Final-Report8 0

A STUDY ON REPAIR AND OVERHAUL OF GAS
TURBINE ENGINES
&
STUDY ON EFFECT OF SINGLE CRYSTAL
TURBINE BLADES ON
PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
STUDY CONDUCTED AT -
ENGINE DIVISION
HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED, BANGALORE

A STUDY ON REPAIR AND OVERHAUL OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
Acknowledgement
First of all, we would like to thank the almighty without whose blessings this internship would have not been
possible.
We would like to thank our parents whose support and guidance helped us throughout the internship period.
We would like to thank Mr. R. S. Amruth Kumar (Senior Manager, Assembly and Overhaul Division) for
his great support and guidance. We are grateful to Lt. Col. S. G. Mane for helping during our Security
Clearance. We would also like to thank H.R. Manager Mr. Prakash for his help in arranging this internship.
Moreover, we would like to thank Dr. Sreedhar Madichetty for sharing his knowledge with us. The credit
for knowledge and ideas goes to the engine division and their shop floor people and their set up.
We are very glad that Hindustan Aeronautics Limited under the PS-1 programme by BITS Pilani Practice
School Division, gave us this opportunity to experience the industrial world and work in it with all resources
and support.
And finally, we thank all our partners in practice school for their feedbacks, suggestion and support.
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Abstract Sheet
Abstract:
Aerospace Industry has developed technologically as well as economically since World

War 1 and jet engine has remained at the heart of this development. This report starts with a
brief introduction about engines used in aerospace industry. Then it covers topics according
to the schedule given to us by HAL. Brief Specification and technical problems faced by
various engines available in this division are covered. Most importantly various shops
responsible for overhauling and manufacturing of an aero engine are studied and the
machines used in these shops are also discussed. The later part of the report consists of the
mini project done by us on Single Crystal Blades, which is explained using graphs and
technical data collected on Shakti engine. At last the report concludes with some
suggestions for the improvement of turbine life based on the observation made during this
internship.
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Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Abstract Sheet ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
Contents ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figure ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
List of Flow Charts .................................................................................................................................................... 10
SECTION – A.............................................................................................................................................................. 11
1. About Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ................................................................................................................. 12
1.1 Engine Division, Bangalore ............................................................................................................................ 13
2. Classification of Engines ....................................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Turbojet.............................................................................................................................................................. 15
2.3 Turbofan ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
2.4 Turboprop .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Turboshaft .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.6 Ramjet ................................................................................................................................................................ 17
3. Artouste................................................................................................................................................................... 18
4. Garrett ..................................................................................................................................................................... 19
5. Gnome ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21
6. Orpheus ................................................................................................................................................................... 23
7. Dart.......................................................................................................................................................................... 24
8. Bearing Hospital .................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.1 Bearing cleaning process by Turbomeca: .......................................................................................................... 27
8.2 Bearing cleaning process by Rolls Royce:......................................................................................................... 28
8.3 Bearing cleaning process by Honeywell:........................................................................................................... 29
9. Adour 811 ............................................................................................................................................................... 30
10. Fuel Accessories .................................................................................................................................................. 34
11. Electrical Accessories .......................................................................................................................................... 36
12. Adour 871 ............................................................................................................................................................. 38
13. TM 333 2B2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 39
14. Shakti .................................................................................................................................................................... 41
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15. Computer Numeric Control ................................................................................................................................. 43

16. Non Destructive Testing Lab .............................................................................................................................. 45
16.1 Visual Inspection ............................................................................................................................................. 45
16.2 Fluorescent Penetrant Testing.......................................................................................................................... 45
16.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection ........................................................................................................................... 48
16.4 Eddy Current Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 50
16.5 X-Ray Testing.................................................................................................................................................. 51
16.6 Ultrasonic Testing ............................................................................................................................................ 52
16.7 Hardness Testing ............................................................................................................................................. 52
16.8 Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program ............................................................................................................... 55
17. Gear Shop ............................................................................................................................................................. 56
17.1 Types of Gears: ................................................................................................................................................ 56
17.2 Gear Material: .................................................................................................................................................. 56
17.3 Gear Profile:..................................................................................................................................................... 56
17.4 Gear Nomenclature: ......................................................................................................................................... 57
17.5 Gear holdings and shape of gear: ..................................................................................................................... 57
17.6 Processes of gear manufacturing: .................................................................................................................... 57
17.7 Some Manufacturing processes involved in Gear Manufacturing: .................................................................. 58
18. Machine Shop ....................................................................................................................................................... 60
18.1 Curvic Coupling: ............................................................................................................................................. 61
19. Test House ............................................................................................................................................................ 62
20. Cellular Shop ........................................................................................................................................................ 63
20.1 Laser Drilling Machine .................................................................................................................................... 63
20.2 Electrical Discharge Machine .......................................................................................................................... 64
20.3 NGV grinding machine .................................................................................................................................... 65
20.4 Orbital Welding ............................................................................................................................................... 65
SECTION – B .............................................................................................................................................................. 66
21. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
22. Manufacturing of Single Crystal Turbine Blades.............................................................................................. 68
22.1 Crystal Growth in Bridgman Furnace:............................................................................................................. 68
22.2 Improvements in the method: .......................................................................................................................... 68
23. Coatings on Single Crystal Blades ..................................................................................................................... 69
23.1 Purpose of using a coating: .............................................................................................................................. 69
23.2 Coatings: .......................................................................................................................................................... 69
23.3 Hot Corrosion of Turbine Blades: ................................................................................................................... 71
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23.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings: ............................................................................................................................... 71

23.5 Laterite Deposition: ......................................................................................................................................... 71
24. CMSX-2 Super Alloy .......................................................................................................................................... 72
25. Observation and Analysis.................................................................................................................................... 74
26. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................ 76
27. Scope of Further Study ........................................................................................................................................ 77
28. Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................... 78
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List of Figures
Figure Topic Page No.

Number
1. Block diagram of Brayton Cycle 14
2. Turbojet Engine 15
3. Turbofan Engine 16
4. Turboprop Engine 16
5. Ramjet Engine 17
6. Artouste Engine 18
7. Garrett Engine 20
8. Gnome Engine 22
9. Orpheus Engine 23
10. Dart Engine 24
11. Ball Bearing 25
12. Roller Bearing 25
13. Defects in bearings 26
14. Flaking 26
15. Corrosion 26
16. Wear 26
17. Exploded view of Adour 811 Engine 31
18. Adour 811 Engine 33
19. Engine Fuel System 34
20. Centrifugal pump 35
21. Engine driven pump 35
22. FADEC connections 36
23. Adour 871 Engine 38
24. TM 333 2B2 Engine 40
25. Shakti Engine 42
26. CNC axis nomenclature 43
27. Mechanism of MPI 48
28. Circular magnetisation 48
29. Longitudinal magnetisation 49
30. Eddy current testing 51
31. X-ray testing 51
32. Ultrasonic testing 52
33. Vicker’s hardness testing 53
34. Brinnell hardenss testing 54
35. Rockwell hardness testing 54
36. Gear Nomenclature 57
37. Broaching 60
38. Gear Shaping 60
39. Hobbing 60
40. Lathe 61
41. Grinding 61
42. Convex and concave curvic coupling 61
43. Compressor curvic coupled 61
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44. Test Bed Checks 62

45. Laser drilling machine 63
46. Turbine Blades with Air circulation holes 64
47. NGV Grinding machine 65
48. Single Crystal Blades 67
49. Single crystal casting process 68
50. Blade without aluminide coating 70
51. Blade with aluminide coating 70
52. Oxidation/corrosion levels with time 70
53. Rupture life of CMSX2 72
54. TET over hours 75
55. SFC over TET 75
56. Variation of SFC with oxidation 75
57. Variation of SFC with Turbine OD 75
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List of Tables
Table Topic Page No.
Number
1. Leading Particulars of Artouste Engine 18
2. Leading Particulars of Garrett Engine 19
3. Leading Particulars of Gnome Engine 21
4. Leading Particulars of Orpheus Engine 23
5. Leading Particulars of Dart Engine 24
6. Leading Particulars of Adour 811 Engine 30
7. Leading Particulars of Adour 871 Engine 38
8. Leading Particulars of TM333 2B2 Engine 39
9. Leading Particulars of Shakti Engine 41
10. Important parameters and instruments used in Test House 62
11. Leading Particulars of Laser Drilling Machine 63
12. Composition of CMSX-2 alloy 72
13. Engine Performance Data 74
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List of Flow Charts
Flow Chart Topic Page No.

Number
1. Bearing Cleaning: Turbomeca Process 27
2. Bearing Cleaning: Rolls Royce Process 28
3. Bearing Cleaning: Honeywell Process 29
4. Water Washable Penetrant Process 46
5. Post Emulsifiable Water Washable Penetrant Process 47
6. Magnetic Particle Inspection Process 50
7. Gear Manufacturing Process 58
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SECTION – A
A STUDY ON REPAIR AND OVERHAUL OF

GAS TURBINE ENGINES
AT HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

ENGINE DIVISION, BANGALORE COMPLEX
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[1]
1. About Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
 Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is a Public Sector Undertaking (That is 50% or more paid up capital
of the company is owned by either central or state governments).
 It comes under the administration of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India.
 HAL is an Aerospace and Defence related company.
 HAL manufactures components of strategic importance. Thus it is bound to have differences in its
organisational and administrative structure as compared to other organisations.
 It has operational centres in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Korwa, Lucknow, Nashik and Koraput.
 HAL is classified as a NAVRATNA that is it can invest in projects costing up to INR 1000 Crore
without Government’s permission.
 HAL owns assets worth INR 600 billion (as per data collected in 2014).
 HAL has a monopoly in the Indian Market, as the industry requires immense investments which can
only be met by government support.
 Major Customers include Indian Air Force, Indian Army, Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guards and a
few state governments.
 It often experiences slump in demand by the customer. For efficient use of resources, it works as an
outsourcing agent for foreign manufacturers like Turbomeca, Honeywell, Rolls Royce, etc.
 The organisation in its early incubation days has worked as an interim manufacturer of Railway
Coaches.
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1.1 Engine Division, Bangalore [2]

