minimise the risk of
mechanical damage caused by third party interference, etc.

7.2 ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS

The designer shall evaluate the total piping or pipeline system, inclusive of system criticality
and risk of failure due to operating and material factors, including, but not limited to the
following:
7.2.1 Stress and flexibility analyses
For determining deflections, stresses and strains within GRP pipe systems, internationally
accepted analytical or computer-based (finite element) methods shall be used.
The model of the pipe system shall reflect the actual behaviour of the pipe system, i.e.
based on the anisotropic behaviour of GRP.
7.2.2 Hydraulic analyses
The designer shall ensure that the GRP pipe system is capable of transporting the specified
fluid at the specified rate, pressure and temperature throughout the intended service life.
7.2.2.1 Pressure surge and water hammer
A full hydraulic surge analysis shall be carried out if pressure transients are expected to
occur to establish whether the GRP pipe system is susceptible to pressure surge, and
water hammer. The analysis shall cover all anticipated operating conditions including
actuated valves, pump testing, pump trips, etc.
7.2.2.2 Cavitation
The designer shall use standard methods to predict the onset of cavitation at likely sites
and apply the necessary techniques to ensure cavitation cannot occur under normal
operating conditions. Potential locations of cavitation include angles at segmented elbows
(mitred bends), tees and reducers, flanges where the gasket has been installed
eccentrically, and components close to control valves.
The pipeline or piping system shall be designed to minimise the ingress of air and
consideration shall be given to avoiding air traps, adequate venting, etc.
7.2.2.3 Velocity limitations
For GRP pipe systems, the linear velocity for continuous service of liquids should not
exceed the following limitations:
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Table 9 Maximum recommended linear velocity for GRP pipe systems

Fluid type
Normal flow Maximum intermittent flow

m/s ft/s m/s ft/s

Liquid 2 to 4 6.6 to 13.1 10 32.8

Gas 3 to 10 9.8 to 32.8 20 65.6

NOTE: The above values are based on the assumption that there are no hard particles present in the flow.
Higher velocities (even with hard particles) can be tolerated, but an assessment of the potential
erosion rate shall be made.

7.2.2.4 Erosion
The designer of the GRP pipe system shall take into account the likely particle content in
the fluid.
To minimise potential erosion damage in GRP pipe systems, the following should be
avoided:
a) Sudden changes in flow direction;
b) Local flow restrictions or initiators of flow turbulence, e.g. excessive adhesive at the
inside diameter of bonded connections (adhesive beads).

7.3 LOADS
The design of a piping or pipeline system shall represent the most severe anticipated
loading conditions experienced during installation and within the service life of the system,
including sustained loads and occasional loads.
7.3.1 Sustained loads
Sustained loads experienced by a GRP piping or pipeline system can be divided in two
categories:
a) Primary loads:
a. Pressure (operating, internal, external, vacuum);
b. Piping self-weight, insulation weight, valve weight, fire protection weight,
transported medium weight, buoyancy, ice;
c. Soil loads (burial depth);
d. Etc.
b) Secondary loads, which are of “self-limiting” nature:
a. Restrained loads due to thermal expansion, electric surface heating;
b. Imposed displacements, “pre”- bending (e.g. in trenches);
c. Soil subsidence;
d. Etc.
7.3.2 Occasional loads
According to the design codes for pipe systems, loadings higher than the design load,
so-called occasional loads, are conditionally permitted. Both the duration and level of
occasional loads are limited and are described in the sections below.
For the duration of occasional loads permitted for fibre-reinforced plastic pipe systems, the
following criteria shall apply:
a) Number of load cycles shall not exceed 7000 during life of the pipe system;
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b) Duration shall not exceed 10 h at any one time and no more than 100 h per year.
Occasional loads are typically:
a) Installation loads, lifting loads, transportation loads;
b) Surge pressure, system hydrotest, transient equipment vibrations;
c) Impact;
d) Adiabatic cooling loads;
e) Earthquake;
f) Heavy traffic loads (e.g. trucks) during construction;
g) Blast over-pressures;
h) Wind.

