STORAGE AND FLOW OF SOLIDS

Jenike

A theory of gravity flow of bulk solids like ores,

concentrates, coal is outlined and a n example of de- LIST OF SYMBOLS
sign for unobstructed flow is given. Mass-flow a n d A = area of one s i d e of a cubic element; cross-
plug-flow patterns a r e defined a n d related to the sectional area of a compression specimen,
geometry of the bin. The effect of these patterns on or a shear cell, s q ft
segregation, first in -first out flow, and caking i s B = width or diameter of a hopper, or of an
described. outlet, ft
This paper is a report on the results from the AIME D = diameter of a bin, ft
sponsored project "Flow of Bulk Solids" which was F = unconfined yield force, lb
carried out under the author's direction a t the Utah FF = flow-function of a solid
Engineering Experiment Station, University of Utah, H = s t r e s s function; moisture content
during the period 1956 - 1962. The theory h a s been L = length of a rectangular outlet, ft
applied to the design of numerous industrial storage S = s t r e s s function; shearing force, l b
plants. T = temperature
t = time of storage a t rest

A QUANTITATIVE METHOD OF V = normal force, lb

V1 = major consolidating force, lb
DESIGN FOR FLOW
-V, == minor consolidating force, lb

T here i s hardly an industry which does not store and

handle solid materials in bulk form. When the vol-
ume of the solids i s large, gravity is invariably relied
V1
v2
major force a t the abutments of a dome, Ib
= O = minor force a t one abutment of a dome, lb
upon to cause the solids to flow out of storage, YL = yield locus
through channels and chemical reactors. Such materi- ff = flow-factor of a channel

a l s a s ore, coal, cement, flour, plastics, clay, soil, y = bulk density of a solid, pcf
to which a general term of bulk solids i s applied, 6 = effective angle of friction of a solid

flow by gravity or are expected to flow by gravity in 8' = slope angle of a hopper, measured from

thousands of installations and by billions of tons the vertical

8,' = slope angle of a conical hopper, measured
annually.
from the vertical
The chemical and process industry depends on
8; = side slope angle of a wedge hopper,
gravity flow of solids in process and out of storage.
measured from the vertical
Mining relies on gravity flow in block-caving, in ore
passes, a s well a s in storage and loading bins. Agri- +' = kinematic angle of friction between a
solid and a wall
culture u s e s gravity flow in elevators, in feed plants,
and in farm silos. In practice, satisfactory gravity
flow i s seldom attained. Such problems a s doming,
piping (rat-holing), lack of live capacity, segregation, of bulk solids. The work was conducted during the
deterioration in storage, harass industry. years 1953-1961.In conjunction with the development
In spite of the universality of these problems, until of the theory a method t o measure the flowability of
recently, there has been no theory of solids flow, no solids was a l s o developed1-' and the theory was a p
method of predicting how a solid would behave, and plied to the design of ore pockets, storage plants,'6
how the channel, bin, or hopper should be designed. chemical reactors and adsorption columns. A compre-
In the late nineteen forties and early fifties, the hensive report of this work i s given in a previous
theory of plasticity came of age and simultaneously work."
the computer became widely available. These two
factors permitted the development of a theory of flow THEORY OF FLOW
The most important question which a theory of flow
A. W. JENIKE i s Consulting Engineer, Winchester, Mass.
has to answer is: what conditions need to be satis-
TP66B9. Manuscript October 14, 1965. Discussion of this
paper submitted in duplicate prior to December 15, 1966 fied for a given solid to flow uniformly and without
will appear in SME Transactions March 1967 and AIME obstructions through a channel?
Transactions vol. 238, 1967. First of all, the following observations are made:

Society of Mining Engineers SEPTEMBER 1966 - 267

Fig. 1 - Solid in a
channel

I v

Solid flowing Solid doming

(8) (b)