The Engine Division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (Bangalore Complex) is built for the purpose of
Engine Repair and Overhaul. Due to its limited Research and Development facilities, the Engine Division
of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited has yet not been able to indigenously design an aero engine. It works
under the agreements of Transfer of Technology (TOT). HAL has over the past years signed contracts with
engine manufacturers like Rolls Royce, Honeywell and Turbomeca. Engine Division, HAL, Bangalore thus
under license manufacturers engines, rights for whose designs are held by these private foreign
manufacturers.
The engine division is now upgraded and is now not only involved in the process of manufacturing new
engines but is also involved in the process of repair and overhaul of these engines. As according to set
aviation standards, aviation components have a fixed overhaul life after which they have to compulsorily go
through a comprehensive overhauling process. The engine division thus receives engines or individual
engine components after a fixed period of time for the purpose of repair and overhaul. The division is
responsible for carrying out complete overhaul of the engines accompanied by thorough inspection of
individual components.
The Engine is one of the most critical components of an engine. Ensuring impeccable safety standards is
thus the motto of the engine division which is dedicated to its entirety for this purpose.
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2. Classification of Engines [3]

2.1 Introduction
Gas Turbine Engine, also commonly known as Turbo Engines or Jet Engines, is a type of Internal
Combustion Engine which is used widely throughout the Aviation Industry. Its basic function is to convert
the chemical energy of the fuel into usable energy to power the vehicle. Based on the type of power delivered,
the gas turbine engines are broadly categorized as – Turbojet Engines where power is delivered via the thrust
developed by escaping exhaust gases, Turboprop Engines where power is delivered to a propeller which will
generate the thrust, Turboshaft Engine where power is delivered to a rotating shaft (helicopters) and
Turbofan Engine where power is delivered by exhaust gases with a modification of a fan in the beginning to
bypass cold air.
A Gas Turbine Engine works on the basic principle of Brayton Cycle, which includes an isentropic
compression, an isobaric heat addition – combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat loss. These processes
are carried out in order by a compressor, followed by the combustion chamber, followed by turbines and
then exhaust depending on the type of the engine.
Fig. 1: Block diagram of Brayton Cycle
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Engines have evolved over the past centuries, from a simple to very complex machines. Yet, a lot of
different types of engines are still being used. The classification depends upon the application of the Aircraft.
The Engines used in an Aircraft are basically classified as: -
2.2 Turbojet
The turbojet represents the next level of engine complexity. The turbojet also has a diffuser, which
decreases the fluid velocity and increases the incoming air pressure. Air enters the compressor next, where
the fluid is worked on and the density is increased, and this process is accompanied by an elevation in
pressure and a moderate increase in temperature. The air then enters the combustor, where the injected
fuel burns with the air. The temperature and specific volume of the gas increase significantly. The turbine
is used to extract some of the energy from the air, and this energy is used to drive the compressor; the
turbine and compressor are on the same shaft. Finally, the hot and expanded air, which is still at moderate
pressure, flows through the nozzle and is accelerated to a high velocity to produce thrust.
Fig. 2: Turbo Jet Engine
2.3 Turbofan
The turbofan is at one level of complexity above a turbojet engine. It is a heavier power plant but has
better fuel economy than a turbojet. Two fundamental types of turbofans are used. Each will be described
separately. Turbofans are always multipole engines. In the front of the engine, the air is first diffused.
The air enters the fan, which compresses the air and increases the pressure somewhat. The air is then
split at the "splitter," and a portion of it enters the low-pressure compressor and continues down the
"core" of the engine. Eventually this "core" air exhausts through the primary exhaust nozzle and produces
thrust. The second stream of air is called the "bypass" air. In this engine type, the "bypass" air is
accelerated in the fan nozzle, producing a second or additional thrust. The fan and usually the first few
stages of the low-pressure compressor are driven by the low-pressure turbine. The high-pressure
compressor extracts its energy from the high-pressure turbine.
In a few cases, three shafts are used.
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Fig. 3: Turbo Fan Engine
2.4 Turboprop
Another engine type is the turboprop. For this type, the core of the engine is similar to a turbojet -namely,
a diffuser, compressor, and turbine are used. The core airflow is accelerated through the exhaust nozzle,
which produces one component of thrust. A second component of thrust, and usually the largest, is
obtained from the propeller. The power for the propeller is extracted from the turbo shaft in the core -
that is a part of the turbine work drives the propeller. A gearbox reduces the speed so that the propeller
spins at a lower speed than the compressor.
Fig. 4: Turbo Prop Engine
2.5 Turboshaft
The last aircraft engine type is the turboshaft. It is basically the same as the turboprop except that thrust
is not derived from the exhaust. The gas from the core exhausts at a low velocity, and consequently
additional thrust is not obtained. These engines are used largely for helicopter applications, although it
is noteworthy that turboshaft engines are used to drive tanks and other ground vehicles with a
transmission attached to the shaft in lieu of the rotating blades.
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2.6 Ramjet
The "simplest" jet engine is the ramjet. This engine is only used in very high speed applications and is
not capable of self-propelled take-off. The ramjet is simple because it has no moving parts. Basically,
the engine moves relative to the air with a velocity U. Air enters the diffuser, where the air pressure is
significantly increased owing to the high air speed. Air enters the combustor next and mixes with the
fuel and burns, thus increasing the temperature. Finally, the hot and expanded gases are accelerated and
leave the engine through the nozzle, producing thrust.
Fig. 5: Ramjet Engine
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3. Artouste
The Artouste Engine was first manufactured in 1947, by a French company named Turbomeca. Soon after,
HAL along with another few companies have taken the license to manufacture it at home. This engine
being a turboshaft type is generally used for helicopters. The major specifications are mentioned below:
S.No. Parameter Value

1. Type Single Shaft Turbine Engine
2. Compressor 2 Stage – Axial followed by Centrifugal
3. Compressor Ratio 5.2:1
4. Turbine 3 Stage Axial Flow
5. Combustion Chamber Annular
6. Engine RPM 33,500
7. Thrust(kg)/Power(SHP) 550 HP, Residual Thrust- 60kg
8. Jet Pipe Temperature 430˚C
9. Specific Fuel Consumption 0.34
(kg/SHP/hr)
10. Turbine Entry Temperature 703°C
11. To Be Overhauled 1750 hrs
12. Aircraft Chetak and Cheetah Helicopters
13. Length (m) 1.814 m
14. Max Diameter (m) 0.5 m
15. Weight (kg) 177 kg ± 3%
16. Air Mass Flow 4.5 kg/s
Table 1. Leading Particulars of Artouste Engine
Fig. 6: Artouste Engine
General problems faced by this engine are:

● Combustion snarl
● Jet holder leak
● Low compression mass flow
● Oil/fuel leak
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4. Garrett
Garrett Engine is a Turboprop Engine, designed originally in 1959 by Garrett AiResearch, and manufactured
commercially by Honeywell Aerospace. Indian Defence uses Garrett Engine in Dornier and Rudra 5T. It
was designed to be used as both turboshaft and as a turboprop engine but the turboshaft version never went
into production. Here are some major engine specifications:

1. Type Turboprop Engine
2. Compressor 2 Stage Centrifugal
3. Compression Ratio 10.5:1
4. Turbine 3 Stage
5. Combustion Chamber Reverse Annular
6. Engine RPM 41730
7. Thrust (kN) 7.15
8. Jet Pipe Temperature 1693 K
(kg/SHP/hr)
10. Turbine Gas Temperature 1855 K
11. To Be Overhauled 3600 hr
12. Aircraft Dornier
13. Length (m) 1.11
14. Max Diameter (m) 0.7
15. Weight (kg) 162
Table 2. Leading Particulars of Garret Engine
Few common issues faced by the Garrett Turboprop Engine are-

 High Pitched Ground Noise
 Unusual Vibrations
 Increase in Specific Fuel Consumption
 Damaged Bearings
 Minor Fuel/Oil Leaks
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Till now more than 13000 Garrett Engines have been manufactured and it has proven to be the most
reliable and proven turboprop engine of the world. Its key features are-
 High Horse Power; enabling shorter take off and faster climb
 Good power to weight ratio
 Better fuel efficiency
 Long maintenance intervals with low overhaul costs
 High life of engine parts
Fig. 7: Garrett TPE 331-5
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5. Gnome
The Gnome engine was originally developed by de Havilland Engine Company under license from General
Electric (T58 engine). There are two versions of this engine, one is a turboshaft while the other is a turboprop
engine. The last engine was produced in 1998 and currently only repair and overhaul is being done.

1. Type Turbo Shaft Engine
2. Compressor 10 Stage axial flow
3. Compression Ratio 8.5:1
4. Turbine Gas generator: 2- stage axial flow
Power turbine: 1- stage axial flow
6. Engine RPM 27500
7. Thrust (kN) 1535
8. Jet Pipe Temperature 735°C
(kg/SHP/hr)
10. To Be Overhauled 1400 hr
11. Aircraft Sea King Helicopter
12. Length (m) 1.376
13. Max Diameter (m) 0.574
14. Weight (kg) 168
Table 3. Leading Particulars of Gnome Engine
Some common issues with the GNOME engine are:
 Oil leaks/ High Oil consumption – This is due to flange and bearing leaks
 IGV system wear – There is loss of datum settings
 General issues like erosion, corrosion and dirty compressors
 Cracked exhaust casing
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This engine uses a FADEC system for engine management. Additionally, there is an actuator to adjust the
direction of Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV). There were significant upgradations carried out to increase power
and efficiency of the engine. The final version produced a maximum of 1660shp compared to the 1050shp
of first model. The former was specifically designed to operate in high and hot conditions. It has reduced
lapse rate thus power is retained even at high ambient temperature.
Fig. 8: Gnome Engine
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6. Orpheus
The Orpheus Engine was first manufactured in 1957, by a British company named Bristol Siddeley. Soon
after, HAL along with another few companies have taken the license to manufacture it in India. This engine
being a turbojet type is generally used for trainer aircrafts. The major specifications are mentioned below:

