Btech Thesis on

STUDY OF FLOW OF GRANULAR SOLIDS

THROUGH HORIZONTAL ORIFICES
For partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Chemical Engineering

Submitted by:
Satarupa Dhir
Roll Number- 109CH0071

Under the esteemed guidance of:

Prof Pradip Rath

Department of Chemical Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

2013
 National Institute of Technology Rourkela

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Study of Flow of Granular Solids through
Horizontal Orifices” submitted by Satarupa Dhir (109CH00071) in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering
at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela is an authentic work carried out by her under
my supervision and guidance.

To best of knowledge, the matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted to any other
university or institute for the award of any degree.

Prof Pradip Rath Date:

Department of Chemical Engineering, Place: Rourkela
National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela-769008

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to make my deepest appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Pradip Rath for his
valuable guidance, constructive criticism and encouragement during every stage of this
project. I am totally indebted to him for providing me the right guidance to work on an
emerging area of chemical engineering. He was very supportive throughout the project and
was always ready to help.

I owe a depth of gratitude to Prof. R K Singh, H.O.D, Department of Chemical Engineering,

for all the facilities provided during the course of my tenure and also to Prof H.M Jena for
being uniformly excellent advisor.

I would like to thank Shri J. Nayak for his help during my experiments. I would also like
thank Shri S. Mohanty for arranging the accessories in time.

I would like to thank all faculty and friends of Chemical Engineering Department, NIT
Rourkela for their support and encouragement. Lastly I would like to thank my grandparents,
parents and sister for their constant support, encouragement and good wishes, without which
this thesis wouldn’t have been possible.

Satarupa Dhir
ID: - 109CH0071
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela

ii
 ABSTRACT

A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete macroscopic particles. They have

properties different from those commonly associated with solids, liquid and gases. The
science of granular media has a long history with much engineering literature devoted to
understanding how to deal with these materials. Many of our industries rely on transporting
and storing granular materials. These include the pharmaceutical industries that rely on the
processing of various powders and pills, agricultural and the food processing industry where
various seeds, grains, and foodstuffs are transported and manipulated. The construction-based
industries are also included. Flow rate of granular solids through various sizes and shapes of
orifice is necessary so as to properly size the opening for flow control during transfer of
materials. The flow rate is key to calculate the kinematic parameters and velocity profile of
the solids in the column. In the past most of the work upon the flow rates of granular solids
have been the by-product of research into pressure distribution in hoppers or bins. In this
study, the variable of importance influencing the mass rate like orifice diameter, particle
diameter, particle density and angle of repose are studied and an empirical equation is
suggested relating them all.

Keywords: Horizontal orifice, Granular materials, Mass Flow rate, Empirical equations.

iii
 CONTENTS

Title PAGE NO.

Abstract iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
Nomenclature viii
Chapter 1 1
1. Introduction 2
1.1 Granular Materials 2
1.2 Granular Solids 2
1.3 Granular Liquids 2
1.4 Granular Gases 3
1.5 Objective 3
Chapter 2 4
2. Literature Review 4
2.1 Flow through Circular Orifices 5
2.1.1 Experimental Setup 5
2.1.2 Critical Factors 8
2.2 Flow Pattern 8
2.2.1 Funnel Flow 9
2.2.2 Mass Flow 10
2.2.3 Expanded Flow 10
Chapter 3 11
3. Experimental Setup and Procedure 12
3.1 Apparatus Design 12
3.2 Material used and Properties 13
3.2.1 Determination of Material size 13
3.2.2 Determination of Angle of Repose 13
3.2.3 Determination of Bulk density 14
3.3 Procedure 14

Chapter 4 15

iv
4. Results and Discussions 16
4.1 Influence of column head on the flow rate 16
4.2 Influence of diameter of the column on the flow rate 18
4.3 Dimensional Analysis 21
4.4 Comparison of theoretical model with experimental 24
Data
4.5 Calculation of velocity profile in the columns 27
4.6 Future Work 34
Chapter 5 35
5. Conclusion 36
Reference 38

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Figure description Page No

number
1 Flow patterns of granular solids. 9
2 Experimental setup in the Material handling lab. a), b)- Column 12-13
used, c) Orifice Plates.
3 Measurement of angle of repose. 13
4 Mass flow rate (W) vs. orifice diameter (d0) for glass beads. 19
5 Mass flow rate (W) vs. orifice diameter (d0) for mustard seeds. 19
6 Mass flow rate (W) vs. orifice diameter (d0) for aluminium balls. 20
7 Mass flow rate (W) vs. orifice diameter (d0) for sand. 20
8 Mass flow rate (W) vs. orifice diameter (d0) for dolomite. 21
0.4
9 Mass flow rate (W )vs. orifice diameter for glass beads. 22
10 Mass flow rate (W0.4) vs. orifice diameter for mustard seeds. 22
11 Mass flow rate (W0.4) vs. orifice diameter for aluminium balls. 23
12 Mass flow rate (W0.4) vs. orifice diameter for sand. 23
13 Mass flow rate (W0.4) vs. orifice diameter for dolomite. 24
14 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=5cm and 30
D=2.5cm.
15 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=10cm and 30
D=2.5cm.
16 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=20cm and 31
D=2.5cm.
17 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=30cm and 31
D=2.5cm.
18 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=5cm and 32
D=9.5cm.
19 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=10cm and 32
D=9.5cm.
20 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=20cm and 33
D=9.5cm.
21 Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=30cm and 33
D=9.5cm.