1) When a solid flows in a channel, Fig. l(a), every

element of the flowing mass is under pressure from
the adjacent elements. When flow i s uniform, a steady
s t a t e i s closely approached in t h e lower region of a
channel.
2) While the s o l i d may have been unconsolidated
(loose) when i t w a s charged into the channel, the
pressures in the channel consolidate the solid. T h e Fig. 2 - Unconfined
yield strength F
pressure curve along a stream line h a s a maxi-
mum: " 2 . 3 t h e particles of a flowing element are
brought closer together a s pressures i n c r e a s e down
from t h e exposed top into t h e channel, and come
further apart a s pressures d e c r e a s e toward the vertex
of t h e channel. T h e s u r f a c e area of contact and the
cohesive forces between the particles vary accord-
ingly, a s do t h e density and the strength of the
element.
action of t h e s e forces, the solid within t h e element
3) In the converging part of a channel, t h e s h a p e of
h a s developed an unconfined yield strength F.*
every element c h a n g e s a s flow proceeds. T h e par-
T h e unconfined yield strength F can be visualized
t i c l e s rearrange continuously within a n element and
a s t h e axial force necessary t o c a u s e the failure of a
the density of t h e element and, hence, i t s strength is
cylinder with exposed (unconfined) s i d e walls, Fig. 2.
a function of t h e l a s t s t a t e of pressure.
Now suppose a dome h a s developed, Fig. l(b).
4) When an obstruction t o flow develops, e.g. when
Assume that the considered c u b i c element is a t t h e
a void topped by a dome forms within t h e stored m a s s
abutment of t h e exposed surface of the dome, and
and flow s t o p s , Fig. l ( b ) , t h e weight of the mass
some force V1 a c t s on t h e element tangentially t o t h e
imposes s t r e s s e s within t h e solid but t h i s s t r e s s
field is different from the one which existed while
surface of the dome. F o r c e V, is evidently equal t o
zero s i n c e that f a c e of the element i s exposed. T h e
the solid w a s flowing. s t r e s s e s within t h e element a r e closely approached
The flow -no flow postulate follows from t h e s e ob-
by those in t h e cylinder of Fig. 2. T h e element is
servations: "Gravity flow of a s o l i d in a channel will
t a k e place provided t h e yield strength* which the
vl.
s t a b l e if F >
T h e postulate s t a t e s that, for flow t o prevail, the
s o l i d develops in t h e channel is insufficient t o sup- dome h a s to fail, i.e.
port a n obstruction t o flow."
In order t o apply t h e postulate, a bulk solid i s con-
sidered a s a continuum. L e t the c u b i c element in
Fig. 1 be of s i d e area A. During flow, t h i s element is
The Flow Function of a Solid: In a flowing, i.e.
acted upon by forces VI and V,. As a result of the
continuously deforming solid, t h e ratio of forces V,
* T h e y l e l d strength of the aggregate - not of the s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s . t o V, h a s been found experimentally t o vary little

268 - SEPTEMBER 1966 TRANSACTIONS

within t h e range of p r e s s u r e s of i n t e r e s t in t h i s work.
Hence
V1 / V 2 = (1 + sin 6)/(1 - sin 6) [21
is almost c o n s t a n t for a given solid.4 6 i s c a l l e d t h e
e f f e c t i v e a n g l e of friction of a s o l i d . With t h i s rela-
tion, t h e consolidation of a n element of s o l i d under
conditions of flow and h e n c e i t s unconfined yield
strength F a r e determined by one value, s a y V1, t h u s

T h i s relation is c a l l e d t h e flow-function of a s o l i d ,
FF.
It is apparent that, i n general, t h e strength F which "1
a solid develops d e p e n d s a l s o on i t s moisture con- Fig. 3 - Flow-functions and flow-factor
tent H (ores, concentrates), temperature T (tar
sands), and - if the flow of t h e s o l i d i s stopped - on
t h e time o f s t o r a g e a t r e s t t. Hence, in general