1. Type Turbo Jet
2. Compressor 7 stage axial compressor
3. Compressor Ratio 3.78:1
4. Turbine Single Stage Turbine
5. Combustion Chamber Can Annular
6. Engine RPM 9500
7. Thrust(kg)/Power(SHP) 1875/4200+/-84
8. Jet Pipe Temperature 647 deg. C
(lb/lb/hr)
10. Turbine Gas Temperature 1066 deg. C
11. To Be Overhauled 550 hours
12. Aircraft Kiran MK-II
13. Length (m) 2.29 m
15. Weight (kg) 420 Kg
16. Air Mass Flow 38.10 Kg/s
Table 4. Leading Particulars of Orpheus Engine
*Kiran MK-II aircraft is used in aerobatics.
 Crack in fir tree of turbine blades

 High jet pipe temperature
 Low Power
 High vibrations
Fig. 9: Orpheus Engine
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7. Dart
The Dart Engine was first manufactured in 1946, by a British company Rolls Royce. Soon after, HAL
along with another few companies have taken the license to manufacture it in India. This engine is a
turboprop type engine. The major specifications are mentioned below:

1. Type 533-2 Turbo Prop 536-2 Turbo Prop
2. Compressor 2 stage (centrifugal) 2 stage (centrifugal)
3. Compressor Ratio 5.62:1 5.62:1
4. Turbine 3 stage 3 stage
5. Combustion Chamber Can Annular Can Annular
6. Engine RPM 15000 15000
7. Thrust(kg)/Power(SHP) 1875 SHP(dry) 1875 SHP(dry)
1990(wet) 2040(wet)
8. Turbine Gas Temperature 780 deg. C
9. Jet Pipe Temperature 810 deg. C 810 deg. C
10. Specific Fuel Consumption 0.348 0.348
(kg/SHP/hr)
11. To Be Overhauled 3800 hrs 3800 hrs
12. Aircraft Avro (HS 748) Avro (HS 748)
13. Length (m) 2.49 m 2.49 m
14. Max Diameter (m) 0.96 m 0.96 m
15. Weight (kg) 628.6 Kg 628.6 Kg
16. Air Mass Flow 10.66 Kg/s 10.66 Kg/s
Table 5. Leading Particulars of Dart Engine
 Low torque
 Low oil pressure
 Turbine gas temperature fluctuations
Fig. 10: Dart Engine
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8. Bearing Hospital [4]

Bearings are elements used in machines to prevent relative motion between fixed components and
reduce friction between moving parts thus increasing the life of a machine component. Generally, they are
two types of bearing – Ball and Roller Bearings.
Ball bearings use metallic balls to get the desired function of bearings. They can take both radial
and thrust loads very easily making them very efficient in numerous applications. The use of balls is to
minimize the contact surface between the layers of bearings so it helps the component along with the balls
to rotate easily.
Fig. 11: Ball Bearing
Roller bearings use cylinder like rolls instead of balls, thus increasing the contact surface to a line
rather than a point. This helps them to take even larger loads but is still not very useful in handling high
thrust loads. The cylinders having a very small diameter help the bearings to fit in very small places.
Fig. 12: Roller Bearing
Bearings are very important in the aeronautical industry. The various causes of damages in bearings are:
 Fatigue – Continuous loads applied for number of cycles

 Shocks
 Use of unsuitable materials
 Lubrication failure
 Overheating
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The main types damages caused due to these are:
 Brinell Effect
 Burnishing, Glazing
 Break
 Surface corrosion, oxidation
 Wear
 Galling
 Dents, Indentation
 Scores, Scratches
 Skidding
 Flaking Fig. 13: Defects in bearing
If any of these defects are found under microscope in the view inspection, the entire bearing is
rejected.
In HAL, they use 3 processes for the maintenance and inspection of the bearings. The basic flowcharts of
these 3 processes are mentioned further:
Fig. 14: Flaking Fig. 15: Corrosion
Fig. 16: Wear
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8.1 Bearing cleaning process by Turbomeca:
Flowchart 1: Turbomeca Cleaning process
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8.2 Bearing cleaning process by Rolls Royce:
Flowchart 2: Rolls Royce cleaning process
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8.3 Bearing cleaning process by Honeywell:
Flowchart 3: Honeywell cleaning process
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9. Adour 811 [5]

Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The only difference between Adour Mk.
811 and Adour Mk. 871 is that Adour 811 has an additional module having afterburner. The Adour has
two-stage low pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors which are driven by separate,
single stage high pressure and low pressure Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with low pressure
shaft passing through high pressure shaft. The major specifications are mentioned below:

1. Type Turbofan Engine
2. Compressor 2 Stage LP Axial + 5 Stage HP Axial
3. Bypass Ratio 0.75:1
4. Turbine 1 HP + 1 LP
6. Engine RPM N1 = 13,600
N2 = 15,512
7. Thrust (kN) 25.00 (dry)
37.37 (wet)
(kg/SHP/hr)
10. Turbine Gas Temperature 1485K
12. Aircraft Jaguar Fighter Jet
13. Length (m) 2.9 m
Table 6. Leading Particulars of Adour 811 Engine
● High Turbine entry temperature

● Low compressor speed
● Correct rotation of LPT
● Foreign object damage
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This engine has been divided into 12 modules.
Fig. 17: Exploded view of Adour 811 engine
These are-
9.1. LP COMPRESSOR- The fluid first enters the fan and then the low-pressure (LP) compressor,
which is usually on the same shaft as the fan. The Low Pressure compressor consists of one
stage titanium rotor blades (27 blades) then one stage aluminium stator blades then one stage
aluminium rotor blades (32 blades). Here the compressor ratio is 1:25
9.2. LP STATIC COMPRESSOR- This Module only has stator blades which are made of
Aluminium. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses the
direction of the fluid. This type of arrangement, forces stator to be stationary with respect to
fluid. It can spin in the opposite direction only, and thus the fluid changes its direction as it hits
the blades of the stator.
9.3. INTERNAL GEAR BOX- The design of the internal gearbox is complicated by the heat and
small space available in which to connect the driveshaft. Module 3 is where bypass of air starts
and the twin spool concept also starts here. It is a low bypass type of engine
9.4. HP COMPRESSOR- The High pressure compressor has 5 stage rotor and 4 stage stator. The
rotor blades are titanium while the stator blades are made up of aluminium. Here the compressor
ratio is 1:45. The no. of blades in the Rotors are:
1st stage - 41 blades
2nd stage – 45 blades
3rd stage - 49 blades
4th stage – 47 blades
5th stages – 49 blades
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9.5. HP NOZZLE GUIDE VANES – Nozzle Guide Vanes are placed just after the Combustion
Chamber. It is made of Steel to withstand high temperatures. They are the stator blades of
turbine. They are convex and shaped like airfoils. They direct the airflow onto the turbine blades
while at the same time converting pressure energy into kinetic energy. As the gases coming out
of the combustion chamber pass through the nozzle guide vanes, they accelerate due to
convergent design. On passing through the NVGs, gases are given a “spin” or a “swirl” in the
direction of the rotation of the turbine rotor blades. The latter absorb this energy, causing the
turbine to rotate at a high speed.
9.6. HP TURBINE- It consists only of one stage. It has 78 nemonic rotor blades.
9.7. LP NOZZLE GUIDE VANES- After passing through the turbine, the pressure energy has
already been converted into Kinetic Energy. So Low Pressure NGV’s are used to guide and
accelerate the remaining amount of flow. LP NGV has 24 blades.
9.8. LP TURBINE- It also has only one stage. It consists of 94 rotor blades. Here again, since the
flow has been converted into low pressure by NGV, LP turbine is used.
9.9. EXHAUST CONE- Exhaust Cone are present after the Turbine Stage to guide the air from the
nozzle and accelerate it to gain high Thrust. The exhaust cone acts as an aerodynamic cover for
the turbine hub/shaft and is part of the convergent duct geometry at the very aft of the exhaust
that converts the high pressure gas coming off the last turbine stage into high velocity gas as it
exits the engine (creating more thrust).
9.10. HS GEARBOX- Module 10 consists of gear box and many small accessories like LP pump,
HP pump, AC generator, air starter. In order to mount accessories closer to the engine, this
subassembly is kept in a curved casing. The casing is a pair of light alloy castings. Separate
machined mounting pads are provided for each accessory. The drive within the casing is
provided by a train of spur gears. The accessories are assembled on both sides of the driveshaft
entry. The order of which is according to reducing speed.
9.11. FUEL TANK AND FILLET- Module 11 consists of oil tank (21 pins cap), fuel control unit,
re-heat fuel control unit. Oil control unit has 3 filters oil filter, LP fuel filter, RH fuel filter. Oil
System basically has three functions-
9.11.1. Reduce Vibration
9.11.2. Cooling of the Engine Parts
9.11.3. Lubrication of the parts such as bearings.
The capacity of this engine’s Oil Tank is 21 pints (1 pint=0.57 litres). The grade of Oil used here is OX27.
The rate of Consumption is 1 pint/hour. Although the maximum amount of oil consumed is 8 pints after
which it gives warning to the Pilot.
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Module 10 and 11 together comprises all the accessories and gear box which can be assembled separately
and then assembled with the engine.
9.12. JET PIPE (AFTERBURNER)- This module has catalytic ignitors which are fitted to the
afterburner. The afterburner system has a separate combustion System which is done by ignitors
fitted in it. The Thrust which we obtain after activating the afterburner is called Wet Thrust. In
this engine, the wet Thrust is 37.5 KN.
Note: The Combustion Chamber is considered as a NMP (Non Modular Part), So it is not listed under
modules.
Fig. 18: Adour 811 Engine
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10. Fuel Accessories [6]
The fuel delivery system remains the most important Accessory System among all other Accessories. The
basic working of a fuel delivery system is to first extract fuel from the fuel tank, which is accomplished via
a fuel pump. Next, the fuel is passed through a fuel filter to minimise foreign object damage, it's passed
through pipes having return check valves to keep a check on the direction of fuel flow. The fuel flow is then
divided into multiple streams depending on the number of inlets and the type of combustion chamber. An
Auxiliary fuel delivery system also exists to deliver fuel during starting of the engine with individual torch
ignitors in some engines. The fuel delivery system hasn’t changed much from its introduction but has only
undergone few minor improvements to introduce higher safety levels such as leak proofing, backup fuel
channels etc.
Fig. 19: Engine fuel system
FOHE: Fuel – Oil Heat Exchanger
LP: Low Pressure
HP: High Pressure
FMV: Fuel Metering Valve
GTS: Gas Turbine Starter
 Fuel Filter – They are generally designed to clear impurities of size range of 10 – 25 microns. They
are generally made of either cellulose paper or metal mesh.
 Fuel Pumps – Are generally of two types – Gear Driven and Micro pump. Gear driven pump are
driven via accessory gear drive which is powered by the main shaft, hence its pumping is directly
affected by Engine RPM. The micro pump is to adjust the fuel pressure and is electrically driven via
the fuel Control unit.
 Speed Governor – It maintains fuel flow in order to have constant Engine RPM at all load bearing
conditions.
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 Flow Divider – It is responsible to divide fuel flow where ever and whenever necessary. During
combustion, it delivers fuel to Torch Ignitors, and in case of blockages, it bypasses fuel to backup
channels.
 Torch Ignitors – It starts up the combustion process by igniting the fuel by a spark plug. It is
controlled by DI Control via the Engine ECU.
 Fuel Metering Unit – Its major component is the Fuel Metering Valve which have different designs
such as, 3D cam, pressure diaphragm, and pressure shafts to control fuel flow.
 Solenoid Valves – Are basically, solenoid controlled Shut off valves which actuates when the engine
shuts down and during emergencies where fuel supply needs to be cut off from the reservoir.
 Pressure Switch – It gives signals through AC Box to change over the starter function to generator
function of starter and gives indication to cockpit.
 Fuel Oil Heat Exchanger – It preheats the fuel to avoid icing from heat taken from oil.
Fig. 20: Centrifugal pump Fig. 21: Engine driven pump
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11. Electrical Accessories [7]
11.1 FADEC
Engine control in aircraft is commonly done by a system known as Full Authority Digital Engine control
(FADEC) in an aircraft. It consists of digital computer which is responsible for management of engine
parameters.
The various parts of FADEC:
 Two electronic control units
 Central air digital computer
 FADEC sensor set
 Wiring harness (low voltage)
 Health Status Annunciator (HSA)
Each and every parameter of the engine is controlled by FADEC. There is no option of manually overriding
the control. In case of a failure of FADEC the complete engine fails. FADEC receives multiple parameter
input from sensors and can be categorized into two:
 From engine: Throttle lever position, RPM, engine temperatures, exhaust gas temperature, exhaust
nozzle area, bearing temperature, fan duct flap position and engine pressures.
 From aircraft: Ambient temperature, altitude, angle of attack, landing gear position, Mach number,
impact pressure and missile firing system(if any)
These inputs are analyzed and an optimum configuration of the engine is set. The basic function is to get
optimum efficiency from the engine. Further it aids in starting and restarting of the engine. In order to
improve the factor of safety multiple channels are employed and to ensure the validity of the signals passed.
Also to avoid mishap in complete failure two FADEC computers are employed in modern aircrafts.
Fig. 22 FADEC connections
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11.2 Starter Generator

