CHAPTER 11: Temperature control  Freezing point of water is 32 degrees

 Fundamentals of temperature  Boiling point is 212 degrees

 TEMPERATURE - measure of AVERAGE °F = ( x °C ) + 32

kinetic energy of individual particles of a
substance where °C is Celsius Scale

 THERMAL ENERGY - total energy of all Celsius Scale

particles
 Developed by Anders Celsius
 HEAT - thermal energy moving from a
warmer object , trying to reach equilibrium  Similar scale was designed by Christin of Lyons

 THERMODYNAMIC TRANSFER  Freezing point of water is 0 degrees

 CONVECTION - occurs when heat is  Boiling point is 100 degrees

transferred through a gas or liquid by the
hotter material moving into a cooler area °C = (°F - 32)

 CONDUCTION - is the movement of heat where °F is Fahrenheit Scale

or electricity through a material without any
 Differential temperature
perceptible motion of the material.
 Defined as comparisons of temperatures.
 RADIATION - is a method of heat transfer
that does not require particles to carry the  Usually uses differential temperature controller
heat energy.
 The differential temperature controller is a comparing
 Temperature Measurements controller with at least two temperature sensors that
control one or more devices.
 Describes the process of measuring a current
local temperature for immediate or later Relative efficiency =
evaluation

 Performed by instruments placed at the

energy source, the controller, or the system Note that no heat exchanger system can operate 100 percent
load. efficiently
 To provide good control of industrial  Temperature-indicating devices
processes, accurate measurement of
temperature are essential  Several different types of heat-sensitive materials
have been developed solely for indication and
There are several reasons to monitor temperature in process monitoring purposes.
control applications:
 These temperature- sensing are usually made of
1. Required for combining two chemicals to form a crystalline solids.
compound.
 They are applied to or placed near the object
2. Over-temperature condition must be avoided to being monitored.
prevent explosions.
 These heat-sensitive indicators are accurate
3. Temperature must be kept below freezing point for within one percent and respond within a few
food storage. tenths of a second.
4. Fuel cost can be minimized and conserved by  Crayons – they are available in stick
ensuring heating system is consuming energy form. Manufactured in 100 different
efficiently. temperature ratings.
 Temperature scales  Paints - a paint indicator is a lacquer
that dries to a dull finish. Its finish turns
Fahrenheit Scale glossy and transparent. Often used in
smooth surfaces to which crayons
 First temperature scale
cannot stick.
 Developed by Gabriel Fahrenheit
  Pellets – used where extended heating  constructed by using a paste-like metal
periods are involved or when oxidation oxide mixture (bead)
of a work piece might obscure
 Sintering - mixture is hardened when
 Labels – each indicator changes color at exposed to heat
a specific temperature
 Negative Temperature Coefficient – as temp.
LIQUID-GLASS THERMOMETER ↑,more electrons become available and the
resistance ↓.
 a closed tube with a reservoir at the bottom
and is partially filled with a liquid. FILAMENTS

 it operates on the principle that materials  cathode ray tubes in television and
expand when exposed to heat. oscilloscope

 The temperature reading is taken by  use heater coils

comparing the top level of liquid to the
corresponding number on an adjacent RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
temperature scale.
 used in a temperature-sensing device.
FILLED-BULD THERMOMETER Constructed by placing a coil of fine wire
inside a housing to protect from outside
 More durable than glass thermo. Capable of contamination.
providing feedback action for control purposes and
recording temp. variations over a period of time.  Positive Temperature Coefficient – as temp.
↑, their resistance ↓.
 Bulb- primary sensor that detects changes
in thermal.  RTD resistance – at freezing- ice point ( 0
degree)
 Capillary-tube that connects the bulb to
pressure-volume element  Thermocouple

 Element- spiral tube that bends due to  It is a transducer that converts heat into
pressure voltage.

 linkage-physically connected to pressure-  The amount of voltage developed by a

volume element thermocouple junction is affected by the
amount of heat applied to it. Higher the
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER temperature, greater the voltage produced.

 Made of two dissimilar strips that are  Thermocouples are used in industry to
physically bonded together. measure temperatures of oven and furnaces,
molten plastic vats and nuclear reactor
 As temperature changes, the strip will bend cores.
in the direction of the metal with lower rate.
 Seebeck effect
 The strip can be attached to an indicator
scale used to provide feedback signal.  It is a phenomenon in which a temperature
difference between two dissimilar electrical
ELECTRONIC SENSORS conductors or semiconductors produces a
voltage difference between the two
 Thermoresistive - change resistance as the substances.
ambient temp. varies (thermistors and
resistive detectors) Some common thermocouple metal combinations:
 Thermoelectric –produce a voltage  Iron-Constantan (Type J)
proportional to the surrounding temp.
(thermocouples) The iron produces the positive voltage and
the constantan produces the negative voltage. Materials are
THERMISTOR rugged, but the iron wire is susceptible to oxidation.
 temperature exhibits a large change in  Copper-Constantan (Type T)
electrical resistance when subjected to a
relatively small change.
 The copper produces the positive voltage Non-Black body : E=1, R>0 and T>0
and the constantan produces the negative voltage. Used in
low-temperature application.  Emissivity - the ratio of total energy radiated
by an object to the emitted energy of a black
 Chromel-Alumel (Type K) body made of the same material at same
temperature. For black body is 1.0 while for
 The chromel is the positive voltage and non-blackbody falls between 0.0 and 1.0
alumel produces negative voltage.
Recommended for high-temperature  Applications where conventional sensors cannot be
applications and in high-oxidizing employed:
conditions, but not reducing atmospheres.
 When objects are moving (rolling mills,
 Chromel-Constantan (Type E) glass making and conveyor belts)

 Chromel produces the positive voltage and  Where temperatures are extremely hot
constantan produces negative voltage. It has
the highest sensitivity and can be used over  Where non-contact measurements are
a wide range of temperatures. It should not required because of contamination
be used in application with reducing
atmospheres.  Where corrosive and hazardous conditions
exist
Selection of thermocouple is based on the following
considerations:  Where measurements are taken from a
distant
 1. Temperature range
 Different techniques used to measure radiant energy:
 2. Susceptibility to oxidation
 Broadband Pyrometers
 3. Reducing atmosphere
 Uses lens system or sight tube that directs
 4. Sensitivity the radiation onto a blackened reference
surface inside the instrument.
 5. Accuracy
 Thermopile – a device consists of several
 6. Cost thermocouples connected in series to
provide greater sensitivity to small changes
in temperature.

 Radiation thermometry  Optical Pyrometers

 It is a method that infers temperature by  An optical pyrometer measures the infrared

measuring the thermal energy radiated from wavelengths of heat and directly shows the
the surface of the measured body. user the heat distribution of an object. Other
pyrometers usually have a screen that
 Radiation Pyrometer is the instrument used provides the results of an optical scan.
for readings. “pyrometer” – measures high
temperatures.  Ratio Pyrometers

 Every object at a temperature above 0  It differs from other pyrometers for it takes
radiates electromagnetic energy where the measurements of two different frequencies
frequency range of EM waves varies directly emitted by an object.
proportional to the temperature.
 A two-color pyrometer consists of two one-
 It is based on the assumption that the total color pyrometers in the same package. It
energy emitted by a body is the result of its uses two detectors, operating at two separate
temperature which is called “black body”. wavelengths, but both detectors see the same
hot target.
 Most do not radiate energy from temperature
alone. Instead, they reflect and transmit radiate  Ratio = (RP – BP) / (1.0-
energy. 0.8)

E + R + T = Radiated Energy

Black body : E=1, R=0 and T=0