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Table description Page No

number
1 Values of k for different materials. 7
2 Properties of various regular and irregular materials. 14
3 Influence of column head on on flow rate of glass beads. 16
4 Influence of column head on on flow rate of mustard seeds. 16
5 Influence of column head on on flow rate of aluminium balls. 17
6 Influence of column head on on flow rate of sand. 17
7 Influence of column head on on flow rate of dolomite. 17
8 Influence of column diameter on on flow rate of granular 18
materials.
9 Calculation of error percent for glass beads. 25
10 Calculation of error percent for mustard seeds. 25
11 Calculation of error percent for aluminium balls. 26
12 Calculation of error percent for sand. 26
13 Calculation of error percent for dolomite. 27
14 Velocity of glass beads at height 5cm and 10cm for column of 28
2.5cm.
15 Velocity of glass beads at height 20cm and 30cm for column of 28
2.5cm.
16 Velocity of glass beads at height 5cm and 10cm for column of 29
9.5cm.
17 Velocity of glass beads at height 20cm and 30cm for column of 29
9.5cm.

vii
 NOMENCLATURE

ρp , ρs = Particle Density.

D0= Orifice Diameter.

μs= Static Friction factor.

α= Angle of Repose.

Θ= Inclination angle of the orifice plate.

W= Mass flow rate

A= Area of the orifice.

Dh= Hydraulic diameter.

d= Particle diameter.

ρB= Bulk Density.

λ= Shape factor.

viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
 [Link]

1.1 GRANULAR MATERIALS

Granular materials are conglomeration of discrete macroscopic particles. They are

characterized by two important aspects[1]:-

 Loss of energy whenever some amount of interaction occurs (mostly due to friction)
during collision.
 Ordinary temperature plays no role.

Granular materials are present everywhere and second most manipulated material in the
industry. They exhibit range of complex pattern forming behaviors when excited.

1.2 GRANULAR SOLIDS

When the average energy of the individual grains is low and grains are stationary relative to
each other, then they act like solid. In general granular solids are not distributed uniformly.

1.3 GRANULAR LIQUIDS

When the energy is fed into the granular system such as by shaking, the grains are not in
constant contact with each other. They are said to be in fluid like state. When freely flowing,
granular materials have flow characteristics resembling Newtonian fluids. Bulk flow
characteristics of granular materials differ from homogenous fluid in several ways like:-

 Granular fluid tends to clog when forced through constrictions.

 It is impossible to achieve turbulence in granular materials.
 They can support small shear stresses indefinitely.
 Granular materials are often inhomogeneous and anisotropic.
 They exhibit avalanches.
 When held in tall silos no height dependent pressure bed occurs as it does in normal
fluid. The pressure at the base of the container does not increase indefinitely as the
height increases, instead it reaches a maximum value independent of height.

2
1.4 GRANULAR GASES

When the interaction between grains becomes highly infrequent then the materials are
said to be in gaseous state. In this state the materials would tend to cluster and clamp due
to the dissipative nature of collision.

Some examples of granular materials are nuts, coal, sand mustard, saw flakes, glass
beads, ball bearing, fertilizers, rice and other grains. Powders are special class of granular
material due to their small particle size which makes them more cohesive and suspended
in gas.

Study of flow of granular materials is important in many industries as they rely on storing
and transportation. For example: - pharmaceutical industry depends on processing of
powders and pills, agriculture and food industries require storage and transportation of
seeds, grains and foodstuffs.

1.5 OBJECTIVE

There has been little systematic work published in literature upon the flow characteristics
of granular solids flowing through hoppers or flat bins. Due to lack of any reliable
formula for predicting the flow rate of granular solids the design of bins is somewhat
empirical in nature. It is the objective of this paper to investigate the flow of granular
materials through various orifices from vertical columns to find the effect on variables
such as bulk density, head, orifice diameter, particle diameter and container diameter on
the flow rates.

3
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR ORIFICE[2]

Effect of following variables was made:-

 Orifice diameter.
 Particle diameter.
 Particle density.
 Angle of repose (both static and kinetic).
 Bed height.
 Void fraction.
 Angle of inclination of orifice.

2.1.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:-

Material was poured into vertical glass column and was allowed to flow downward through a
circular orifice in a 1/16 inch plate (1.58 mm). The orifice was horizontal and centered at the
bottom. Column diameter from 1.76 inch to 8.81 inch was used. The particle diameter was
varied from 0.03inch to 0.2 inch. The diameter was determined by the average of direct
measurement for large particles and by arithmetic average screen mesh size of fraction of
smaller particles. Particle density was varied from 7.34lb/ft 3 to 670lb/ft3. Static bed void
fraction was calculated from particle density and bulk density values. Angle of repose was
calculated in a special apparatus. It consist of a rotating drum 1ft in diameter and 8 inch long
with axis fixed in a horizontal position and having a front face of transparent Lucite plastic
through which various angles of repose could be observed. The curved surface was
roughened and drum was rotated at about 5 to 6 rpm. The maximum angle of repose
attainable by solid surface before moving or cascading downward was recorded as static
angle of repose

Equation used was:-

(1)

Orifice can also be inclined at an angle θ with the horizontal. Then the modified flow rate can
be defined as:-

5
 α θ
θ α (2)

Fowler and Glastonbury[3] also suggested an empirical equation relating all the variables with
flow rate.