7.4 DESIGN PRESSURE

The design pressure of the components selected for the pipeline or piping system shall
meet the following condition:

Pdesign d f 2 . f 3 .LCL
Where
Pdesign = design pressure for the piping or pipeline system;
f2 = load factor for sustained loading (default = 0.67);
f3 = factor to accommodate non-pressure induced axial loads (default = 0.85);
LCL = 97.5 % confidence limit of the long-term hydrostatic pressure strength.
The f3 value shall be determined from the stress analyses (7.2) performed for the pipeline
or piping system.

7.5 LOAD FACTOR

The load factor f2 is related to confidence in the piping or pipeline system, the nature of the
application, the type of loading and the consequences of failure. It allows for the effects of
occasional overloading so that system hydrotesting can be safely accommodated.
Default values for f2 as function of loading type are given in Table 10.
Table 10a Default f2 values – static loading (based on LCLstatic)

Loading type f2 Safety Load duration Example of loading

factor
factor
Sustained (primary) 0.67 1.5 Long term Static operating pressure

Sustained (primary) 0.83 1.2 Long term Static operating pressure plus
+ secondary load thermal expansion

Occasional 0.90 1.1 Short term System hydrotest, surge pressure

Table 10b Default f2 values – gas and sour service (based on LCLstatic)

Example of loading
Loading type f2 Safety Load duration
factor
factor
Sustained (primary) 0.56 1.8 Long term Static operating pressure
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Sustained (primary) 0.70 1.4 Long term Static operating pressure plus
+ secondary load thermal expansion

Occasional 0.75 1.3 Short term System hydrotest, surge pressure

Table 10c Default f2 values – cyclic loading (based on LCLstatic)

Loading type f2 Safety Load duration Example of loading

factor
factor
Sustained (primary) 0.50 2.0 Long term Cyclic operating pressure

Sustained (primary) 0.50 2.0 Long term Cyclic operating pressure plus
+ thermal cyclic thermal expansion

Because of the self-limiting nature of sustained loads related to thermal expansion, the load
factor f2 for sustained + thermal is allowed to be larger than required for sustained load
only.
The factor f2 value should be agreed between the Principal, designer of the system, and
relevant approval authorities.

7.6 DESIGN TEMPERATURE

The design temperature of the pipeline or piping system SHALL [PS] be at least 30 qC
(54°F) lower than the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the qualified component (2.2.1).

7.7 DESIGN ENVELOPE

The designer SHALL [PS] ensure that the maximum stresses within any component of the
piping, or pipeline system are within the allowable axial-stress versus hoop stress design
envelope.

7.8 VACUUM
If full vacuum condition is specified for an above ground pipe system, “inherent” vacuum
resistant components shall be selected, i.e. components with sufficient wall thickness.
For above ground pipe systems, the resistance to vacuum pressure, Pv (bar, psi), defined
as the difference between the external and internal absolute pressures, shall be calculated
using the following equation:

3t r / Rm  E h
3

Pv
SF
Where:
Pv = design vacuum pressure (bar, psi);
tr = thickness of reinforced pipe wall (mm, inch);
Rm = mean pipe radius (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness (mm, inch);
Ri = internal pipe radius (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness (mm, inch);
Eh = hoop tensile modulus (typically 21000 MPa [3046 kpsi] for GRP pipe);
SF = design safety factor.
To resist short-term (occasional) vacuum, the safety factor (SF) shall be minimum 1.5.
To resist long-term vacuum, the safety factor (SF) shall be minimum 2.5, in accordance
with AWWA M45.
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Filament wound GRP pipe with a design pressure greater than 20 bar (290 psi) is generally
inherently resistant to full vacuum, also long term.

7.9 VIBRATION
GRP pipe has a lower stiffness in both axial and hoop directions than steel pipe. This
implies a different dynamic response when subjected to external dynamic forces.
Low amplitude vibrations of a magnitude much less than the wall thickness can be
dampened and absorbed, however the designer should ensure that the vibration does not
cause chafing of supports, over-stress in branch lines, or fatigue of adhesive bonds.
High amplitude vibrations of a magnitude roughly equal to or greater than the wall
thickness, caused by pumps or other equipment shall be accounted for in the system
design. The resulting stresses from such vibrations shall be included in the system design.