It ensures starting of aircraft power plant and supplies aircraft power system with DC power under 28.5V.
The starter is a compound motor while generator is a DC shunt generator that runs at about 4600-7000rpm.
11.3 Tacho Generator

It measures the engine RPM. It is a 3 phase AC machine with 4 pole permanent magnet rotor from engine
and running in at 3 phase stator.
11.4 Dual Ignition Coil
It is used to produce high voltage DC current to produce an arc for initial fuel ignition. Here critical
components like spark plugs and magnetos are duplicated. There are mainly two advantages of dual ignition
coil:
1. It provides redundancy in case one of the ignition coil fails in-flight.
2. Dual setup provides more efficient burning as compared to single ignition coil.
11.5 Oil Pressure Transmitter
It generates potential proportional to the oil pressure and thus gives an indication of the oil pressure to the
cockpit area.
11.6 Low Oil Pressure switch
It gives a warning light when engine oil pressure goes below a predetermined value. The oil pressure is an
important factor that ensures longevity of the engine. Sufficient oil is necessary at rotating and moving parts.
11.7 Torch Ignitor Cable
It supplies high voltage to torch ignitors from dual ignition coil during the ignition process.
11.8 Radio Screen
It is a filter to suppress the parasite in conductor that are either transmitted by a machine or received by the
receiver.
11.9 Relay Starter
It is used to establish and interrupt the electric circuit to the starter generator by energizing and de-energizing
a solenoid actuator.
11.10 Thermocouple
It is used to measure temperature by giving a potential proportional to the same.
11.11 Automatic Control Box (Non-FADEC engines)
It monitors and control the whole starting sequence of the engine. It safeguards against faulty action on the
part of pilot. It also controls stopping and ventilation.
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12. Adour 871
The only major difference between this and Adour Mk. 811 is of after burner. As it lacks afterburner it
consists of only 11 modules. The major specifications are mentioned below:

1. Type Turbofan Engine
2. Compressor 2 Stage LP Axial + 5 Stage HP Axial
3. Bypass Ratio 0.8:1
4. Turbine 1 HP + 1 LP
6. Engine RPM N1 = 13,600
N2 = 15,512
7. Thrust (kN) 57.30 (dry)
25.48 (wet)
(kg/SHP/hr)
10. Turbine Gas Temperature 1552K
12. Aircraft Hawk Trainer Jet
13. Length (m) 4.17 m
Table 7. Leading Particulars of Adour 871 Engine
● High Turbine entry temperature

● Low compressor speed
● Correct rotation of LPT
● Exhaust issues
Fig. 23: Adour 871 Engine
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13. TM 333 2B2

Turbomeca TM 333 engines were manufactured especially for helicopters having a mass of 4 to 5 tons. It
was introduced in 1980s for commercial use and received a huge success due to its compact size, because
of its single power turbine model compared to other common multi power turbine designs. Turbomeca has
granted license to HAL for the manufacture of TM 333 2B2 engines to power HAL Dhruv ALH
helicopters.
Different Versions of the ALH Dhruv have been developed which include ALH Dhruv MK-I, ALH Dhruv
MK-II, ALH Dhruv MK-III and ALH Dhruv MK-IV.

1. Type Turboshaft
2. Compressor 3 Stage
2 Axial + 1 Centrifugal
3. Compression Ratio 10:1
4. Air Fuel Ratio 45:1
6. Turbine 2 Stage
1 HP + 1 Power
8. Gas Generator Speed (100%) 45000 rpm
9. Power Turbine Speed (100%) 37562 rpm
10. Output Shaft Speed 6000 rpm
11. Maximum Take-off Power 825 kW
12. Specific Fuel Consumption ( SFC ) 0.323 kg/kWh
13. Oil Consumption 0.3 l/h
14. Maximum Oil Pressure 300 kPa
15. Maximum Oil Temperature 1150 C
16. Turbine Gas Temperature ( TGT ) 6700 C
17. Time Between Overhaul ( TBO ) 750 h
18. Aircraft Advanced Light Helicopter -
Dhruv
19. Length 1.045 m
20. Maximum Diameter 4.54 m
21. Mass 167 kg
Table 8: Leading Particulars of TM333 2B2
 Module 1:
Reduction gearbox: Reduction gear with helical gear, accessory drive and output shaft
(2 stage reduction)
 Module 2:
Gas generator: Annular air intake two stage axial compressor
Single stage centrifugal compressor
Annular reverse flow combustion chamber
Single stage axial turbine
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Power Turbine: Single stage power turbine
 Engine control and monitoring: Through Full Authority Digital Engine Control
(FADEC) (Single channel)
Fig. 24: TM333 2B2 Engine
General problems faced by this engine:
 High TGT and TGT overshoot

 Low torque
 Negative power and thermal margin
Advantages of Shakti Engine (For Dhruv MK-III and MK-IV) over TM 333 2B2:
Shakti Engine gives 12% higher power than TM 333 2B2 because:
1. Dual centrifugal Compressor assembly
2. Single Crystal Blades
3. Dual Channel FADEC
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14. Shakti
The design of Shakti (or also known as Ardiden by Turbomeca) was developed jointly by both India and
France (HAL and Turbomeca) and the engine is much more powerful than TM 333 2B2, mainly because it
has two power turbines to transfer energy to the output shaft, whereas TM 333 2B2 had only one. There
are some issues regarding its performance in certain scenarios like high altitude, and if that were to be
removed by further research and testing, it has the potential to make TM 333 engines obsolete.

1. Type Turboshaft
2. Compressor 2 Stage Centrifugal
3. Compression Ratio 12:1
4. Air Fuel Ratio 45:1
6. Turbine 3 Stage
1 HP + 2 Power
8. Gas Generator Speed 39598 rpm
9. Power Turbine Speed 20899 rpm
10. Output Shaft Speed 6000 rpm
11. Maximum Take-off Power 1032 kW
12. Specific Fuel Consumption ( SFC ) 0.323 kg/kWh
13. Oil Consumption 0.3 l/h
14. Jet Pipe Temperature ( JPT ) 1152 K
15. Time Between Overhaul ( TBO ) 2000 h
16. Aircraft Advanced Light Helicopter –
Dhruv
17. Length 0.92 m
18. Maximum Diameter 0.466 m
19. Mass 198 kg
Table 9: Leading particulars of Shakti Engine
 Module 1:
Reduction gearbox: Reduction gear with helical gear, accessory drive and output shaft.
(Single stage)
 Module 2:
Gas Generator: Two stage centrifugal compressor
Annular reverse flow combustion chamber
Single stage axial compressor
 Module 3:
Power turbine: Two stage axial turbine
 Engine control and monitoring: Through Full Authority Digital Engine Control
(FADEC) (Dual channel)
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Fig. 25: Shakti Engine
General problems faced by this engine:
 Oil/Fuel leak
 High SFC
 Corrosion and Oxidation issues
 High TET
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15. Computer Numeric Control [8]