(3)

Where

ds = λd

and λ i.e. shape factor is calculated by LEA and NURSE apparatus.

They reduced the empirical equation to a less tedious final equation:-

(4)

The more popular equation was suggested by Beverloo [4]. Materials used by him included
linseed, rapeseed, turnip and sand. Number of characteristic properties such as bulk density
and angle of repose were determined. Particle size distribution of seeds and sand was found
by screening method. The flow rate was determined by catching material during definite time
after the flow had become stationary. Then the material caught was weighed. The
experimental results can be compared to the theoretical one:-
(5)

The mass flow rate W is expressed in gm/[Link] the above experiments it can be inferred
that the height of packing has no influence on the flow rate. The diameter of the cylinder also
doesn’t affect the flow rate. Particle size has a slight influence on the flow, but its affect
decreases as the ratio of orifice diameter to particle size increases. When the ratio is more
than 20 then the influence is negligible. It is seen that the flow rate decreases from circular,
square, rectangular to triangular shaped orifice diameter.

It is now well established that a power law relationship holds between the rate of flow of the
material and the size of the orifice. A general form of this relationship is:-

W=A (D0)n (6)

On the basis of dimensional analysis carried out by several investigators “n” should have
value of 2.5. Moreover if it is assumed that the material is completely loose packed as it

6
emerges from the orifice, then by analogy with the fluid case and by application of
Bernouilli’s theorem, “n” should also have a value of about 2.5. The values of “n” can be
plotted by varying Log W with Log D0. However, we find exponents of D0 greater than 2.5,
particularly with larger d’s (particle diameter). This might be explained by assuming that
along the margin of the orifice a zone is useless or less fit for use for the flow. The size of
that zone is proportional to d, so that the equation W = B (D0-k d)2.5 may be valid. In this
equation “k” is a dimensionless constant. By plotting D0 against W0.4 we found the following
values for k.

Tab 1:- Values of k for different materials

linseed k = 1.5 spinach k = 1.4
Swede k = 1.5 kale k = 1.4

sand k = 2.9 rapeseed k = 1.4

watercress k = 1.3 turnip k = 1.4
For all the seed samples examined it can be therefore assumed that the average value of “k”
to be 1.4.

The variations in “k” are probably related to the surface properties, but no correlation with
the angle of repose could be established. The equation can be
used for all seed samples for circular orifices. Calculations with this equation show for all the
seeds within the scope of investigations deviations of about 5 per cent.

It follows that the equation

(7)

may be applied for orifices of various shapes. Using the effective hydraulic diameter so
that

= Dh – 1.4d (8)

And the effective orifice area A’, the equation shows a smaller deviation value for various
materials.

7
2.1.2 CRITICAL FACTORS

The flow is affected by the ratios of particle, orifice and tube diameters but these can be
eliminated if one ensures that the orifice diameter is at least 6 times the particle diameter, the
tube diameter is at least the 4/3 power of the orifice diameter and the head of the material is
always greater than twice the tube diameter[5][6]. Voidage effects, although known to be small
were minimized by filling the tube always from the same height. If the orifice is smaller in
size, the beverloo equation fails and jamming can occur. The flow stops due to the formation
of an arch spanning over the opening. This arch is called an avalanche. From the size of the
avalanche and its duration the mean flow can be determined. A formula has been proposed to
discuss the flow rate while jamming:-

(9)

Where,

R is the ratio of diameter of the orifice outlet and the diameter of the beads/ material used.

2.2 FLOW PATTERNS [7][8][9]

In most situations where granular materials are stored in bins, the material is removed from
bins through an opening in the center of the bottom. If the material is free flowing, it usually
flows from the bin in one of the three types of pattern shown:-

8
Fig 1:- Flow patterns of granular solids.

2.2.1 FUNNEL FLOW

It occurs in bins with flat bottoms or bins with slopping bottoms in which the angle which the
bottom of the bin makes with the vertical is less than the critical angle termed as hopper
angle. Here the material first flows from a center “core” which is approximately the size of
the opening at the bottom of the bin and which like a funnel slowly expands in diameter with
height above the opening. A large ring of material is supported by the floor and remains
stagnant. As flow proceeds material from the top surface flows into the funnel of flowing
particles. The major advantages are that it is simple in design and easy to build. Construction
cost is low. When cohesive materials such as ground animal feeds or fine powders are placed
in this type of bin arching may occur and material will flow erratically from the bin.

9
2.2.2 MASS FLOW

All of the materials flow towards exit at the same time and ideally at the same rate. This type
of flow is well suited for processing facilities where additional material is being periodically
added to the top of the bin while material is being withdrawn from the bottom. This type of
bin is used for storage of animal feeds at livestock facilities. The flow is uniform rather than
erratic. Furthermore, the material can act as gas seal because the air entrapped between the
particles moves downwards with the material. The major disadvantage is that, for a given
capacity the bin must be higher to accommodate the slopping bottom. Beam and columns
must be used to support such structures.

