Module
Charge
controller
Battery
Inverter
AC/DC loads
PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEMS
Analysis and Design
A.K. Mukerjee
Nivedita Thakur
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Analysis and Design
A.K. Mukerjee
Chief Scientific Officer (Retd.)
Centre for Energy Studies
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Nivedita Thakur
Associate Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
New Delhi
New Delhi-110001
2011
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS—Analysis and Design
A.K. Mukerjee and Nivedita Thakur
© 2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4417-4
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Introduction 1–13
1.1 History of Solar Cells 1
1.2 Overview of Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Technologies 1
1.3 Types of SPV Systems 2
1.4 SPV Energy Status in India 2
1.4.1 SPV Achievements in India 4
1.5 Solar Photovoltaic Energy—The international scenario 10
References 12
2 The Sun 14–30
2.1 Solar Spectrum 14
2.2 Impact of Earth’s Atmosphere on Sunlight 16
2.2.1 Air Mass 21
2.3 Measurement of Solar Radiation 21
2.3.1 Pyranometer 22
2.3.2 Pyrheliometer 26
2.3.3 Solar Cell Based Technique 28
2.4 The Data Logger 28
References 30
v
vi C ONTENTS
3 Solar Cell Characteristics 31–77
3.1 Semiconductor Physics 31
3.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 31
3.1.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors 32
3.1.3 Energy Level Diagrams 35
3.2 p–n Junctions and Formation of Solar Cells 37
3.2.1 Types of Solar Cells 40
3.3 Solar Cell Characteristics and Their Measurements 41
3.3.1 Current versus Voltage (I–V) Characteristics 41
3.3.2 Calculation of Solar Cell Parameters and Efficiency 43
3.3.3 The Capacitance versus Voltage (C–V) Plot 56
3.3.4 Spectral Response Measurements 63
3.3.5 Light Beam Induced Current (LBIC) Technique for Defect Location 66
3.4 Solar Array Simulators 70
Questions 74
References 75
4 The PV System 78–116
4.1 General Photovoltaic (PV) Systems 78
4.2 The PV Module 79
4.3 The PV Array 81
4.4 Partial Shading of a Solar Cell and a Module 82
4.5 The Diode 83
4.6 The Power Conditioning Unit (PCU) 83
4.6.1 The Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) 84
4.6.2 Battery Charge/Discharge Controller 85
4.7 Inverter for AC Loads 87
4.8 Mounting of Panels for an Array 87
4.8.1 Fixed Tilted Modules 88
4.8.2 The Effect of Solar Radiation 92
4.8.3 The Effect of Temperature 93
4.9 Sun Tracking 96
4.9.1 Single Axis Tracking 96
4.9.2 Dual Axis Tracking 105
Questions 114
References 115
5 Balance of System (BOS): Batteries 117–157
5.1 Cells and Batteries 117
5.2 Primary and Secondary Cells 118
5.3 Lead Acid Cell 120
5.3.1 Construction 120
5.3.2 BIS Standards on Lead-Acid Batteries 123
CONTENTS vii
5.3.3 Charging the Lead-Acid Battery 124
5.3.4 Properties of Lead-Acid Batteries 135
5.3.5 Deep Discharge Batteries 140
5.4 The Nickel Cadmium Storage Cell 144
5.4.1 Chemistry of the Nickel Cadmium Storage Cell 144
5.4.2 Properties of the Nickel Cadmium Cell 145
5.4.3 Memory Effect 146
5.4.4 Charging Characteristics 146
5.5 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Cells 149
5.5.1 Difference between Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) and
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Cells 150
5.6 Lithium Cells 150
5.6.1 Charging Level 151
5.6.2 Discharge and Charge Rates 152
5.7 Comparisons of Cells with Different Chemistries—The Ragone Plots 154
Questions 156
References 156
6 BOS: Inverters for AC Loads 158–175
6.1 Introduction 158
6.2 Conversion and Inversion 159
6.3 Sine and Square-wave Inverters 159
6.4 Pulse Width Modulation 161
6.5 Sine Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) 162
6.6 Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter 164
6.7 Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter 167
6.7.1 Bipolar Voltage Switching for SPWM 167
6.7.2 Unipolar Voltage Switching for SPWM 169