7.10 CYCLIC LOADING

When the number of pressure cycles during the design life of the pipeline or piping system
exceeds 7000, and the pressure fluctuation ratio R (4.1.1) is smaller than 0.8, then the
design shall be based on cyclic loading conditions.

7.11 THERMAL LOADING

Thermally induced loads associated with the maximum anticipated temperature difference
for the pipeline or piping system shall be included in the design calculations, e.g. difference
between installation at low temperature (e.g. winter period), and high operating temperature
or high environmental temperature (e.g. desert conditions).
7.11.1 Unrestrained pipe
The thermal expansion 'L (mm) of an unrestrained pipeline or piping system due to
temperature variations shall be calculated using the following formula:

'L L0D'T
Where:
'T = maximum temperature difference (qC, °F);
L0 = initial length of the pipe section (mm, inch);
-6
D = coefficient of thermal expansion (mm/mm/°C, in/in/°F), typically 20.10
(mm/mm/qC) for GRP pipe.
7.11.2 Restrained pipe
The induced thermal axial stress (MPa) due to axial restraint shall be calculated using the
following formula:

V axial E axialD'T
Where:
Eaxial = the tensile axial modulus (typically 12000 MPa for filament wound GRP pipe).

7.12 BENDING
The bending induced stresses for GRP pipe shall be taken into account, e.g. weight of pipe
itself and weight of the fluid, in combination with support distance (span length).
7.12.1 Bending radius
For a given bending radius, the bending stress (MPa, psi) shall be calculated using the
following equation;
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E axial Ri  t r 
V bending
Rbend

Where:
Eaxial = tensile axial modulus of elasticity for GRP pipe (MPa, psi);
Rbend = bending radius, measured to the pipe neutral axis (mm, inch);
Ri = pipe inner radius (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness (mm, inch);
tr = reinforced wall thickness (mm, inch).
The minimum bending radius shall not exceed the limit specified by the Manufacturer.
7.12.2 Bending due to unsupported length
For an above ground piping system on supports, the bending stresses are dependent on
span length, weight of the pipe itself, weight of the fluid, etc.
The maximum bending stress (MPa, psi) shall be calculated using the following equation:

M max Ri  t r 
V bending
I
where:

I
S
4
R 0
4
 Ri
4

Mmax = the maximum bending moment (N.mm, lbf·in)
Ri = the pipe inner radius (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness;
Ro = the pipe outer radius (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness.

7.13 DEFLECTIONS
Deflections shall not exceed the lesser of 12.5 mm (1/2 in) or 0.5 % of span length.
Ovalisation due to external soil loading of buried pipe (7.16) shall not exceed 5 % of pipe
diameter.

7.14 SPAN LENGTH

Pipes should be capable of spanning at least the distances specified in Table 11, when
3
carrying a fluid with a density of 1000 kg/m (62.4 lb/ft³)
Table 11 Guidance span length

Nominal pipe diameter Span

mm inch m ft and in
25 1 2 6 ft 7 in
50 2 2.5 8 ft 2 in
100 4 4 13 ft 2 in
200 8 5 16 ft 5 in
350 14 6 19 ft 8 in
> 400 >16 >6 > 19 ft 8 in
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The values quoted in Table 10 should be used as guidance for the initial pipe layout design.

7.15 SUPPORTS
GRP pipe systems may be supported using the same principles as those for metallic pipe
systems, although additional supporting will usually be required. However, due to the
proprietary nature of GRP pipe systems, standard size supports will not necessarily match
the pipe outside diameters. However, the use of saddles and elastomeric pads may allow
the use of standard sizes, e.g. existing pipe rack supports.
Supports in all cases shall have sufficient width to support the pipe without causing damage
and shall be lined with rubber or other suitable soft material. Clamping forces shall be such
that crushing of the pipe does not occur.
To avoid excessive stresses in the pipe systems, valves and other heavy components shall
be independently supported.