Computer Numeric Control (CNC) are advanced automated programmable micro computing device which
controls various conventional machining processes and handling of machining tools. CNC machines are fed
with stepwise programs to carry out specific machining processes to eventually obtain the desired product.
CNC machines are preferred over conventional machining such as lathe, mills, shapers etc. as CNC has
minimal human interference, it can deliver high machining accuracy than humans and also with a high
production rate.
HAL has a variety of CNC machines in Engine Division of Bangalore Complex. CNC machines are being
used for manufacturing of parts for Shakti, Kaveri, Adour and various other Engines. A dedicated unit has
also been established to manufacture parts via CNC for exports at HAL. Many of the CNC machines here
are manufactured by the German Company – Deckel Maho.
Each CNC machine is designed to be versatile and capable of doing various types of operations under given
restrictions of tools and axis of operation. The striking feature of any CNC is that it has its own tool magazine
which houses multiple custom-made tools for various machining operations. The number of tools housed in
the magazines varies with every machine, but the largest CNCs have up to 50 tools in their tool magazine.
Having different types of tools increases a machine’s versatility to achieve various complex machining
operations.
CNCs can be categorised based on the nature of their operation and on the number of Axis of operation.
Different types of CNC machines based on the nature of operation at HAL are:
 Disk Lathe
 Vertical Turret Lathe
 Milling Centre
 Turn Mill Centre
 Gear Shaping Centre
 NGV Grinding Centre
 Gear Grinder
 Curvic Coupling Grinder
 Laser Drilling
 Surface Grinder Fig. 26: CNC axis nomenclature
 Wire EDM
CNC machines have multiple axes of operations. The main three are the Cartesian axes – X axis(horizontal),
Y axis (vertical) and Z axis (depth). This is achieved by either the work piece being moved or the tool post
being moved along the respective axis in a linear fashion. The CNC machines offer further axes of operations
but introducing different axes of rotation of the workpiece and the tool post. This is the key feature which
makes CNCs more versatile and so different from conventional machines as such complex features cannot
be controlled by manual effort. The new axes of rotation are named as An axis, B axis and C axis, where the
workpiece rotates about the X axis, Y axis and Z axis respectively. Similarly, the tool post can also be given
three more similar axes of operation which are called U axis, V axis and W axis. But each manufacturer
follows a different nomenclature of these axes hence the company manual of that particular CNC has to be
referred and followed while coding the CNC.
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Depending on the nature of work the CNC is designed for, all CNC machines are provided with a different
set of combination of these axes. For example, most common Turn Mill CNCs are either 4-axis or 5-axis
CNCs, where each has X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis of operation along with the turning motion of the work
piece along the Y- axis (vertical) i.e. B-axis. The 5-axis Turn Mill has an extra axis of either the workpiece
or the tool post rotating along the Z-axis(depth) – W axis. HAL currently has various CNC machines, with
the best one being the 9 axis CNC which has all the aforesaid axes.
CNC machines are capable of manufacturing critical engines parts with complex shapes where extremely
high accuracy is required, such as turbine casing, turbine ring, turbine blades, impellers and nozzle guide
vanes etc as a change in their dimensions have a direct impact on the engine performance. Almost all parts
with aerofoil shapes have manufactured with CNCs. Many CNCs have CMM (coordinate measuring
machines) working along with them to constantly keep the track of dimensions of the work piece being
machined. This allows the CNCs to have a positional accuracy of 5-10 microns and a resolution accuracy of
0.5-2 microns.
Coding of a CNC is the most crucial part of operating the machine. At HAL for manufacturing of any part,
a step by step procedure is issued by the designers at Methods Division, which must be executed strictly.
The procedure explains each step of machining a workpiece via drawings, mentioning machining process
and dimensional tolerance. The CNC is coded accordingly where the order of machining processes, choice
of tools, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, tool path, coolant flow data is all fed via a program code which
strictly adheres to the procedure issued by Methods Division. The code is in the form of series of numeric
data with character prefix which specify the function. Here is a list of the meaning of the prefix used in CNC
Coding-
 G - Preparatory function
 N - Sequence number (Used for line identification)
 O - Program number (Used for program identification)
 T - Tool Designation
 M - Miscellaneous function
 X - X axis; Y – Y axis; Z - Z axis
 R - Radius
 F – Feed rate
 S - Spindle speed
 H - Tool length offset designation
 D - Tool radius offset designation
At HAL, for manufacturing of any part via CNC, first the part and its application is studied by the Methods
Department and a step by step manufacturing process is issued for the part. Then a test part is manufactured,
strictly following the instructions and the part is inspected at every step and is checked for dimensional
accuracy, appearances of structural faults during the process etc. Once the part is manufactured, its tested
for its application and if necessary a few changes are made in the manufacturing process in case of any
faults. Again, a test piece is made until the desired product is obtained. Once the process delivers the perfect
product, it is sanctioned for mass production.
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16. Non Destructive Testing Lab

Non-destructive testing, or NDT as it is commonly abbreviated, is a large collection of techniques which
are very widely used to analyse and assess material properties, of a system or a component, in an aim to
pinpoint and measure irregularities and defects, in such a way so as to not create any damage and preserve
the component’s functionality for its future use. Now, let us discuss about the various NDT techniques
used in HAL.
16.1 Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection is the direct application of our visual, optically aided if needed, senses on the surface of
the material to be tested, to detect defects. This is the first method of NDT that must be applied before
using any other complex NDT method as it is both the easiest and cheapest methods of all. If one detects
any defects or abnormalities using Visual inspection, then there is no need to use any other sophisticated
method. This method poses no restriction on the type of material to be tested. But since the sensitivity of
the method is not very high, for accurate measurement of a defect, the information obtained from Visual
inspection will need to be supplemented by other methods of NDT.
16.2 Fluorescent Penetrant Testing [9]
Liquid Penetrant Testing can be used to find defects, both surface and sub-surface, that have an opening at
the surface, in any type of non-porous material. First, the surface of the component is cleaned and dried
before the fluorescent penetrant is applied on the surface, for a particular period of time called the Dwell
time, so that the penetrant has enough time to seep into all the discontinuities. Next, the excess penetrant
on the surface is removed depending on whether the penetrant is water washable directly or with the help
of emulsifiers. After this, the surface is again dried before applying dry developer on it, so that it can draw
the penetrant from the discontinuities to the surface. The final step is to inspect the test component in a
dark room, under the black light ( low wavelength UV ), where the inspector can observe the fluorescent
indications, identify the location and properties of the defects and then send it for cleaning. The above
flowchart represents water washable penetrant process. The following flowchart explains the post
emulsifiable water washable penetrant process and it just has an extra step of emulsification before
washing the excess penetrant with water.
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Pre- Cleaning
Penetrant Application :
Dip/Brush/Spray ( Dwell period : 20 min to

60 min )
Yes
More
than 1
hour?
No
Removal of excess penetrant :
Air pressure < 25 PSI
Water pressure < 40 PSI
Drying : Hot air circulating oven
Max. temperature = 700 C
Developer
( Dry Powder )
Inspection
Post cleaning
Flowchart 4: Water Washable Penetrant Process
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Pre- Cleaning
Penetrant Application :
Dip/Brush/Spray ( Dwell period : 20 min to

60 min )
Yes
More
than 1
hour?
No
Pre-rinsing
Emulsification ( Hydrophilic ) :
Dip/Emulsification < 2 min
Removal of excess penetrant :
Air pressure < 25 PSI
Water pressure < 40 PSI
Drying : Hot air circulating oven
Max. temperature = 700 C
Developer ( Dry Powder )
Inspection
Post cleaning
Flowchart 5: Post Emulsifiable Water Washable

Penetrant Process
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16.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection [10]

Magnetic Particle Testing is a method of NDT which is used to detect surface and sub-surface defects. First,
we magnetize the material, by the use of a permanent magnet, or by the magnetic field lines of a current
passing through or around the part. These magnetic field lines will get obstructed by the defects present in
the part and as a result, some of the lines will exit and re-enter the part. This creates a mini north-south pole
pair at the points of exit and re-entry which will attract the magnetic particles we sprinkle over the part,
making use of the fact that the magnetic force is strongest near the poles. This technique can be used only
on ferrous or ferrous alloy based materials.
It is essential that the magnetic field of lines must pass through and cross the defect at right angles to it.
Indications of defects which makes an angle as large as 500 with respect the direction of the magnetic field
lines, show up, with sufficient levels of magnetization. This problem is best explained by the following
figure.
Fig. 27: Mechanism of MPI
 Circular Magnetization: This method is used to find axial defects in a solid or hollow part. We
know that a current carrying wire produces concentric circular magnetic field lines both inside and
outside the wire and whose centre coincides with the axis of the wire. If the part is hollow, we
insert a conductor (generally, copper rod ) through the hollow part and pass electricity to it. This
copper rod will produce circular magnetic field which passes through the hollow part and reveals
us the locations of defects. In the case of solid parts, electricity is passed through them and their
own magnetic field lines help locate the axial defects.
Fig. 28: Circular magnetization
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 Longitudinal Magnetization : This method is used to find longitudinal defects and can be
achieved by using a permanent magnet or helical coil ( with or without electromagnet ). When
current is passed through helical coil, magnetic field lines are produced which are longitudinal or
lengthwise inside the coil. As a result, defects which are at right angles to these field lines can be
detected in the same way as we have discussed before.
Fig. 29: Longitudinal magnetization
Therefore, two tests ( Circular and Longitudinal magnetization ) are required, where the magnetic field lines
direction for both the tests are perpendicular to each other, so as to locate all the defects.
The following flowchart illustrates the procedure followed in this testing method.
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Degrease
Demagnetize
Circular magnetization Inspect Demagnetize
Longitudinal Inspect Demagnetize

magnetization
Degrease
Para wash
( Using Kerosene )
Apply dewatering oil
Flowchart 6: Magnetic Particle Inspection Process
16.4 Eddy Current Testing [11]

In this method, a primary coil, which is attached to an AC voltage source is used to produce eddy currents.
When the primary coil is brought near the surface of the test component, the changing magnetic field due
to the AC current in the primary coil ( Excitation field ) creates circular eddy currents on the surface of the
test component, due to electromagnetic induction. The direction of the eddy current is such that the
magnetic field created by the eddy current opposes the change in magnetic flux ( Excitation magnetic
field’s flux ) which had created the eddy current. As the resulting field is now reduced due to the magnetic
field by the eddy current, the primary coil’s impedance is also reduced. Whenever there is a discontinuity
present, the eddy current cannot flow through it and hence, takes a longer route. This reduces both the
magnitude of eddy current and it’s magnetic field, near the area of defect and as a result, the primary coil
impedance rises up. This change can be noticed easily by the inspector and can now identify the location
of the defect. Due to skin effect, the magnitude of eddy currents which are produced below the surface,
decays exponentially with depth and as a result this method can be used to detect only surface and sub-
surface defects in any material that is conductive in nature.
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Fig. 30: Eddy current testing
16.5 X-Ray Testing