6.8 Design of an SPWM Inverter 172
Questions 175
References 175
7 BOS: Maximum Power Point Trackers 176–209
7.1 Maximum Power Point Trackers 176
7.1.1 The Concept of MPPT 177
7.1.2 Topology of an MPPT 178
7.1.3 Overview of Control Algorithms 179
7.2 The Perturb and Observe (P&O) 180
7.2.1 Voltage Based P&O 180
7.2.2 Duty Cycle Based P&O Algorithm 181
7.2.3 Variants of the P&O Algorithm 183
7.2.4 Three Point Search Method 183
7.2.5 History of Two Points to Avoid Oscillations 184
7.2.6 The Concept of Drift 184
viii C ONTENTS
7.3 Incremental Conductance (INCC) 185
7.3.1 Improvements in INCC 187
7.4 Hybrid/Complex Methods 187
7.4.1 Hybrid Algorithm I 187
7.4.2 Hybrid Algorithm II 188
7.4.3 Other Hybrid Algorithms 189
7.5 Data Based Techniques and Other Approximate Methods 190
7.5.1 Crude Method 190
7.5.2 Pilot Cell Method 190
7.5.3 Constant Voltage and Constant Current Methods 190
7.5.4 Look-up Table Method 190
7.6 Instrument Design 191
7.6.1 Buck Topology-Based System 191
7.6.2 The Boost Converter-Based MPPT 194
7.6.3 2.5 kW Buck-Based Self-Contained Stand-Alone Tracking System 198
References 206
APPENDIX 208
8 BOS: Other MPP Tracking Techniques 210–222
8.1 Partial Shading on PV Modules 210
8.1.1 Hybrid Techniques Addressing Local Maxima 211
8.2 Sensor Reduction Schemes 212
8.2.1 Current Sensor Based Technique for Battery Charging 212
8.2.2 Approximate Method: Constant Voltage Ratio 212
8.2.3 Constant Current Ratio Method 214
8.2.4 Other Methods 214
8.3 Hardware-Modification Based Technique 218
8.4 Comparison of MPP Tracking Techniques 218
References 221
9 Design Examples 223–278
9.1 Design of a 1 kW Stand-alone Photovoltaic Power Supply 223
9.1.1 The Size of the Battery Bank 225
9.1.2 Array Size 226
9.1.3 Distance between Modules in the Array Formation 229
9.1.4 Costing 232
9.2 PV Based Lighting: CFL and LED Based Solar Lanterns and Streetlights 233
9.3 Large Area Lighting Using High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps 245
9.3.1 System Overview 247
9.3.2 HID Lamp and Need of Electronic Ballasts 248
9.3.3 Method of Using a PFC as DC to DC Boost Converter 249
9.3.4 Experimental Arrangement 250
9.3.5 The Oscillator Stage 253
9.3.6 Working of the Circuit 254
9.3.7 Construction Details of Some Components 256
CONTENTS ix
9.4 A PV Powered Fan and Pump 262
9.4.1 Determination of the Motor Horsepower for a Pump 265
9.5 A Hybrid System 270
Questions 275
References 276
10 A Grid Interactive PV System 279–310
10.1 Export of PV Power to Grid 279
10.2 Phase, Frequency Matching and Voltage Considerations 280
10.3 The IEEE Standard 929–2000 for Power Transfer from Inverter to Grid 281
10.3.1 IEEE Standard 929–2000 Issues 283
10.4 Operation of a Grid Interactive Inverter 286
10.5 Protections against Islanding and Reverse Power Flow 289
10.6 Circuit Description of a Grid Interactive Inverter 290
10.7 Grounding and Other Considerations 293
10.8 Surge Protection 303
10.9 EMI Suppression 304
10.10 Wire Sizes and Voltage Ratings 304
10.11 AC Modules 305
10.12 Requirements of IEC 61727 306
10.12.1 Harmonics and Distortion Limits 306
10.12.2 Power Factor 307
10.12.3 Islanding 307
10.12.4 Under or Over Voltage and Frequency 307
10.12.5 Recovery Time after Disconnection 308
10.12.6 Earthing, Short Circuit Protection and Isolation 308
Questions 308
References 309
11 Design of Transformers, Inductors and Line Filters 311–352
11.1 Magnetic Field in Coils 311
11.1.1 Transformers 313
11.1.2 Design of Transformers 315
11.2 Design of Inductors 324
11.2.1 Inductance of a Coil or Solenoid 329
11.3 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Filter Design 338
11.3.1 Design of Filters 344
References 348
APPENDIX 349
Index 353–357
Photovoltaic Systems : Analysis And
Design
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Author : MUKERJEE, A. K. ,
Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 978812034 4 174
THAKUR, NIVEDITA
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