7.16 BURIED PIPE SYSTEMS

The design of buried GRP pipe should be according to AWWA C950 / M45, or equivalent
internationally accepted standard, to be agreed by the Principal.
7.16.1 Stiffness classes
For buried pipelines and piping systems, the designer shall specify the minimum required
pipe stiffness S, defined as the resistance of the pipe to circumferential deflection due to
external loading, e.g. soil, traffic (wheel) load, etc.
2
The stiffness of the pipe (N/m , psi) shall be calculated using the following relationship:
EI
S
D3
Where:
2
E = the hoop flexural modulus of elasticity (N/m , psi);
I = the moment of inertia of the pipe wall;

t3
I (per mm [inch] pipe length);
12
D = the mean pipe diameter (mm, inch), based on reinforced wall thickness;
t = the reinforced wall thickness pipe (mm, inch).
The calculated stiffness (S) of the pipe shall be confirmed by experimental testing of a ring
section taken from the actual pipe, in compliance with ASTM D 2412. If the experimental
determined pipe stiffness is lower than the calculated value, the measured value shall be
used for the pipe design calculations.
Standard stiffness (S) classes, typically specified for buried GRP pipe, are:
2
1250, 2500, 5000, 10000, and > 10000 Pa (N/m ).
7.16.2 Design considerations
For buried pipelines and piping systems, the designer shall consider the following:
a) Elevated temperature service;
b) Large temperature differences (e.g. between installation and operation);
c) Shallow burial conditions (depth < 1 m [3 ft]);
d) Uneven bedding or differential settlement of unstable native soils;
e) Severe climatic conditions (very cold / hot);
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f) Installation loads;
g) Live loads, truck (wheel) loads, etc., during construction;
h) Reduced effective soil density for high water tables;
i) Buoyancy due to high water table for empty pipe system.
7.16.3 Soil loads and settlement
For buried pipeline and piping systems, the design shall take into account the soil/pipe
interaction, including soil loads exerted on the pipe by the soil cover, live loads, differential
soil settlement, subsidence, landslides etc. In the case of special structures, e.g. thrust
blocks and/or widely varying soil properties, or in situations where substantial permanent
soil displacements are expected, a detailed soil mechanics and pipe/soil interaction
analysis should be carried out. For pipe systems laid beneath the water table, buoyancy
(7.16.5) shall be included in the analysis.
7.16.4 Stresses and deflections due to soil and live loads
The vertical soil load, Wc (N/m, lbf·ft), acting on the pipe shall be calculated using the
following formula:
Wc = gJshDo

where:
3
Js = specific soil density (kg/m3, lbf/ft )
3
(in absence of specific data assume Js = 2000 kg/m3 [125 lbf/ft ])
2
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m/s2 (32 ft/s )
h = burial depth, height of soil (m, ft)
Do = outer pipe diameter (m, ft)
The live load, W l (N/m), due to transient passing loads, e.g. trucks, shall be calculated
using the following formula:

where:
Lwh = wheel load (N, lbf)
CL = live load coefficient (1/m, 1/ft)
For single wheel load, CL is given by:

For two passing trucks, CL is given by:

The vertical deflection or ovalisation of the pipe, 'y (mm), caused by both vertical soil and
live loads shall be calculated using the following formula:
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The maximum allowable vertical deflection or ovalisation shall be 5 % of pipe diameter i.e.

The additional hoop stress, Vh, soil (N/mm2), caused by both vertical soil and live loads shall
be calculated using the following formula:

NOTE: For operating pressures above 30 bar (435 psi), Vh, soil is assumed to be zero.