However, for given conditions: H, T and t, the flow

properties of a s o l i d a r e determined by a n g l e 6 and
t h e flow-function3 (Eq. 3).
An example is provided i n F i g . 3 which s h o w s three
flow-function l i n e s FF (a), FF (b) and FF (c). T h e s e
l i n e s could b e for three different s o l i d s or for o n e
s o l i d at, s a y , three different moisture contents.
Evidently, t h e s o l i d represented by line F F ( a ) de-
v e l o p s l e a s t strength and i s most free-flowing, while
t h e s o l i d represented by l i n e FF (c) d e v e l o p s most
strength and is l e a s t f r e e flowing.
Both t h e e f f e c t i v e a n g l e of friction 6, and t h e flow-
function a r e obtained for a given s o l i d by means of
t e s t s . T h e t e s t i n g procedure h a s been fully described
in references 5 a n d 11. In e s s e n c e , i t c o n s i s t s of two
s t e p s : first, a specimen is consolidated under a
pressure V,, s e c o n d , t h e specimen is s h e a r e d t o
measure i t s strength F. T h e t e s t s a r e repeated for
s e v e r a l v a l u e s of Vl t o obtain a sufficient number of
points (V,, F ) t o permit t h e drawing of a flow-function
line. If t h e e f f e c t of s t o r a g e a t r e s t is sought, t h e
specimen is kept a t r e s t under a pressure V, to con-
s o l i d a t e for a similar period of time. Fig. 4 - Solids Flowability T e s t e r
T h e t e s t s a r e carried on a s p e c i a l l y designed con-
stant-strain, direct-shear tester, F i g . 4. T h e s h e a r i n g
cell, F i g . 5, is located on the left. T h e normal load let. T h i s ratio is defined a s t h e flow-factor of a
i s applied by m e a n s of weights, t h e shearing force is channel
measured and recorded. T h e effect of time of con- V, /V1 = ff. [51
solidation is introduced in a six-cell, temperature-
controlled chamber. T h e cells c a n be covered within T h e derivation of t h e flow-factor is based on a
t h e chamber t o prevent t h e l o s s of moisture. F o r mathematical a n a l y s i s of pressure i n a flowing s o l i d
many s o l i d s , l i k e metallic o r e s and concentrates, V1 / A , and of pressures V1 /A i n two s t a b l e obstruc-
temperature i s not a significant parameter and a tions to flow: a dome and a pipe (rat-hole). For t h e
t e s t e r without a heat-controlled chamber is adequate. s a k e of brevity only t h e doming a n a l y s i s will be
The Flow-Factor of a Channel: I t turns out that for a outlined here.
linearly converging channel t h e ratio of f o r c e s V1 to T h e a n a l y s i s of pressure during flow is b a s e d on
V, is practically c o n s t a n t in t h e vicinity of t h e out- t h e theory of plasticity, i t t a k e s advantage of t h e

Society o f Mining Engineers SEPTEMBER 1966 - 269

fact that, in linearly converging c h a n n e l s , pressure T h e significance of t h e flow-factor is now apparent:
in t h e region of t h e outlet i s proportional t o the width i t is non-dimensional, i t is independent of t h e den-
of t h e channel B.13 Considering t h e pressure a l o n g s i t y of t h e s o l i d and of the dimensions of t h e hopper,
t h e wall of a symmetric channel, t h e expression for i t depends only on t h e s h a p e of t h e horizontal cross-
i t is of t h e form section of the hopper, o n the hopper s l o p e angle d ' ,
and o n the two a n g l e s 4' a n d 6.
V, = AYBs(8', +', 6), [61 Values of t h e flow-factor h a v e been computed and
plotted11 for conical and wedge c h a n n e l s for a range
where S is a s t r e s s function which depends on t h e
of s l o p e and frictional a n g l e s 8' and $', and for
horizontal c r o s s - s e c t i o n of the channel and is com-
puted by integrating a s y s t e m of differential v a l u e s of 6 = 30°, 40: SO0, 60° and 70'.
equations. 6'9v l1 y is t h e bulk density of t h e solid, Two of t h e s e c h a r t s a r e reproduced in F i g s . 7 and
8' is the s l o p e of t h e hopper wall measured from t h e 8 for symmetric c o n i c a l c h a n n e l s and for wedge
vertical, and qh' is t h e angle of friction between t h e channels, respectively. T h e s e figures a r e for 6 = SO0
s o l i d and the wall. which i s an average value of that angle. Contours of
T h e calculation of pressure in a dome is based on constant value of t h e flow-factor ff a r e drawn. An
'"
limit a n a l y s i s . T h e expression is a n a l y s i s of t h e relation (1) i n d i c a t e s that, the lower
the value of ff, the more capable t h e channel. Hence,
V, = A Y B H ( ~ ' ) , [71 t h e b e s t combinations of wall s l o p e angle 8' and
frictional angle a t the w a l l s 4' lie in a diagonal
where H ( 6 ' ) is a function of t h e s l o p e angle of t h e
trough of low ff-values. T h e conclusion follows that
channel and a l s o of the s h a p e of t h e horizontal s e c -
making t h e w a l l s s t e e p e r or smoother than a trough
tion of t h e channel, F i g . 6.
value reduces the capability of t h e hopper. T h e ex-
In accordance with t h e definition (5), t h e flow- is
planation of t h i s paradox l i e s in t h e fact that a
factor is therefore e x p r e s s e d by
s t e e p e r o r smoother hopper provides l e s s support t o a
ff = ~ ( e '+'
,, 6 ) ~ ( 8 ' ) . [8l flowing solid, l e a d s to higher consolidating pressures
and, hence, greater yield strengths of t h e solid with
greater tendency t o dome.
Application of the Flow - N o Flow Postulate: T h e ex-
Normal force V
pression (5) is now u s e d t o s u b s t i t u t e for v1 in ( I ) ,
leading t o
v1
Shearing - > ff.
force S
F
T h i s form of t h e postulate is used in design. T h e co-
ordinate ilis measured alongside F in Fig. 3, t h e
flow-factor then p l o t s i n t h i s figure a s the straight
d a s h e d line of s l o p e V,/V,, and t h e postulate is
s a t i s f i e d when t h e flow-function FF lies below t h e
F i g . 5 - Shear cell flow-factor ff.