In this method, a source of radiation emits electromagnetic waves ( X-Rays ) that penetrate the surface of
the test component, which can be absorbed by the material depending on various physical properties and
also on the presence of internal defects. The rays exit the material and get detected by a detector, which is
appropriately placed on the opposite side. This variations in absorption is recorded in the detector, based on
the amount of radiation that strikes it. If there is a discontinuity in the path of the electromagnetic wave, the
probability of it getting absorbed is very low and therefore, more radiation strikes the detector.
Safety is of utmost importance in this method as X-rays are very harmful and can damage living tissues,
which may even lead to cancer. Therefore, special precautions are required such as protective equipment for
workers and lead lined walls to not let the radiation escape. Also, since a two dimensional latent image of a
three dimensional component is produced, one must have the proper knowledge of the object’s orientation
with respect to the direction of the radiation beam to correctly identify the defect.
Fig. 31: X-Ray testing
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This method has a significant advantage over the methods we have discussed so far, that is, any type of
material can be tested using this technique and has the means to detect all three types of defects, namely
surface, sub-surface and internal.
16.6 Ultrasonic Testing [12]

In this method, a probe transmits high frequency sound waves (ultrasonic waves) into the test component to
analyse the location and properties of defects. The probe has both a transmitter and a receiver, which when
brought near the surface of the test component, is triggered to send high frequency sound waves into the
component. The resulting sound waves get reflected when they either encounter a cavity (discontinuity) or
the face of the test component, opposite to the direction of the incoming sound waves. Therefore, when there
is an echo pulse detected by the receiver, in between the transmitted pulse and back wall echo, the inspector
can quickly identify the presence of a defect underneath the part of the surface where the probe is kept. The
sound waves are also emitted in a conical beam, so that the inspector can also get a rough estimate on the
size of the discontinuity present below the surface.
We can notice that a defect present below another defect cannot be located when we using the probe only
from one side. For this reason, ultrasonic testing is done from all the directions. Again, like X-Ray
radiographic testing, this method can be used to locate all the 3 types of defects, namely surface, sub-surface
and internal, in any type of material.
Fig. 32: Ultrasonic testing
16.7 Hardness Testing [13]

Hardness like Malleability or Ductility, is a mechanical property which solely depends on the characteristic
of the material. Hardness is defined as the resistance offered to indentation and is measured by determining
the size of the depression obtained when a constant load is applied on the surface of the test component. The
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following explains the three most commonly used hardness testing methods. The three methods basically
differ from each other, in the type of indenter and load used.
16.7.1 Vickers Hardness Testing

In this method, the indenter used is in the shape of square based diamond pyramid. The diagonal of
the depression created using a constant load of this indenter is used to measure hardness and the unit
of hardness given by this method is called Vickers Pyramid Number or Diamond Pyramid Hardness.
This hardness number can be expressed in Pascal’s but it must not be misinterpreted as pressure, as
the hardness number is calculating by dividing load by the area of the indentation, while pressure is
load divided by the area normal to the direction of force. This testing method can be employed for
all metals and has widest scale compares to other hardness testing methods.
Fig. 33: Vickers hardness testing
16.7.2 Brinell Hardness Testing

In this method, tungsten carbide ball is used as the indenter which is subjected to a constant load of
about 3000kg (1500 kg or 500 kg for softer materials) against the surface of the test component. A
low powered microscope is sufficient to determine the diameter of the depression made on the test
component and the Brinell Number is calculated in the same way by dividing the constant force
applied, by the surface area of the depression. Since this method makes a large indentation compared
to other methods, the result we obtain is averaged over a wide amount of material, accounting for
both the multiple grain structures and irregularities present in the material.
53 | P a g e
Fig. 34: Brinell hardness

testing
16.7.3 Rockwell Hardness Testing

This method consists of indenting the test component with a spheroconical shaped indentor. First, a
preliminary test load is applied on the surface and when equilibrium is reached, an indenting device
is set up so that it measures the change in depth from this datum position. Next, an additional major
load is applied which increases the depth of penetration compared to the previous value. The
additional load is removed, keeping the preliminary load intact, leaving a permanent change in depth
from the already noted datum position and this permanent change of depth is all one needs to
calculate the Rockwell Hardness Number.
Fig. 35: Rockwell hardness

testing
54 | P a g e
16.8 Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program
SOAP or Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program is a method used to examine the health of aero engines by
performing laboratory tests on the engine oil. The results of the tests gives information regarding the
chemical composition of the various metal particles suspended in the engine oil test samples and using this,
the location of abnormal wear of engine parts can be identified.
55 | P a g e
17. Gear Shop [14]
A machine element which is used to transfer power from one shaft to another with minimum energy losses
in the process of transmission is defined as a Gear.
17.1 Types of Gears:

17.1.1 Classification based on types of shafts to which gears are attached:
o Spur Gears: Transfer motion between parallel gears
o Bevel Gears: Transfer motion between intersecting shafts
o Spiral Gears: Transfer motion between non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts
o Worm Gears: Transfer motion between non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts
17.1.2 Classification based on operating velocity of Gears:

o Low velocity gears (v<3m/s)
o Medium velocity gears (3m/s<v<15m/s)
o High speed gears (v>15m/s)
17.2 Gear Material:

The type of material used should be strong in shear and bending and resistant to wear, fatigue and chemical
degradation. Ferrous metals for high loads, non-ferrous metals and non-metals are used for light loads.
17.3 Gear Profile:

Any form of profile for gear teeth can be used, in conjunction with a corresponding gear teeth profile for
uniform rotary motion.
However, involute profile is most common one although forms such as cycloids and others are also used to
advantage in some cases.
An involute profile is preferred over other gear profile because it is easy to manufacture as compared to
other gear profiles.
56 | P a g e
17.4 Gear Nomenclature:
Fig. 36: Gear nomenclature
The figure is self-descriptive as almost all geometric parameters in a simple gear can be understood by mere
visual inspection of this diagram.
Beside the parameter mentioned in the above drawn diagram some other parameters of importance to a gear
shop are:
 Module: Pitch circle diameter per unit number of teeth is defined as module of a gear.
 Pressure angle: Angle between normal to the two pitch circles at point of contact and the line of
action of force is defined as Pressure angle.
Normal values of Pressure angle are 14.5 deg, 20 deg, 25 deg.
17.5 Gear holdings and shape of gear:

 Gear Holdings: Manufactured and used in the Gear shop are External in nature.
 Shape of the gears: Manufactured in the gear shape as per requirement can be external or internal.
17.6 Processes of gear manufacturing:

The process of manufacturing a gear can be classified into two categories namely the forming and then the
machining process. The forming process includes manufacturing processes like casting and forging while
machining involves material removal by a variety of machines including the lathe. A flow chart describing
the process of gear formation is as follows:
57 | P a g e
Forging of casted
raw material
Lathe Machining
Gear Milling
Heat Treatment
Nital Etching
NDT (Non
Destructible
Testing)
Flowchart 7: Gear manufacturing process
17.7 Some Manufacturing processes involved in Gear Manufacturing:

 Casting: Gear Blanks and even gears with teeth which require very little or no machining are
produced by this method. Various casting processes involved in gear production are Sand casting,
Metal mould casting, Investment casting, Centrifugal casting, Shell Mould casting etc.
 Rolling: The straight and helical teeth of external steel gears are produced by cold rolling.
 Extrusion: High quality small gears are often produced in large numbers by using extrusion.
 Wire EDM: Geometrically accurate but less finished gears are often produced by using Wire EDM
methods.
 Milling: Gears can be produced by both end and disc mill cutter. HSS form milling cutters and
ordinary milling machines are often used.
58 | P a g e
 Broaching: It is a machining process. It uses a tool called a broach to remove material from a gear.
Broach is run linearly against the surface of work piece to remove material. It is
used for machining internal keyways and other such intricate geometries. It is an expensive process
but can be economical for mass production.
 Hobbing: Hobbing is a machining process used especially for cutting gear teeth on a hobbing
machine. The teeth are cut progressively by a series of cuts made by the cutting tool.
 Heat Treatment: Gear manufactured is Heat treated to ensure hardness necessary for effective
operation. Heat treatment involves processes like nitriding, cynadizing, carburizing etc.
 Nital Etching: Nital is a solution of Nitric Acid and alcohol and is used for revealing the
microstructure of a metal under a microscope. Microstructure can further be used for studying several
other physical properties of a metallic component.
59 | P a g e
18. Machine Shop [15]
Machine Shop is a room or a building in a company which consists of several machine tools for performing
various machining processes. Machinists use these tools to cut or shape materials (generally plastics and
metals). The parts produced here can be sold to customers in the automobile industry or the aircraft industry.
In some cases, these industries have their own machine shops as in HAL.
Machine tool is equipment used for machining or shaping a rigid material (generally metals) by
boring, shearing, shaping, cutting, drilling etc. They have some sort of particular tool to perform this job.
These machines have a means of constraining the motion of the tool and the work piece, creating an ideal
relative movement to get the job done. This relative movement is called the toolpath and is controlled by the
machine to some extent.
The most common machine tools used in the industry are as follows:
 Broaching – Uses a toothed tool called broach to remove material. Useful when precision is
required in machining odd shapes like circular and non-circular holes, keyways, splines etc.
 Gear Shaper – Uses a tool shaped in the form of gear with the desired pitch to cut the gear teeth of
internal and external gears.
 Hobbing – Used for similar applications of cutting gears, making splines on a hobbing machine.
 Lathe – This is a kind of machine that rotates the work piece about a particular axis to perform
various operations like facing, knurling, drilling, cutting etc.
 Grinding – Usually called as the grinder which has abrasive wheels to grind metals to more
accurate shape or remove casting tolerances in some cases.
Fig. 37: Broaching Fig. 38: Gear Shaping
Fig. 39: Hobbing
60 | P a g e
Fig. 40: Lathe Fig. 41: Grinding
18.1 Curvic Coupling: [16]
Curvic Coupling was designed as the requirement for extremely accurate and high loading capacity
permanent coupling came into picture. Faster rate of production was also an added advantage.
The term ‘Curvic Coupling’ refers to a toothed connection of members with the teeth spaced circumferentially on
the face and with teeth which have a particular curved shape when seen in a plane perpendicular to the coupling
axis.
One member is made with the outside edge of the cutter, so a concave shaped tooth is produced. The mating
member is usually cut with the inside edge, thus producing a convex, or barrel-shaped tooth.
Fig. 42: Convex and Concave Curvic Coupling Fig. 43: A compressor curvic coupled
61 | P a g e
19. Test House [17]
Test Beds are test facilities where all the engines come once entered into engine division. Testing of a jet
engine is done on number of occasions, during the new engine development and manufacturing, during
installation of the engine into main aircraft and during the repairing and overhauling of the jet engine in
engine division.
Testing Facility at Engine Division, HAL Bangalore is very huge and has a different test bed for each
specific engine operated by skilled technicians. This is the most crucial department in the whole division
as an engine is passed by them after every modification done on it.
Jet Engine is very complex machine which is made up of further complex parts. It is capable of generating
thousands of kilos of thrust and flies at very high altitude. Hence, it operates at very risky conditions which
require rigorous testing before passing any aircraft to fly. But, the modern technology has made it possible
to analyse thousands of parameters and precisely measure them in order to rectify the snag.
Some of the important parameters and their instruments used are:
Instrument Calibration
1. Engine speed indicator rpm
2. Manifold pressure gauge kN/m2 or kPa (inHg)
3. Main oil pressure gauge kN/m2 or kPa (lbf/in2)
4. Auxiliary oil pressure gauge kN/m2 or kPa (lbf/in2)
5. Pump inlet oil pressure gauge kN/m2 or kPa (lbf/in2)
6. Fuel pressure gauge kN/m2 or kPa (lbf/in2)
7. Oil temperature gauges °C
8. Cooling air temperature gauge °C
Table 10: Test house instruments and calibrations
62 | P a g e Fig. 44: Test Bed checks