where:
P = operating pressure (bar)
t = reinforced wall thickness (mm)
Df = shape factor (typically in the range 4 to 6)
DL = deflection lag factor, (DL = 1.5 for slight degrees of compaction, DL = 2 for high
degrees of compaction)
Eh = Young’s modulus in the hoop direction (N/mm 2)
Esoil = modulus of soil reaction (N/mm2) (Esoil ranges typically from 1 to 20 N/mm2)
For a full description of soil loadings, refer to AWWA C950 / M45.
Classification of soils should be according to ASTM D 2487 and ASTM D 2488.
7.16.5 Buoyancy
If the water table (or level) is at ground level then a check for buoyancy effects is required.
The combined load, Fdown, (N/m, lbf/in) due to the sum of loads, i.e.: (i) weight of the soil,
W s, (N/m, lbf/in), (ii) weight of pipe, W p, (N/m, lbf/in) and (iii) its contents, W i, (N/m, lbf/in)
has to be greater than the upward buoyancy force, Fup.
The following buoyancy calculations (checks) shall be performed:

Ws  W p  Wi Fdown
where

§ h ·
Ws D0J s h¨1  w ¸
© 3h ¹
and

Fdown ! Fup
where
S
D0 J w
2
Fup
4
where
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Do = outer pipe diameter (m, inch);

hw = height of water above top of the pipe (m, inch);
h = height of soil above top of pipe (m, inch);
3
Jw = specific water density (kg/m 3, lbf/ft );
3
Js = specific soil density (kg/m3, lbf/ft ).
NOTE: For high water table, the soil weight (W s) shall be reduced due to buoyancy of the soil particles.

7.16.6 Vacuum resistance

Resistance against vacuum conditions for buried GRP pipe is higher than for the same pipe
when installed above ground (7.8), mainly due to the restraining effect of the soil.
Calculations should be according to AWWA C950 / M45
7.16.7 Thrust loads
The need for concrete anchor or thrust blocks in a buried pipe system shall be determined
during detailed design, and depends on the expected operational pressure surges,
temperature changes, nature of the soil and the geometry of the pipe system layout.
The designer shall consider unbalanced thrust forces, which occur in pipe systems at
changes in direction (elbows, tees, etc.), at changes in cross-sectional areas (reducers), or
at pipe system terminations (bulkheads). These forces, if not adequately restrained, may
cause excessive pipe movement resulting in failure, e.g. at the joints.
Forces to consider are typically: (i) hydrostatic thrust due to internal pressure, and (ii)
hydrodynamic thrust due to changing momentum of flowing fluid. Because most GRP pipe
systems operate at relatively low velocities, the hydrodynamic forces are generally small.
NOTE: The use of thrust blocks may cause additional integrity problems due to unpredictable loads when
differential settlement between the trust block and the GRP pipe occurs Special attention shall be paid
for additional induced mechanical or thermal stresses as a result of the use of thrust blocks during
hydrotesting. These additional stresses shall be part of the design calculations.

7.17 JOINTS
Chemical compatiblity of seals and gaskets used in the joints:
For all joints described in this section, the elastomer seal or gasket materials used
SHALL [PS] be compatible with the service fluids to which it is exposed over the full design
temperature range. Further information about chemical resistance of elastomer materials in
a variety of chemical environments is given in DEP 30.10.02.13-Gen.
7.17.1 General
Various types of joints are available for GRP pipe systems, and can generally be
categorized into the following types:
a) Adhesive-bonded joints;
b) Laminated (butt & strap) joints;
c) Mechanical O-ring seal bell-and-spigot joints (with or without locking key);
d) Flanged joints;
e) Threaded joints.
7.17.2 Adhesive-bonded joints
Adhesive bonds should not be used for diameters larger than 500 mm (20 in) because
make-up of joints tends to become more difficult for larger sizes, and shall not be used for
diameters larger than 1000 mm (40 in).
To minimise the quantity of field-applied adhesive joints in a pipeline or piping system,
shop-applied adhesive bonded collars may be used. However, if bonded collars are to be
used, they shall be qualified in accordance with (4.2).
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7.17.3 Laminated joints

Laminated joints can be used up to large diameters, typically up to 4000 mm (13 ft 2 in).
To minimise stress concentrations in the laminate at the location of the conical pipe-ends
and the transition between the laminate and the pipe, tapers should not be steeper than 1
in 6 (a:b in Figure 1), i.e. maximum taper angle 10º. Tapers steeper than 1 in 4 (> 14º) shall
not be accepted.