" I tt - t I I I - --
t - t 1
, -..-I

F i g . 6 - Function H
(8')

270 - SEPTEMBER 1966

TRANSACTIONS
 I t is thus evident that the solid represented by the conditions (8:, 4 ' ) lying within the region of solu-
flow-function F F ( a ) will flow in the channel repre- tions, i.e. within t h e area covered by the ff-contours,
sented by the flow-factor ff; the solid represented by flow d o e s occur within the hopper and Mass Flow i s
the flow-function F F ( c ) will not flow in that channel; s a i d t o prevail. If the wall conditions l i e above the
while the solid represented by t h e flow-function line, i.e. outside of the contours, then flow along the
F F ( b ) will flow in that part of the channel which hopper walls d o e s not take place: flow develops only
corresponds t o pressures Vl > F , i.e. those lying to within a channel which forms within the solid itself.
the right of the point of intersection, and will not Such a flow pattern, Fig. 9, is referred t o a s
flow for pressures vl lying t o the left of that point. Plug Flow.
T h e point of intersection V1 = F determines a critical As h a s been explained in other publications,lO~l1
dimension of the channel, in fact, a minimum dimen- plug-flow bins have many disadvantages. They lead
sion of the outlet necessary to a s s u r e flow. to severe segregation, deterioration and caking due
Flow Patterns: The ff-contours in Fig. 7 a l l l i e to a first-in last-out sequence of flow, and are, gen-
below a diagonal line. Mathematical solutions of erally, suitable only for uniform, stable, free-flowing
pressure fields do not e x i s t above this line. This fact solids. Flow-factors for plug-flow have been devel-
i s of great practical significance. Namely, for wall oped and a method of design h a s been published11
but will not be repeated here because of s p a c e
limitations.
In the l a s t few years, a s the advantages of mass-
flow have become apparent, an increasing number of
bins in the mining, a s well a s in other industries, are
being designed for mass-flow, Fig. 10. Mass-flow
bins have the following properties:
1) Channeling, hang-ups, surging and flooding are
absent.
2) Flow i s uniform, and steady s t a t e flow can be
closely approached. As a result, analysis based on
steady flow can be applied t o design with a high
degree of confidence.
3) The bulk density of the drawn solid i s constant,
and practically independent of the head of the stored
solid. This i s very advantageous in a l l c a s e s of con-
trolled flow rate, and essential when the rate i s con-
trolled volumetrically. I t should be noted here that
F i g . 7 - Flow-factor contours for conical channels, highly aerated powders should have a sufficient
8 = 50° residence time to deaerate and form a contact bed.