2.2.3 EXPANDED FLOW

By constructing the bottom of the bin with two regions having different slopes, mass flow is
achieved in a larger portion of the bin and the size of the stagnant region is decreased. This
expands the active flow region and permits a smaller discharge orifice.

10
 CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND
PROCEDURE

11
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

3.1 APPARATUS DESIGN

Two flat bottomed cylinders made up of Perspex sheet, of different height and internal
diameter 9.5 cm and 2.5 cm were used. Thickness of the cylinder was about 3mm. Four
orifice plates with circular orifices for each cylinder were designed. Material of construction
for these plates include 2mm GI steel sheet. For cylinder of diameter 9.5cm, orifice diameters
used were 1.1cm, 1.2cm, 1.3cm, 1.4cm and for cylinder of diameter 2.5cm, orifice diameters
used were 1.1cm, 1.2cm, 1.3cm and 1.4cm. The cylinders and orifice plates used in the given
study are shown below:-

a) b)

12
 c)

Fig 2:- Experimental setup in the Material Handling lab. a), b)- Column used, c) Orifice
Plates

3.2 MATERIAL USED AND PROPERTIES

Both regular and irregular shaped materials were used to the study the flow rate in the flat
bottomed cylinders. Mono-dispersed circular glass beads, dry mustard seeds and aluminium
balls of specific size were used as regular granular material whereas sand and dolomite
(crushed and sized in ball mill) were used as irregular materials. The properties of the
materials studied are listed in the table 2.

3.2.1 DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL SIZE

The particle sizes were determined in the standard sieve shaker by sieve analysis and ISS
tables were used.

3.2.2 DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF REPOSE

The material was poured onto the center of the pan. The heap was not disturbed for a while
till the movement of particles became stationary. The height and the perimeter of the base
were noted with the help of thread.

α h

Fig 3:- Measurement of angle of repose[10]

13
 Angle of repose α= tan (10)

3.2.3 DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY

The material is poured from a fixed height to completely occupy 100ml in a measuring
cylinder. The amount collected was weighed. The amount collected per unit volume occupied
gives the bulk density of the material. It is different from the true density due to the void
present between the granular particles.

Tab 2:- Properties of various regular and irregular materials.

Material used Average Bulk density Angle of repose(⁰)
dia(cm)
(gm/cc)

Glass beads 0.2 1.54 23

Mustard 0.14 0.65 25-28

Al- Balls 0.14 1.59 22-30

Sand 0.06 1.21 31.7

Dolomite 0.1 1.21 35-40

3.3 PROCEDURE

The orifice plates were fixed to the flat bottom columns with the help of flanges. The column
was placed on a framework with a height from the ground and a pan underneath the orifice.
The material was poured from a fixed height to avoid irregular flow. The bed height was
varied from 30cm to 10cm in the three different columns. After that the orifice was
unplugged and the time was noted till all flow stops. The mass of the sample collected was
weighed and thus mass flow rate was calculated. This procedure was repeated three times for
a particular height in each column with a fixed orifice plate. Then the column height was
varied along with the different orifice plates and readings were noted.

14
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

15
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INFLUENCE OF COLUMN HEAD ON THE FLOW RATE

Tab 3:- Influence of column head on flow rate of glass beads.

Orifice Mass flow rate of Glass beads (g/min)
Dia(cm)
H=30cm H=20cm H=10cm

D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm

1.1 811 ---- 783 ---- 702 ----

1.2 1018 1001 955 988 996 947

1.3 1390 1285 1289 1.392 1190 1070

1.4 1419 2037 1337 1792 1304 1616

Tab 4:- Influence of column head on flow rate of mustard seeds.

Orifice Mass flow rate of Mustard (g/min)
Dia(cm)
H=30cm H=20cm H=10cm

D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm

1.1 443 334 424 364 412 345

1.2 586 623 591 665 581 568

1.3 737 681 662 719 622 620

1.4 847 1102 795 934 774 891

16
 Tab 5:- Influence of column head on flow rate of aluminium balls.
Orifice Mass flow rate of Aluminium balls (g/min)
Dia(cm)
H=30cm H=20cm H=10cm

D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm

1.1 983 858 969 700 789 785

1.2 1165 1391 1159 1512 1215 1223

1.3 1561 1501 1681 1645 1385 1275

1.4 1836 2389 1780 2077 1395 1836

Tab 6:- Influence of column head on flow rate of sand.

Orifice Mass flow rate of Sand(g/min)
Dia(cm)
H=30cm H=20cm H=10cm

D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm

1.1 1172 886 1160 1079 1054 861

1.2 1366 1881 1354 1635 1302 1507

1.3 1939 2105 1768 1794 1500 1676

1.4 2126 2593 2069 2514 1870 2331

Tab 7:- Influence of column head on flow rate of dolomite.