b
Taper gradient a:b

1 4
3

2 5 4 2

Key
1 - laminate overlay
2 - pipe end
3 - laminate length
4 - tapered pipe ends
5 - pipe centre line

Figure 1 Laminated joint

7.17.4 Mechanical bell-and-spigot O-ring seal lock joints

Bell-and-spigot lock joints should not be used for above ground piping and pipeline systems
with diameters greater than 600 mm.
For above ground and buried piping and pipeline systems with design pressure higher than
3 bar (44 psi), bell-and-spigot lock joints shall not be used for systems with diameters
greater than 1400 mm (56 in).
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7.17.5 Flanged joints

Flanged joints facilitate connections between GRP and steel, e.g. pipe, vessels, equipment,
and allow easy assembly and disassembly.
Design calculations for GRP flanges shall be in accordance with ASME RTP-1.
G-ST type gaskets (steel ring reinforced elastomer with a hardness of Shore A 55-75)
should be used.
For chemical service, expanded PTFE, so-called e-PTFE should be selected. These
gaskets can be used up to the maximum temperature rating of GRP, and design pressures
up to 20 bar (290 psi).
For flange diameters larger than 1000 mm (40 in), an O-ring seal may be selected, to be
agreed by the Principal.
Because GRP flanges can be easily damaged by too high bolt torque, the maximum
allowable bolt torque shall be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s specifications.
7.17.6 Threaded jonts
Three types of threaded connections are allowed for both medium and high pressure pipe
systems, typically in the range 40 bar to 300 bar (580 psi to 4350 psi):
1. Male/Male joint using a coupler with standard API threads (e.g. EUE 10RD,
EUE 8RD, so called round threads);
2. Female/Male threaded integral joint with standard API threads and sealing via the
threads using e.g. PTFE tape or special compounds as recommended by the
Manufacturer;
3. Female/Male coarse threaded "integral" joint, including O-ring seal.
To reduce friction and enhance sealing performance, thread fillers may be used, e.g.
graphite and/or ceramic particle filled compounds. PTFE-based lubricants may also be
used to reduce friction, i.e. to facilitate low make and break torque. The compounds
SHALL [PS] be compatible with the fluids to be transported.
Threaded connections which conform to API standards shall meet the requirements of
API 15 HR.
7.17.7 Criticality and reliability
For buried pipe systems where the emission of aromatic hydrocarbons and/or toxic fluids
(as defined in DEP 01.00.01.30-Gen.) is a HSE concern, e.g. pollution of ground waters,
adhesive-bonded, laminated, or “screwed and glued” joints, SHALL [PS] be used.
7.17.8 Metallic / GRP interfaces
Interfaces with metallic components, e.g. piping, vessels, equipment, etc., shall be flanged,
and flat-face flanges SHALL [PS] be used.
The making of metallic interface connections by other means, e.g. overwrapping of metallic
pipe ends with GRP shall not be accepted, unless qualified in accordance with (4.2).
7.17.9 Instrument connections
Instrument connections SHALL [PS] match the pressure, temperature and chemical
resistance capabilities of the main pipe systems. The end of the branch pipe shall be
flanged and the flanged end dimensions shall conform to DEP 31.38.01.11-Gen.
The design and execution of the GRP branch pipe shall ensure sufficient robustness to
withstand external forces, rough handling, etc and it shall adequately support the complete
weight of any assemblies attached, including temporay (testing) arrangements.

7.18 REPAIR PROCEDURE

Repair procedures should be taken into account during the design stage of the GRP
pipeline or piping system.
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Repair procedures shall also be developed covering the type of repairs considered likely for
the piping or pipeline systems being installed. This might include the installation of a
laminated joint in an adhesive bonded pipeline, made necessary by impact damage or
failure of a joint. Field repairs of threaded joints are also often required.
Jointers and procedures for repairs shall be qualified in accordance with Appendix A.
The repair procedure shall be produced and qualified by the Contractor in accordance with
the Manufacturer’s recommendations and reviewed by the Principal prior to
implementation.
Repair systems offered shall be qualified according to section 4.2.