F i g . 8 - Flow-factor
contours for wedge
channels, 8 = 50'

Society o f Mining Engineers

SEPTEMBER 1966 - 271
 4) P r e s s u r e s throughout t h e m a s s and a t t h e w a l l s 6 ) T h e r e a r e n o d e a d regions within t h e bin, hence,
a r e relatively low, with resultant low consolidation there is a minimum of consolidation a t rest, degrada-
and attrition of the s o l i d , and wear of t h e walls. tion and spoilage.
5) P r e s s u r e s a r e relatively .uniform a c r o s s any 7) A first-in first-out flow pattern c a n b e obtained,
horizontal c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e hopper, c a u s i n g uni- if desired. T h i s i s useful i n t h e s t o r a g e o f s o l i d s
form consolidation and uniform permeability, which i s which deteriorate with time.
important in g a s s e a l s and gas-solids reactors. 8) Non-segregating s t o r a g e i s obtained in a first-in
first-out bin because, while segregation t a k e s place
during t h e charging of a s o l i d into s u c h a bin, re-
mixing o c c u r s within t h e hopper.
9) By circulating a mixture around a s u i t a b l e mass-
flow bin, blending may b e attained.
10) L e v e l measuring d e v i c e s work reliably.
T y p i c a l mass-flow b i n s a r e shown in Fig. 11. They
a r e a l l characterized by s t e e p a n d smooth hopper
walls. "In-flowing valleys" ( s e e Fig. 9) a r e per-
m i s s i b l e only for easy-flowing s o l i d s . T h e c h i s e l
hopper h a s valleys but they a r e "out-flowing" and
do not hinder mass-flow.
Outlets and Feeders: T h e f a c t that a hopper is
smooth and s t e e p d o e s not, by i t s e l f , a s s u r e that a
solid placed in the hopper will flow. If t h e solid i s to
flow without doming, t h e o u t l e t h a s to b e sufficiently
large and, i f m a s s flow i s t o prevail, t h e feeder h a s
t o draw t h e s o l i d a c r o s s t h e whole a r e a of t h e outlet.
T h e minimum dimensions of an outlet a r e determined
from t h e flow postulate, relation (I). F o r i n s t a n c e ,
s u p p o s e t h e flow-function of a s o l i d is given by the
Fig. 9 - Plug flow line F F , F i g . 12, the angle 6 of t h e s o l i d h a s been

Fig. 10 - Mass-flow
bins for iron ore con-
centrate, Iron Ore
Company o f Canada,
Labrador

272 - SEPTEMBER 1966 TRANSACTIONS

 / out -f lowing

F i g . I 1 - Typical
mass-flow bins

(a) (b) (c)

conical wedge transition

measured a t SO0, and the angle of friction between T h e length of the outlet should b e
the solid and a wall material a t q5' = 2 2 9 A conical L 2 3 B = 2 4 in.
hopper, Fig. l l ( a ) , with 8: = lgO, i s selected. Then,
from Fig. 7, t h e flow-factor i s read a t ff = 1.3. Coor- in order that wedge flow b e applicable above the
dinate V1 i s drawn alongside F in Fig. 12 and, in rectangular outlet. The end s l o p e s of the hopper are
accordance with the definition of the flow-factor (5), s e l e c t e d a s if the channelwere conical, i.e. Of = 1 9 9
t h e flow-factor plots a s the straight dashed line ff. T h e actual length L of the outlet depends on t h e
- FF and ff intersect at a point at which
Since s e l e c t e d diameter D of the cylindrical part of the bin.
Vl = F = 2.40 lb, and G1 > F t o the right of that T h e c h i s e l hopper, Fig. 11 (b), provides a simple
point, i t follows that t h e flow - n o flow postulate (1) and effective design. I t s drawback is that the length
i s satisfied t o the right of the point of intersection, of the outlet i s equal to the diameter of the bin and,
and is not s a t i s f i e d to t h e left of i t . Hence, this point hence, may require a very long feeder.
determines t h e minimum diameter of the outlet B Suitable feeders are d i s c u s s e d in reference 11.
which i s obtained by rewriting Eq. 7 a s follows: Non-Segregating Bins: It i s often required to minimize
segregation in storage. Solids containing a wide
range of particle s i z e s inevitably segregate when
H ( 8 ' ) is read from Fig. 6 a t 2.3. If the area of the charged into a bin. However, if a mass-flow bin with
s h e a r c e l l i s A = 1/13 s q ft, and the bulk density a high cylindrical portion is used, Fig. 13, and the
y = 5 0 lb/cu ft, then the minimum diameter i s level of the solid is not permitted t o fall below the
B = 2.3 x 2.40 x 13/50 = 1.44 ft = 18 in.
In conical hoppers, the angle 8; should be a t l e a s t
4O t o the left of the boundary line of flow-factor con-
tours in order t o a s s u r e uniform m a s s flow.
If t h e transition hopper, Fig. l l ( c ) i s selected, the
s i d e s l o p e angle 8,' is s e l e c t e d from the wedge flow
chart, Fig. 8. Here the field of solutions is much
wider. However, i t is recommended that t h e s e l e c t e d
wall conditions l i e on or t o t h e left of the dashed
line. Assuming $' = 22O, a s for the conical hopper,
8,' = 3 0 ° i s selected. T h i s point determines a flow-
factor ff = 1.2. This flow-factor is drawn in Fig. 12
t o t h e intersection with t h e flow-function a t point
j1= F = 2.00 lb. H ( 8 ' ) = 1.15 for the rectangular
outlet and the width of the outlet is
B = 1.15 x 2.00 x 13/50 = .6 ft = 8 in. F i g . 12 - Minimum dimension of outlet B

Society of Mining Engineers SEPTEMBER 1966 - 273

 the vibrators apply t h e energy t o the abutments of t h e
domes and readily restore t h e mass-flow pattern. In
plug-flow bins, energy from the vibrators must p a s s
from t h e w a l l s through the normally non-flowing outer
regions into the central channel. T h i s requires larger
vibrators and disturbs t h e natural flow pattern of the
solid.
Solids Conditioning: Good mass-flow hoppers have a
flow-factor of 1.1 to 1.6 and can accommodate a v a s t
majority of t h e s o l i d s handled by industry. However,
range of there a r e s o l i d s whose instantaneous flow-functions
operation a r e high and which require impractically large o u t l e t s
for gravity flow. T h e c h o i c e then l i e s only between a
non-gravity form of recovery from storage, and s o l i d s
conditioning.
Solids conditioning means changing some property
of a solid i n order to improve i t s flowability.
I t i s , of course, much e a s i e r t o specify t h e proper
conditions of a solid during t h e design s t a g e and to
design the p r o c e s s accordingly, than i t is t o alter t h e
conditions in a completed plant. Flowability t e s t s
carried out a t t h e design s t a g e will point out s u c h
factors a s t h e maximum acceptable moisture content
Fig. 13 - Non-segregating bin and, hence, t h e required filter o r dryer capacity; the
permissible range of temperatures and, hence, t h e
transition, t h e bin will operate on a first-in first-out needed cooling capacity; t h e preferred c r y s t a l l i n e
b a s i s and t h e material which h a s segregated during structure of the solid; the need to s c r e e n out t h e
charging remixes within t h e hopper. T h e process is c o a r s e particles from t h e fines.
automatic a n d r e l i e s on t h e continuity of flow and on T h e two most important parameters a r e moisture
t h e f a c t that, within t h e vertical portion of the bin, content and temperature. A s t h e moisiture content of
velocity is constant a c r o s s t h e whole section. a solid is increased, i t s flowability d e c r e a s e s reach-
Flow-Promoting Devices: There a r e many s o l i d s i n g a minimum a t 85 to 95% of saturation. If a satu-
which flow sufficiently well under conditions of con- rated solid is stored in a bin for any length of time,
tinuous flow, but develop e x c e s s i v e strength and water drains out, and the solid tends to reach t h e
obstruct flow after storage a t rest. In other words, moisture content of minimum flowability. It is always
their flow-functions measured for z e r o time of con- desirable to s t o r e s o l i d s a t a moisture below 85%of
solidation (instantaneous flow-functions) intersect saturation. If a solid is allowed t o l o s e moisture
t h e bin flow-factors a t points = F defining ac- through evaporation while in storage a t r e s t , t h e par-
ceptable outlet dimensions, but their flow-functions t i c l e s may become cemented by the s a l t s precipitated
measured after consolidation a t rest (time flow- out of solution, c a u s i n g a marked d e c r e a s e in
functions) c a l l for impractically large outlets. flowability.
Mass-flow b i n s a r e well s u i t e d to t h e handling of Temperature h a s a significant effect on t h e flow-
t h e s e s o l i d s for the following reasons: 1) In a mass- ability of many s o l i d s . As temperature i n c r e a s e s , t h e
flow bin, a l l t h e s o l i d i s in motion whenever any of particles tend t o develop greater adhesion and the
i t i s drawn out. Hence, whenever t h e solid is drawn s o l i d becomes l e s s free-flowing. Some s o l i d s will
out, t h e whole m a s s is disturbed. Since c a k i n g in- flow a t a certain temperature, provided i t is kept
c r e a s e s with time, t h e periodical disturbances mini- constant, but gain strength and l o s e flowability if t h e
mize caking. By regularly drawing some s o l i d out, temperature is allowed to drop during storage a t rest.
t h e disturbances may b e u s e d effectively to prevent
caking. Circulation around the bin for, s a y , 30 sec-
onds every 30 minutes, or every few hours, may b e ACKNOWLEDGMENT
sufficient to preserve the flowability of t h e solid. T h e AIME w a s a sponsor of t h e work which h a s led
T h i s method i s not applicable t o plug-flow bins in t o t h e development of the theory of flow of bulk
which flow o c c u r s only i n a central channel with t h e s o l i d s and the bin design data referred t o i n t h i s
rest of t h e s o l i d remaining inactive till t h e bin is paper. T h e "Flow of Bulk Solids" project w a s en-
emptied out. dorsed in 1954 by t h e Mineral Beneficiation, Coal,
2) External vibrators c a n b e u s e d very effectively and R e s e a r c h Committees, and t h e Board of AIME.
to start flow after storage at rest. In mass-flow bins, T h e project received financial support from t h e

274 - SEPTEMBER 1966 TRANSACTIONS

Engineering Foundation, a s well a s from t h e Univer- '-and T. Leser: "A low-NO F ~ O W Criterion in the Gravity
Flow of Powders in Converging Channels". Fourth Interne-
s i t y of Utah, t h e American Iron and Steel Institute, tional Congress on Rheology, Brown university. A U ~ .1963.
t h e National S c i e n c e Foundation, a n d others. -:' "Steady Gravity Flow of Frictional-Cohesive Solids in
Converging Channels". I. of Appl. Mech., V. 31, Series E,
n. 1, 1964, pp. 5-11.
REFERENCES
l o : "Why Bins Don't Flow". Mechanical Engineering,
1
A. W. Jenike: "Flow of Solids in Bulk Handling Systems", and May 1964, pp. 40-43.
"Flow of Bulk Solids in Bins". Bul 64 of the Utah Engineering
Experiment Station, University of Utah, 1954. (out of print) 1 1 : "Storage and Flow of Solids". Bul. 123, Utah Engi-
neering Experiment Station, University of Utah, Salt Lake
:-' "Better Design for Bulk Handling". Chemical Engi- City, Utah, Nov. 1964 (198 pages, $6.00).
neering, V.61, No. 1 2 , Dec. 1954, pp. 175-180.
''A. Hear and Th. von Karman: "Zur Theorie der Spannung-
3 : "How to Keep Solids Flowing in Bins and Hoppers". szustaende in plastischen und sandartigen Medien". Nachr.
Engineering And Mining ]ournal, V. 156, No. 3a. Mid-March Ges. Wiss. ~ b ' t t i n g e n ,Math.-Phys. K l . , 1909, p. 204.
1955, pp. 83-85. 93.
. Jenike: "Gravity Flow of Frictional-Cohesive Solids -
1 3 ~ W.
4 a n d R. T. Shield: "On the P l a s t i c Flow of Coulomb Convergence to Radial Stress Fields". Brief Note, J . of Appl.
Solids Beyond Original Failure". J . of Appl. Mech., V. 27, Mech., V. 3 2 , Series E , n. 1. 1965, pp. 205-207.
Dec. 1959, pp. 599-602.
1 4 ~ A.
. Janssen: "Versuche iiber Getreidedruck in Silozellen".
5
, P. J . E l s e y and R. H. Woolley: "Flow Properties of Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Zeitschrift, V. 39, Aug. 3 1,
Bulk Solids". Proceedings, A.S.T.M., V. 60, 1960, 1895, pp. 1045-1049.
pp. 1168-1181.
J. R. Johanson: "Stress and Velocity F i e l d s i n the Gravity
6 : "Gravity Flow of Bulk Solids". Bul. 108, Utah Engi- Flow of Bulk Solids". I. of Appl. Mech., Series E. V. 86,
neering Experiment Station, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Sept. 1964.
Utah, Oct. 1961. (out of print)
l b J . R. Johanson and H. Colijn: "New Design Criteria for
: "Gravity Flow of solids". Trans. of the Institution of Hoppers and Bins". Iron and Steel Engineer, October 1964,
Chemical Engineers, V. 40, n. 5, 1962, pp 264-271. pp. 85-104.