Orifice Mass flow rate of Dolomite (g/min)
Dia(cm)
H=30cm H=20cm H=10cm

D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm D=2.5cm D=9.5cm

1.1 793 ---- 754 ---- 742 ----

17
 1.2 934 1187 930 1281 791 1064

1.3 1331 1269 1159 1346 1244 1261

1.4 1535 2049 1444 1759 1293 1704

4.2 INFLUENCE OF THE DIAMETER OF THE COLUMN ON THE FLOW RATE

Tab 8:- Influence of column diameter on flow rate of granular materials.

Orifice Mass flow rate (g/min)
Dia
Glass Beads Mustard Al- Balls Sand Dolomite
(cm)
D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D= D=2.5 D= D= D=9.5 D= D=9.5
9.5 9.5 2.5 2.5
cm cm cm cm cm cm
cm cm cm cm

1.1 811 ----- 426 348 914 781 1128 942 764 ----

1.2 989 979 586 619 1179 1375 1341 1674 885 1177

1.3 1289 1249 674 673 1542 1474 1736 1858 1245 1292

1.4 1353 1815 805 976 1670 2100 2022 2479 1424 1837

Based on the observed values, graph was plotted for Mass flow rate vs. diameter of the orifice
of the granular materials. The nature of graph showed a nonlinear rise. However the diameter
of the column has no influence on the mass flow rate of the regular and irregular materials as
the flow rates for the same orifice diameter remains nearly same for columns of diameter
2.5cm and 9.5cm.

18
 Glass Beads
2000
1800

Mass flow rate, W(gm/min)

1600
1400
1200
1000
D=2.5 cm
800
D=9.5 cm
600
400
200
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0(cm)

Fig 4:- Mass flow rate (gm/min) vs orifice diameter (cm) for glass beads.

Mustard Seeds
1100
1000
Mass flow rate, W(gm/min)

900
800
700
600 D=2.5 cm
500 D=9.5 cm
400
300
200
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0(cm)

Fig 5:- Mass flow rate (gm/min) vs orifice diameter (cm) for mustard seeds.

19
 Aluminium Balls
2300
2100

Mass flow rate, W(gm/min)

1900
1700
1500
D=2.5 cm
1300
D=9.5 cm
1100
900
700
500
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0 (cm)

Fig 6:- Mass flow rate (gm/min) vs orifice diameter (cm) for aluminium balls.

Sand
2600
Mass flow rate, W(gm/min)

2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400 D= 2.5 cm

1200 D= 9.5 cm
1000
800
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Orifice diameter, d0 (cm)

Fig 7:- Mass flow rate (gm/min) vs orifice diameter (cm) for sand.

20
 Dolomite
2100
1900

Mass flow rate, W(gm/min)

1700
1500
1300
1100
D= 2.5 cm
900
700 D= 9.5 cm

500
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0 (cm)

Fig 8:- Mass flow rate (gm/min) vs orifice diameter (cm) for dolomite.

4.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

From Literature it has been observed that the mass flow rate W of a free flowing granular
material through a circular orifice of diameter d0 in the base of the flat bottomed flat
bottomed column might reasonably be expected to depend on the depth of material in flat
bottomed column H, the diameter of the flat bottomed column D, particle diameter d, the
gravitational acceleration g, the bulk density if the material B as shown below:
W= f (d0, d, H, D, g, B)

From the experiments carried out it has been observed that neither the flat bottomed column
diameter D nor the quantity of materials in the column as typified by the height H has any
significant effect on the flow rate. Moreover since d<<d 0 the effect of particles is slight. This
can be shown below:
W = f (D, H, d)
Therefore, W α d0a gb B
c

W= A d0a gb c
B , where A is a constant of proportionality.
LHS: W= M1T-1 RHS: d0a gb B
c
= Mc La+b-3cT-2b
After comparison of the coefficients we observe that:-c=1, b=0.5, a=2.5
Therefore the Flow rate could roughly be expressed as:
W= A (11)

However it has been observed that a margin along the orifice diameter is useless and is
proportional to particle diameter. The effective orifice diameter can be defined as:-

21
Therefore,
W=A (12)

This can be further verified by plotting W0.4 vs. D0 which gives a straight line as shown
below.

Glass Beads
22
20 y = 22.005x - 10.755
R² = 0.9975
Mass flow rate, W^0.4,gm/min

18
16
14
12 y = 11.697x + 1.8245
R² = 0.9472
10 D= 2.5 cm
8 D= 9.5 cm
6
4
2
0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0(cm)

Fig 9:- Mass flow rate(W0.4 )(gm/min) vs orifice diameter(cm) for glass beads.

20
Mustard Seeds
Mass flow rate, W^0.4,gm/min

y = 17.295x - 8.678
15 R² = 0.9926

y = 10.733x - 0.433
10 R² = 0.9933

D=2.5 cm
D= 9.5 cm
5

0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0 (cm)

Fig 10:- Mass flow rate(W0.4 )(gm/min) vs orifice diameter(cm) for mustard seeds.

22
 25
Aluminium Balls
y = 22.414x - 9.7195

Mass flow rate, W^0.4,gm/min

20 R² = 0.9569

15 y = 14.393x - 0.3585
R² = 0.9639

10 D= 2.5 cm
D= 9.5 cm

0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0(cm)

Fig 11:- Mass flow rate(W0.4 )(gm/min) vs orifice diameter(cm) for aluminium balls.

Sand
y = 23.776x - 9.958
25
R² = 0.9415
Mass flow rate, W^0.4,gm/min

20

15 y = 15.048x - 0.0065
R² = 0.9908
D= 2.5 cm
10 D= 9.5 cm

0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0 (cm)

Fig 12:- Mass flow rate(W0.4 )(gm/min) vs orifice diameter(cm) for sand.

23
 25
Dolomite

Mass flow rate, W^0.4,gm/min

y = 28.18x - 17.095
20 R² = 0.9843

15 y = 16.45x - 3.0083
R² = 0.9622
D= 2.5 cm
10 D= 9.5 cm

0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Orifice diameter, d0(cm)

Fig 13:- Mass flow rate(W0.4 )(gm/min) vs orifice diameter(cm) for dolomite.

The intercept from the graph would give us the value of k. The value of k can also be found
out by substituting the values in the general equation. Thus the mass flow rates of the
granular materials can be correlated with the parameters as shown below:

For Glass Beads: W=21.72

For Mustard Seeds: W=54.25

For Aluminium Balls: W=34.45

For Sand: W=44.77

For Dolomite: W=48.54

4.4 COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL MODEL WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA

After deriving the general empirical formula for the granular materials as shown above, it
was validated by comparing with experimental flow rates observed and error percent was
calculated for all the granular materials.

24
 Tab 9:- Calculation of error percent for glass beads.
Orifice Theoreti- Observed mass Error%
dia cal mass flow rate of
flow Glass
(cm)
rate(g/min) Beads(g/min)

D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D=9.5

cm cm cm cm

1.1 772.66 811 ---- 4.96 ----

1.2 1009.59 989 979 2.04 3.03

1.3 1285.49 1289 1249 0.27 2.84

1.4 1602.28 1353 1815 15.56 13.28

Tab 10:- Calculation of error percent for mustard seeds.

Orifice Theoreti- Observed mass Error%
dia cal mass flow rate of
flow Mustard
(cm)
rate(g/min) seeds(g/min)

D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D=9.5

cm cm cm cm

1.1 374.05 426 348 13.89 6.96

1.2 535.31 586 619 9.47 15.63

1.3 732.38 674 673 7.97 8.11

1.4 967.56 805 976 16.80 0.87

25
Tab 11:- Calculation of error percent for aluminium balls.
Orifice Theoreti- Observed mass Error%
dia cal mass flow rate of
flow Aluminium
(cm)
rate(g/min) balls(g/min)

D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D=9.5

cm cm cm cm

1.1 861.29 914 781 6.12 9.32

1.2 1173.51 1179 1375 0.47 17.17

1.3 1545.32 1542 1474 0.21 4.62

1.4 1980.09 1670 2100 15.67 6.06

Tab 12:- Calculation of error percent for sand.

Orifice Theoreti- Observed mass Error%
dia cal mass flow rate of
flow Sand(g/min)
(cm)
rate(g/min)
D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D=9.5
cm cm cm cm

1.1 1064.34 1128 942 5.98 11.50

1.2 1414.47 1341 1674 5.19 18.35

1.3 1825.91 1736 1858 4.92 1.76

1.4 2301.87 2022 2479 12.16 7.70

26
 Tab 13:- Calculation of error percent for dolomite.
Orifice Theoreti- Observed mass Error%
dia cal mass flow rate of
flow Dolomite(g/min)
(cm)
rate(g/min)
D=2.5 D=9.5 D=2.5 D=9.5
cm cm cm cm

1.1 697.71 764 --- 9.50 ---

1.2 974.22 885 1177 9.16 20.80

1.3 1307.79 1245 1292 4.80 1.21

1.4 1838.65 1424 1837 22.60 0.09

4.5 CALCULATION OF VELOCITY PROFILE IN THE COLUMNS

The velocity field in the column has very interesting and complex properties. Here the
velocity fluctuations have been observed at selected heights from bottom of the flat bottom
column. The upper surface of the granular materials made flat after filing, altered its profile
while the material flowed. It almost becomes conical in the final stages of the flow. In the
stagnant zones at the sides of the funnel flow, the measured velocities were zero. The high
velocity flow region was located in the vicinity of the orifice. The flow observed was almost
symmetrical.

An empirical description of velocities in the column was carried out. A Gaussian solution for
velocity distribution in a silo was presented by Choi et al[11] as:-

v(x,z) = (13)

where v(x,z) denotes velocity at a point, Q is the flow rate and z is the selected height. The
constant of proportionality b is commonly called kinematic parameter. The above equation
was developed for semi infinite quasi two dimensional system (-∞ < x < +∞) with orifice at
z= 0 which acts like a source of velocity. The value of z can be varied from 5 cm to 60 cm. In
this empirical model the real position of orifice makes no significant difference in the
analyzed measurements.

27
The kinematic parameter has been investigated and suggested by various researchers. For
example b = 2.24d for various particle sizes (by Tuzun and Nedderman) [12], b = 2d for iron
ore particles (by Mullins)[13], b = 3.5d for glass beads (by Samadani)[14].

A sample calculation has been done for glass beads ( d = 0.2cm) using the equation suggested
by Choi.

Tab 14:- Velocity of glass beads at height 5cm and 10cm for column of 2.5cm.
x(cm) Velocity of Glass Beads(cm/s) for D = 2.5cm

z = 5cm z = 10cm
d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4 d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
0 122 149.13 194.36 204.01 86.47 105.45 137.44 144.26

0.5 120.12 146.49 190.92 200.4 85.7 104.51 136.21 142.98

1 113.85 18.85 180.96 189.95 83.4 101.75 132.61 139.19

1.5 104.13 126.9 165.51 173.72 79.79 97.31 126.82 133.12

2 91.89 112.07 146.06 153.31 74.96 91.41 119.64 125.06

2.5 78.25 95.42 124.37 130.55 69.17 84.35 109.94 115.4

Tab 15:- Velocity of glass beads at height 20cm and 30cm for column of 2.5cm.
x(cm) Velocity of Glass Beads (cm/s) for D = 2.5cm

z = 20cm z = 30cm
d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4 d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
0 61.14 74.56 97.18 102.01 49.93 60.88 79.35 83.29

0.5 60.87 74.23 96.75 101.56 49.78 60.7 79.12 83.05

1 60.06 73.24 95.46 100.20 49.33 60.16 78.41 82.3

1.5 58.74 71.63 93.35 97.98 48.6 59.27 77.25 81.09

2 56.93 69.42 90.48 94.97 47.6 58.04 75.65 79.41

2.5 54.69 66.69 86.42 91.23 46.34 56.51 73.65 77.31

28
 Tab 16:- Velocity of glass beads at height 5cm and 10cm for column of 9.5cm.
x(cm) Velocity of Glass Beads (cm/s) for D = 9.5cm

z = 5cm z = 10cm
d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4 d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
0 --- 147.62 188.33 273.68 --- 104.38 133.17 193.52

2 --- 110.93 141.53 205.66 --- 90.49 115.44 167.76

4 --- 47.08 60.06 87.28 --- 58.95 75.20 109.82

6 --- 11.28 14.34 20.91 --- 28.86 36.82 53.51

8 --- 1.53 1.95 2.83 --- 10.61 13.54 19.67

9 --- 0.45 0.58 0.84 --- 5.78 7.38 10.73

Tab 17:- Velocity of glass beads at height 20cm and 30cm for column of 9.5cm.
x(cm) Velocity of Glass Beads (cm/s) for D = 9.5 cm

z = 20cm z = 30cm
d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4 d0=1.1 d0=1.2 d0=1.3 d0=1.4
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
0 --- 73.81 94.16 136.83 --- 60.27 76.89 111.73

2 --- 68.72 87.67 127.41 --- 57.46 73.30 106.52

4 --- 55.47 70.77 102.84 --- 49.81 63.55 92.35

6 --- 38.81 49.51 71.95 --- 39.26 50.08 72.78

8 --- 23.54 30.03 43.63 --- 28.13 35.88 52.14

9 --- 17.38 22.17 32.22 --- 22.98 29.31 42.6

Velocity profile of the glass beads was calculated and plotted against x at different heights of
the column.

29
 z=5cm and D=2.5cm for glass beads
250

200

velocity in cm/s 150

d0 = 1.1cm
d0 = 1.2cm
100
d0 = 1.3cm
d0 = 1.4cm
50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x in cm

Fig 14:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=5cm and D=2.5cm.

z=10cm and D=2.5cm for glass

beads
160
140
120
velocity in cm/s

100
d0 = 1.1cm
80
d0 = 1.2cm
60
d0 = 1.3cm
40
d0 = 1.4cm
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x in cm

Fig 15:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=10cm and D=2.5cm.

30
 z=20cm and D=2.5cm for glass
beads
120

100
velocity in cm/s
80
d0 =1.1cm
60
d0 = 1.2cm
40 d0 = 1.3cm
d0 = 1.4cm
20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x in cm

Fig 16:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=20cm and D=2.5cm.

z=30cm and D=2.5cm for glass

beads
90
80
70
velocity in cm/s

60
50 d0 = 1.1cm
40 d0 = 1.2cm
30 d0 = 1.3cm
20 d0 = 1.4cm
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x in cm

Fig 17:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=30cm and D=2.5cm.

31
 z=5cm and D=9.5cm for glass beads
300

250

velocity in cm/s 200

150 d0 = 1.2cm
d0 = 1.3cm
100 d0 = 1.4cm

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x in cm

Fig 18:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=5cm and D=9.5cm.

z=10cm and D=9.5cm for glass

beads
250

200
velocity in cm/s

150
d0 = 1.2cm
100 d0 = 1.3cm
d0 = 1.4cm
50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x in cm

Fig 19:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=10cm and D=9.5cm.

32
 z=20cm and D=9.5cm for glass
beads
160
140

velocity in cm/s 120

100
80 d0 = 1.2cm
60 d0 = 1.3cm
d0 = 1.4cm
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x in cm

Fig 20:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=20cm and D=9.5cm.

z=30cm and D=9.5cm for glass

beads
120

100
velocity in cm/s

80

60 d0 = 1.2cm
d0 = 1.3cm
40
d0 = 1.4cm
20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x in cm

Fig 21:- Velocity (cm/s) vs. x (cm) for glass beads at z=30cm and D=9.5cm.

It can be observed from graph that with increasing orifice diameter the velocity of the glass
beads increases and the velocity is maximum at lower height i.e. near the orifice of the
column. Towards the wall of the column the velocity of the beads decreases and almost
becomes zero.

33
4.6 FUTURE WORK

To confirm the veracity of the velocity obtained by theoretical model, Digital Particle Image
Velocimetry( DPIV) is to be carried out. DPIV is often used to record flows in silo models or
two dimensional structures. Typical DPIV apparatus consists of digital camera, a strobe/laser
with optical arrangement to limit the physical region illuminated and synchronizer to act as
external trigger to control camera and laser. Recorded images are to be processed and the
velocities of flowing materials are obtained. DPIV is used to obtain instantaneous velocity
measurements and related properties in flow.

Modeling of the granular flow in the flat bottom columns can be done by Computational
Fluid Dynamics(CFD) using suitable software like Ansys.

34
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

35
5. CONCLUSION

A granular material can be defined as any material composed of many individual solid
particles irrespective of particle size. The term granular material embraces a wide variety of
materials from the coarsest colliery rubble to the finest sugar powder. The handling of
granular material is of greatest importance in the chemical industries, it being estimated on
the weight basis. When one adds the vast tonnages of wheat, sugar, iron-ore, cement, sand
and gravel to stored and transported the importance of granular material has become evident.

Information on the flow rate of grain through various sizes and shapes of orifices is needed to
properly size the opening for flow control during transfer of grain. The need for quantitative
information on the variables determining the rate of flow through a restriction has grown the
advent of large scale processes employing moving bed of granular catalyst or other solids.
Knowledge of fluid flow principles is of little help in such problems, since granular material
system either static or moving, deviate markedly from principles due to bridging of solids.

The experiment on the free mass discharge through the circular orifices reveals few facts and
notions which are summarized below:

 The rate of discharge is independent of the diameter of the vessel and of the head of
material inside the vessel as long as the diameter of the vessel is greater than about
1.5 times the orifice diameter and the head is more than twice the orifice diameter.
 A so called “empty annulus”, through which there can be no flow of particles exists
within the edge of the aperture. It has a width which depends on the particle properties
specially the particle size. The width is related to size as kd, where the value of k
increases with decrease in particle size.
 Particle flow through the orifice was spasmodic over small periods of time. The
granular materials sliding down the orifice form a dome over it for a few secs. This
dome breaks as soon as it is formed, material falls out and new dome takes place.
 When larger sized particles was passed through orifice(Glass beads of dia 2mm
passed through 1.1cm orifice dia), jamming occurs. So the ratio of orifice diameter to
particle size should be greater than 6.
 The granular material is characterized by bulk density instead of actual density. This
is because some amount of void are present in the bed due to loose packing of
granular materials.
 By use of curve fitting and least square method a generalized empirical relation was
suggested for flow rates relating to various dependable variables.

36
 W=A

 This relation is more handy and simple as it does not require measuring of various
other variables through complicated procedures. Above equation does not have shape
factor (λ) or friction factor (μ) as their influence is incorporated into the density (ρB)
and particle size (d).
 The error percent between theoretical model and experimental data varied between
0.09% to 22%. Hence the given generalized equation can be used with a degree of
accuracy.

From the empirical model by Choi, the velocity profile obtained showed that with increase
orifice diameter the velocity of granular particles( glass beads) increases. Moreover the
velocity of granular particles increases towards the orifice of the columns.

37
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of Modern Physics, Vol. 68, No. 4, October 1996.

[2] F.C Franklin and L. N. Johanson, “Flow of granular material through a circular orifice”,
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[3] R.T Fowler and J.R Glastonbury, “The flow of granular solids through orifices”,
Chemical Engineering Science, Vol 3, Pg 150-156, 1959.

[4] W.A Beverloo, H.A Leninger and J Van be Velde, “The flow of granular solids through
orifices”, Chemical Engineering Science, Vol 3, Pg 260-269, 1961.

[5] M Ahmad and [Link], “Flow of granular solids through horizontal orifices”, Rheol,
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[6] C.E Davies and [Link], “Blockage in vertical slot: Experimental measurement of
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[7] Angel Garcimartin, Christian Mankoc, Alvaro Janda, Roberto Arevalo, J. Martin Pastor
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[8] [Link] and [Link], “Kinematic model for granular flow in a two-dimensional flat
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[9] Irena Sielamowicz, Michal Czech and Tomasz A. Kowalewski, “Empirical description of
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[10] [Link].

[11] J Choi, A Kudrolli and M Bazant, “Velocity profile of granular flows inside silos and
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[12] R. Nedderman and U Tuzun, “A kinematic model for flow of granular materials”,
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[13] W.W Mullins, “Critique and comparison of two stochastic theories of gravity induced
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38
[14] A Samadani, A Pradhan and A Kudrolli, “Size segregation of granular matter in silo
discharges”, Phys. Rev. E, Vol 60, 1999.

39