VOLTAGE CONTROL
Voltage at terminals of all equipment are within
acceptable limits
both utility and customer equipment designed to operate at
certain voltage rating
prolonged operation outside allowable range could cause them
damage
System stability is satisfactory
voltage levels and reactive power control have significant
impact on stability
The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce I
2R and I 2X losses to a practical minimum
ensures transmission system operates efficiently
Production and Absorption of Q
Synchronous Generators
can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
capability limited by field current, armature current,
and end-region heating limits
automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts
excitation to control armature voltage
primary source of voltage support.
Production and Absorption of Q
Overhead lines
at loads below natural or surge impedance load (SIL),
produce Q
at loads above SIL, absorb Q
Production and Absorption of Q
Underground cables
have high SIL due to high capacitance
always loaded below SIL, and hence generate Q
Production and Absorption of Q
Transformers
absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing reactance and
series leakage inductance
Production and Absorption of Q
Loads
a typical "load bus" is composed of a large number of
devices
composite characteristics are normally such that a
load bus absorbs Q
industrial loads usually have shunt capacitors to
improve power factor
Production and Absorption of Q
As power flow conditions vary, reactive power
requirements of transmission network vary
Since Q cannot be transmitted over long
distances, voltage control has to be effected
using special devices dispersed throughout the
system
Methods of Voltage Control
Control of voltage levels is accomplished by
controlling the production, absorption, and flow
of reactive power at all levels in the system
Methods of Voltage Control
Generating units provide the basic means of voltage
control
Additional means are usually required to control voltage
throughout the system:
sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors,
shunt reactors, synchronous condensers, and static var
compensators (SVCs)
line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers and
boosters
Methods of Voltage Control
Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series
capacitors provide passive compensation
are either permanently connected to the transmission
and distribution system, or switched
contribute to voltage control by modifying the
network characteristics
Methods of Voltage Control
Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide
active compensation; the reactive power
absorbed/ supplied by them are automatically
adjusted so as to maintain voltages of the buses
to which they are connected
together with the generating units, they establish
voltages at specific points in the system
Objectives of Reactive Power
Compensation
To control voltage and/or improve maximum
power transfer capability
Achieved by modifying effective line parameters:
characteristic impedance,
electrical length, θ = βl
The voltage profile is determined by ZC
The maximum power that can be transmitted
depends on ZC as well as β
Series capacitor
Connected in series with the line
Used to reduce effective inductive reactance of line
increases maximum power
reduces I 2X loss
Series capacitive compensation in effect reduces both:
characteristic impedance ZC , and
electrical length θ
Reactive power produced increases with increasing power transfer
Self regulating !
Typical applications
improve power transfer compatibility
alter load division among parallel lines
voltage regulation
Series capacitor
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Series capacitor
• Power transmitted through the transmission system shown in fig is
given by:
Where
P2 = Power transmitted through the transmission system
V1 = Voltage at sending end of the line
V2 = Voltage at receiving end of transmission line
XL= Reactance of the transmission line
δ = Phase angle between V1 and V2
• Equation shows that if the total reactance of a transmission system is
reduced by installing capacitance in series with the line, the power
transmitted through the line can be increased.
Series capacitor
Advantages :
1.To improve voltage regulation of distribution and
industrial feeders.
2.To reduce light flicker problems.
3. To improve system stability.
Drawbacks:
1.High over voltage is produced across the capacitor
terminals under short circuit conditions. Very High
protective equipments is used eg.Spark gap.
2.Reactive power supplied by series capacitor is
proportional to the square of line current & independent
of line voltage.
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Shunt Reactor
Used to compensate the undesirable voltage effects
associated with line capacitance
limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load
Shunt compensation with reactors:
increases effective ZC
reduces the effective natural load , i.e., voltage at which flat
voltage profile is achieved
They are connected either:
directly to the lines at the ends, or
to transformer tertiary windings; conveniently switched as var
requirements vary
Line reactors assist in limiting switching surges
In very long lines, at least some reactors are required to
be connected to lines
Shunt Reactor
•
Power System Operation and Control 18
Used in transmission systems to compensate for I 2X losses
Connected either directly to H.V. bus or to tertiary winding of transformers
Normally distributed throughout the system so as to minimize losses and voltage
drops
Usually switched: a convenient means of controlling voltage
Shunt capacitor compensation of transmission lines in effect
decreases ZC
increases θ, i.e., electrical length
Advantages: low cost and flexibility of installation and operating
Disadvantages: Q output is proportional to square of the voltage; hence Q output
reduced at low voltages
Shunt capacitors are used extensively in distribution systems for power factor
correction and feeder voltage control
Shunt Capacitor
Shunt Capacitor
Fig. Use of shunt capacitors to counteract out-of-phase current
component
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Synchronous Condenser
A synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load
Depending on field excitation, it can either absorb or generate vars
With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust vars to maintain
constant voltage
Started as an induction motor and then synchronized
Normally connected to tertiary windings of transformers
Unlike a SVC, a synchronous condenser has an internal voltage
Speed of response not as fast as that of an SVC
Synchronous Condenser
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Synchronous Condenser
• Advantages:
– Their reactive power production is not affected by the
system voltage.
– During power swings there is an exchange of kinetic
energy between a synchronous condenser and the
power system.
– It has an internal voltage source and is better able to
cope with low system voltage conditions.
– smooth variation of reactive VARs.
• Disadvantages
– Due to high capital cost and complexity, synchronous
condensers are no more preferred
– This system add to short circuit capacity of the
system during fault condition.
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Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
Shunt connected static var generators and/or absorbers whose outputs are varied so
as to control specific power system quantities
The term static is used to denote that there are no moving or rotating components
Basic types of SVCs:
thyristor-controlled reactor
thyristor-switched capacitor
saturated reactor
A static var system (SVS) is an aggregation of SVCs and mechanically switched
capacitors or reactors whose outputs are coordinated
When operating at its capacitive limit, an SVC behaves like a simple capacitor
Tap Changing Transformer
• All power transformers on transmission lines are
provided with taps for control of secondary
voltage.
• The tap changing transformers do not control
voltage by regulating the flow of reactive VARs
but by changing transformation ratio
– There are two types of tap changing
transformer.
1. OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER
2. ON LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER
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OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• Off load tap changers, which requires the
disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting is to be changed.
• Off load tap changers are used when it is to be
operated in frequently due to load growth or
some seasonal change.
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ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• It is used when changes in transformer ratio to be
needed frequently, and
• No need to switch off the transformer to change the tap
of transformer.
• it is used on power transformers, auto transformers and
bulk distribution transformers and at other points of load
service.
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ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• In the fig shown, the voltage is maximum and since the
currents divide equally and flow in opposition through
the coil between Q1 and Q2 the resultant flux is zero and
hence minimum impedance.
• To reduce the voltage, the following operations and
required in sequence:
– Open Q1
– Move Selector Switch S1 to the next contact
– Close Q1
– Open Q2
– Move Selector Switch S2 to the next contact
– Close Q2
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System level control using generator voltage
magnitude setting
• Transformers transfers the reactive power from one side to another
side by altering the in phase component of the system voltage.
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Applications of Tap- Changing Transformers
To supply a desired voltage to the load.
To counter the voltage drops due to loads.
To counter the input supply voltage
changes on load.
Off-load tap changing transformers helps to
maintain satisfactory voltage profile.
ULTC can be used to take care off daily,
hourly, minute-by-minute variation in system
conditions.
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