DISCUSSION

SEISMIC ENERGY AVAILABLE FROM ROCKBllRSTS AND UNDERGROUND EXPLOSIONS

by W . I . Duvall and D. E . Stephenson

Transactions of SME, September, 1965, vol. 232, No. 3, p. 235; AlME Transactions, 1965, v o l . 232.

R.G.K. Morrison (Chairman, Dept. of Mining Engineerink ft.lbs., a l s o referred t o in t h e paper, that by Blan-
and Applied Geophysics, McGill University, Montreal, c h a r d 2 for t h e catastrophic rockburst a t Springhill,
Que. Canada) - T h e authors h a v e introduced a subject, N.S., of only 7.4 x l o 7 ft. lbs., and finally t h e range
t h e i n t e n s i v e study of which h a s awaited s c i e n t i f i c covered by Cook, referred t o in t h e paper. It i s prob-
developments. T h e s e a r e now such a s t o justify a a b l e a l s o that d a t a for t h e heavy rockburst a t Merkers3
thorough review of our thinking on t h e c a u s e s and con- in t h e WERRA potash a r e a of Germany a r e available
trol of rockbursts. T h e formulae developed in t h e pa- a s i t w a s recorded on seismographs from Moscow t o
per, t h e comparison between rockbursts and earth- Spain.
q u a k e s in figure 1 and t h e energy d a t a relating t o ex- It i s t h e writer's impression that some standardiza-
p l o s i v e s s e r v e a s a n effective foundation. tion i s present in t h e e s t i m a t e s above for 10 x 10 lo,
In t h e paper t h i s writer i s quoted a s suggesting that 3.8 x 1 0 1 ° and 7.4 x 10 ft.lbs., respectively. T h e
energy of t h e order of 10 x 10 ft. lb. may h a v e been latter, for Springhill, r e p r e s e n t s a relatively low order
released in some of t h e h e a v i e s t rockbursts in t h e of magnitude.
Kolar Gold Field. H e now h a s t e n s t o add that s u c h It i s obvious that any energy e s t i m a t e must b e re-
a n e s t i m a t e h a s no s c i e n t i f i c validity. It a r i s e s only lated to t h e local geometry of openings a t t h e time of
from a c a s u a l comparison of s u r f a c e a n d underground t h e event. It i s a l s o obvious that any explanation of
e f f e c t s of t h e medium heavy b u r s t s , referred to in t h e the c a u s e s of rockburst must b e c a p a b l e of providing
paper and estimated by J o n e s at 3.0 x 1 0 1 ° ft.lbs., a wide range of energy. However, w e must remember
with t h o s e of obviously greater magnitude. that t h e energy r e l e a s e i s a n effect indicating magni-
In any c a s e , w e h a v e t h e e s t i m a t e by J o n e s above, tude. T h e c a u s e l i e s with t h e mechanism initiating t h e
that by a team of s e i s m o l o g i s t s o n t h e Witwatersrand primary failure, generating t h e s e i s m i c activity, t o
of 10 x 10 1°ft.lbs., that by C o a t e s of 3.8 x 10" which much of t h e damage i s probably due.

S o c i e t y o f Mining E n g i n e e r s S E P T E M B E R 1966 - 275