20. Cellular Shop [18]
20.1 Laser Drilling Machine

This drilling machine creates thru-hole by focusing high energy laser beam on the material. Generally
melting of meat is preferred as compared to vaporising at it requires 25% less energy. These drilling
machine use Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet), CO2, and laser fibre as a source for
the beam.
The following are details of laser drilling machine used at HAL:
Manufacturer Prima Power

Model LaserDyne 790 XS
Cost ₹ 5,03,54,600
Control System 94P Control
Axis 6
Stroke Length X = 1040mm
Y = 1040mm
Z = 1040mm
C = ± 450
D = ± 135
A = 360º
Rotation Speed 0-5 rpm
Laser Type Nd:YAG laser
Wavelength 1064 mm
Power 200W
Table 11: Leading particulars of Laser drilling machine
Fig. 45: Laser drilling machine

The benefits of a laser is that it can drill holes as small as 0.002” with very high precision. For larger holes
the laser beam is moved along the circumference of the initially popped hole until a hole of desired
diameter is created. This method is known as trepanning.
63 | P a g e
20.2 Electrical Discharge Machine

It is a type of manufacturing process where the required shape is obtained by using electrical sparks
(discharges). Current is passed between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid, which removes
material from the specified region.
There are two types of electric discharge machine
 Die-sink EDM – Spark occurs across a small gap between tool and work
 Wire-Cut EDM – The workpiece is fed slowly past wire along the cutting path, just as in a band
saw operation.
20.2.1 Advantages:
 Very precise and fine holes can be drilled.;
 High quality surface finish can be obtained.
 Dedicate and weak materials can be machined since a direct contact is not present between tool
and workpiece
 Hard materials can be machined to close tolerances
20.2.2 Disadvantages:
 High specific power consumption
 Oil based dielectrics possess potential fire hazard.
 Slow rate of material removal
 Specific set-up is required for machining non-conductive materials.
The EDM machine is used to create small holes in turbine blades and NGV that aid in cooling of the metal
during engine operation, making it possible to increase the turbine inlet temperature. Conventional
methods are not used since the blades are made of hard single-crystal alloys and thus machining with high
aspect ratio is very difficult. Generally, wire cut EDM machine is employed and distilled water is used as
dielectric medium.
Fig. 46: Turbine blades with air circulation holes
The dielectric fluid required in this process acts as an insulator till sufficiently high potential and further
acts as a coolant. The favourable properties for a fluid are:
 Low viscosity
 Absence of toxic vapours
 Low cost
 Chemically stable with the work piece.
64 | P a g e
20.3 NGV grinding machine

Nozzle Guide vanes are a part of stator and are used to guide and expand air entering the turbine. They are
aerofoil in shape with passage to form a convergent duct and are located before each stage of turbine blade
set. On passing through NGV the gases are spun and swirled in the direction of rotation of the turbine thus
converting pressure energy into kinetic energy. Due to the precision required in these vanes they are
grinded and thus CNC grinding machines are employed for the same.
HAL uses Bridgeport’s flexible grinding centre, FGC2. This machine has a dedicated 5000l coolant tank
sue the high requirement (120l/min). Further, a coordinate measuring machine with a robotic arm is
present to quickly measure the NGV’s dimensions and then proceed for further grinding.
Fig. 47: NGV grinding machine
20.4 Orbital Welding

In this type of welding the arc is rotated through 360 degree around a fixed workpiece by means of
mechanical methods. This is especially useful in joining objects such as pipes. Further, being a computer
controlled process there is negligible human interference thus reducing human error and producing high
quality weld.
Orbital welding is a Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding technique that uses a non-consumable electrode,
with filler rod. The process is carried out in an inert environment thus resulting in a clean and free from
unwanted spatter, weld. Such good welds and precision even at diameters as small as 1.6mm its
applications are vast. Industries such as semiconductor, pharmaceutical, automobile, aerospace use
automated orbital welding. Further, various materials like high strength, unalloyed, titanium, copper,
nickel alloys, etc. can we welded with ease. That being said, the initial investment cost to set up orbital
welding is approximately 5-10 times that of conventional TIG welding set up. However, the productivity
increases significantly.
65 | P a g e
Study on Effect of Single Crystal Turbine Blades on Performance of Gas Turbine Engines
SECTION – B
STUDY ON EFFECT OF SINGLE CRYSTAL

TURBINE BLADES ON
PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
66 | P a g e
21. Introduction [19]

In almost all cases of power production, gas turbines are heavily dependent on the efficiency (thermal
mostly) to produce power effectively. There are many ways to increase the thermal efficiency. These
methods mainly involve the metallurgical properties of the turbine parts. So if these parts are allowed to
withstand much higher temperatures, the thermal efficiency will have significant improvement. This is
where the application of Single Crystal super alloys comes into effect. The one of the most crucial parts of
the turbines are the blades. These single crystal super alloy turbine blades withstand higher temperature than
the general crystalline (multi-crystal) blades, therefore, are much more efficient in process.
The turbine blades are able to achieve this high level of heat withstanding because of the single
crystal structure and also the composition of the super alloy (Nickel based).
One of the most common types of failure in the industry is Creep. This kind of failure is a life limiting
factor and is majorly dependent on the temperature. When the material under continuous load is exposed to
high temperatures, the creep rate rises very fast. The single structure alloys have the ability to withstand
these high rates of creep as they lack grain boundaries. We know that majority of the defects propagate
through the grain boundaries and this single crystal structure avoids any cause of failures. Since the single
crystal blades do not have grain boundaries along the directions of axial stresses, this increases the creep
strength too.
Fig. 48 Single crystal turbine blades
There have been several attempts to create these desired single crystal blades using various super alloys. It
has been seen that Nickel-based super alloys have been very much successful to get the desired properties.
Other elements also are influential in the alloy composition. Different compositions are tested to see the
most optimized result.
67 | P a g e
22. Manufacturing of Single Crystal Turbine Blades [20]
Single Crystal blades are subjected to high thermal stresses. To avoid creep failure directionally solidified
blades are manufactured which have hive creep strength and hence have higher life.
22.1 Crystal Growth in Bridgman Furnace:

This process is like classic casting procedure. But to ensure that the final product grows as a single crystal,
they mould is shaped differently which promotes growth of a ‘single’ crystal only. And high emphasis is
given on the cooling procedure of the cast product.
Fig. 49: Single crystal casting process
 High temperature -above the melting temperature in the top part.

 Low temperature -the melting zone, contains solid-liquid interface and solidified product.
 The super alloy is initially entirely molten form when in the high temperature zone.
 The super alloy is lowered very slowly, at rate of about a few centimetres per hour
 The solid liquid interface rises slowly up the mould.
 The super alloy solidifies from the base up.
22.2 Improvements in the method:

 This process is expensive
 Use of Computer Control Furnace to control heat gradient.
 Use mechanical design to use gravitational force to pull down the blade slowly.
68 | P a g e
23. Coatings on Single Crystal Blades [21]

Coatings on single crystal blades serve a variety of purposes, in jet engines, land based power generation
turbines and marine engines. These turbine blades are exposed to high temperatures, which means that
ensuring proper strength at all temperatures has always been a concern. These conditions mean severe
oxidation problems, and to aggravate the problems, the improvement in mechanical properties of the base
alloys was made keeping the problem of environmental resistance aside.
23.1 Purpose of using a coating:

The first purpose of coating was therefore to increase the oxidation resistance of the base alloy. Another
type of coating was then applied to high temperature components which is known as Thermal Barrier
Coating(TBC). These are ceramic coatings with very low thermal conductivity.
These coatings allow a drop of around 100-300 deg. C between gas and metal surface temperatures.
However, they do not prevent oxygen from reaching the inner core and hence there is no reduction in levels
of oxidation of underlying substrate. These coatings are called ‘Oxygen Transparent Coatings’. These
coatings are also called ‘Bond Coats’.
23.2 Coatings:
Coatings for high temperature applications include Thermal Barrier Coatings and Oxidation Resistant
Coatings. The oxidation resistant coating is called bond coat because it ensures a layer on which the ceramic
TBC can adhere.
The two most Popularly used types of coatings are aluminides (NiAl or Ni2Al3) and MCrAlY coatings. The
former ones are obtained by surface enrichment by diffusion, the later ones are obtained by plasma spray or
EBPVD. An additional ceramic coating is often applied to high-temperature components (TBC, thermal
barrier coating). The oxidation resistant coatings also provide a `transition' layer on which the TBC adheres
better than that on the substrate. This is the reason why oxygen resistant layer is also called the Bond Coat.
The utility of a Blade is therefore dependent on these coatings and supplementary thermal barrier Coatings.
The cost of blades has been increasing and therefore stress is being led on developing methods for coating
renewal. In this process entire turbine is stripped apart, each blade is cleaned and coating is applied again.
In modern applications where turbine blades are exposed to very high temperature and pressures aluminide
coatings provide very limited protection.
69 | P a g e
Aluminide coatings must be developed differently for different alloys.
Fig. 50 Without aluminide coating Fig. 51 With aluminide coating
A test was conducted with a bare specimen at a temperature of 850 C.
Penetration level of the corrosion agent was recorded as 100 microns after 250 hours and 500 microns after
375 hrs.
Fig. 52: Oxidation of blades over hours
Variation of thickness of coating layer with hours of operation
70 | P a g e
23.3 Hot Corrosion of Turbine Blades:

Hot Corrosion takes place due to oxidation at a high temperature which is due to salts deposited at a high
temperature during the vapour phase.
The level of Hot Corrosion is directly proportional with the temperature to which the turbine blades have
been exposed.
23.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings:

The purpose of Thermal Barrier coatings is as the name suggests to provide thermal protection to the turbine
blades. A coating of about 1-200μm Uses of TBC:
To reduce the need for blade cooling by about 36% while maintaining identical creep life of the substrate.
23.5 Laterite Deposition:

Laterite is a soil or a rock type which is rich in iron and aluminium and is said to have been formed in hot
and wet tropical areas.
Laterite deposition on Turbine Blades has often been encountered as a common problem faced in turbine
blade overhaul and repair. Laterite deposition on turbine blades causes severe operational issues some of
which are:
1. Power deterioration
2. Loss of stall margin
3. Compressor Blade erosion
4. Deposition on air foils
5. Deposition on external geometry mechanisms
71 | P a g e
24. CMSX-2 Super Alloy [22]
Improvement in gas turbine engine thrust, durability and break specific fuel consumption is related to the
temperature capability of turbine aerofoil capabilities. Development of directional solidification led to the
development of single crystal turbine blades. These blades are columnar grained that is the grain boundaries
are parallel to the direction of principal stress which provides a significant improvement in creep and fatigue
properties of turbine blades.
For many years there was limited interest in the development of single crystal blades since the application
of heat treatments to Mar M 200 did not lead to any significant results in improvement of creep, ductility
and related properties.
These basic ideas are at the root of development of many modern mono-crystalline super alloys in late 20th
century among which is CMSX-2. CMSX-2 was developed by Cannon-Muskegon Corporation. As early as
in 1981 it was known that this alloy shows significant improvement in creep, fatigue and other stress related
properties of a turbine blade. Experimental evaluation of this engine on TM-333 Turbomeca engine has also
been conducted.
The composition is as follows:
CMSX-2 (%wt)
Cr Al Co Ti W Ta Mo Ni
8 5.6 4.6 1.0 8 6 0.6 Balance
Table 12: Composition of CMSX-2
Heat treatments have a considerable impact on the mechanical properties of an alloy. Heat treatment of
CMSX-2 at 1315 deg. C leads to a complete solution of the gamma phase of the alloy.
Fig. 53: Rupture life of CMSX-2
72 | P a g e
The oxidation and corrosion resistance of single crystal blades is superior to that of the conventional alloys.
The corrosion resistance of CMSX-2 is slightly better than that of PWA 1480. CMSX-2 super alloy has
therefore been responsible for a significant improvement in properties of turbine blades.
73 | P a g e
25. Observation and Analysis

For the data related to engine condition, six engines belonging to the HAL Shakti project were taken
bearing engine numbers H600074, H600072, H60041, 5040, 5037 and 5021. Various data like hours
done, specific fuel consumption (SFC), power, turbine related dimensions, etc. were taken.
The individual data from engines has been compiled and presented in the following table:
Table 13: Engine Performance Data
74 | P a g e
Following graphs were obtained as a result of various observations:
Fig. 54: Turbine entry Temperature (TET) over hours.
Fig. 55: Specific fuel consumption of engine at various TET
Fig 56: Variation of SFC with oxidation Fig 57: Variation of SFC with turbine outer diameter
75 | P a g e
26. Conclusion
1. In line with our objective, we found that SFC of engine increases as the blade gets oxidized as
shown in Fig. 55 (graph). This is due to deviation in dimensions of single crystal blades, once
coating starts to wear off.
2. We found that, as the diameter of HPT ring and CA-3 washers deviate from specified limits, an
increasing trend is observed in fuel consumption, as shown in Fig. 56 (graph).
3. Laterite deposition in turbine blades affects them negatively as it causes erosion and blocks the
cooling holes in blades.
76 | P a g e
27. Scope of Further Study

1. Design improvements to avoid laterite deposition on blades.
2. Study on effect of thermal stresses in single crystal blades on engine performance.
3. Upgrade to better alloy versions like CMSX-4 and CMSX-6 for enhanced performance.
77 | P a g e
28. Bibliography
1. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, http://hal-india.com
2. Engine Division, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited,
http://www.halindia.com/Engine%20Division%20Bangalore/M__96
3. Classification of Jet Engines, http://mechstuff.com/types-of-jet-engines/
4. Bearings and their types, http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-
equipment/bearing3.htm
5. Adour Modules, https://www.rolls-royce.com/products-and-services/defence-
aerospace/products/trainers/adour.aspx
6. Fuel accessories, http://www.enginehistory.org/accessories.shtml,
7. Electrical accessories, https://www.adamsaviation.com/electrical-parts-and-accessories
8. Computer Numeric Control, http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-
technology/55787-what-is-the-cnc-machine-how-cnc-machine-works/
9. Fluorescent penetrant testing, http://magnaflux.com/Magnaflux/Products/Liquid-Penetrant-
Inspection/Consumables.htm
10. Magnetic Particle Inspection, http://www.nationalboard.org/index.aspx?pageID=164&ID=377
11. Eddy Current Testing, Non-Destructive Techniques Based on Eddy Current Testing Javier García-
Martín, Jaime Gómez-Gil and Ernesto Vázquez-Sánchez
12. Ultrasonic Testing,
https://www.ndeed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Introduction/descript
ion.htm
13. Hardness testing, http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt02/109/109.htm
14. Gear Design, NPTEL http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112106137/25
15. Machine Shop, http://www.usimm.ca/en/what-are-the-most-common-machining-techniques/
16. Curvic Coupling, https://www.geartechnology.com/issues/1186x/Back-to-Basics.pdf
17. Test House, https://blog.klm.com/how-do-we-test-jet-engines/
18. Cellular Shop, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_manufacturing
19. Single Crystal turbine blades, “THE DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE CRYSTAL SUPERALLOY
TURBINE BLADES” M. Gel& D. N. Duhl and A. F. Giamei Commercial Products Division Pratt
& Whitney Aircraft Group East Hartford, Connecticut 06108
20. Manufacturing of Single Crystal Blades,
http://www.appropedia.org/Single_Crystal_Turbine_Blades
21. Coatings on single crystal blades, https://www.phase-
trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2003/Superalloys/coatings/
22. CMSX2 Super alloys,
http://www.tms.org/Superalloys/10.7449/1992/Superalloys_1992_297_306.pdf
78 | P a g e

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A STUDY ON REPAIR AND OVERHAUL OF GAS

HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED, BANGALORE

Aerospace Industry has developed technologically as well as economically since World

15. Computer Numeric Control ................................................................................................................................. 43

23.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings: ............................................................................................................................... 71

Figure Topic Page No.

44. Test Bed Checks 62

List of Flow Charts

Flow Chart Topic Page No.

A STUDY ON REPAIR AND OVERHAUL OF

AT HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

1.1 Engine Division, Bangalore [2]

2. Classification of Engines [3]

Fig. 1: Block diagram of Brayton Cycle

Fig. 2: Turbo Jet Engine

Fig. 3: Turbo Fan Engine

Fig. 4: Turbo Prop Engine

Fig. 5: Ramjet Engine

S.No. Parameter Value

Fig. 6: Artouste Engine

General problems faced by this engine are:

S.No. Parameter Value

Few common issues faced by the Garrett Turboprop Engine are-

Fig. 7: Garrett TPE 331-5

S.No. Parameter Value

Table 3. Leading Particulars of Gnome Engine

Some common issues with the GNOME engine are:

Fig. 8: Gnome Engine

S.No. Parameter Value

*Kiran MK-II aircraft is used in aerobatics.

General problems faced by this engine are:

 Crack in fir tree of turbine blades

Fig. 9: Orpheus Engine

S.No. Parameter Value

General problems faced by this engine are:

Fig. 10: Dart Engine

8. Bearing Hospital [4]

Fig. 11: Ball Bearing

Fig. 12: Roller Bearing

 Fatigue – Continuous loads applied for number of cycles

The main types damages caused due to these are:

Fig. 14: Flaking Fig. 15: Corrosion

Fig. 16: Wear

8.1 Bearing cleaning process by Turbomeca:

Flowchart 1: Turbomeca Cleaning process

8.2 Bearing cleaning process by Rolls Royce:

Flowchart 2: Rolls Royce cleaning process

8.3 Bearing cleaning process by Honeywell:

Flowchart 3: Honeywell cleaning process

9. Adour 811 [5]

S.No. Parameter Value

General problems faced by this engine are:

● High Turbine entry temperature

This engine has been divided into 12 modules.

Fig. 17: Exploded view of Adour 811 engine

1st stage - 41 blades

2nd stage – 45 blades

3rd stage - 49 blades

4th stage – 47 blades

5th stages – 49 blades

Fig. 18: Adour 811 Engine

10. Fuel Accessories [6]

Fig. 19: Engine fuel system

FOHE: Fuel – Oil Heat Exchanger

LP: Low Pressure

HP: High Pressure

FMV: Fuel Metering Valve

GTS: Gas Turbine Starter

Fig. 20: Centrifugal pump Fig. 21: Engine driven pump

11. Electrical Accessories [7]

Fig. 22 FADEC connections

11.2 Starter Generator

11.3 Tacho Generator

12. Adour 871

S.No. Parameter Value

General problems faced by this engine are: