Assignment no.

Energy Engineering
Sir Farhan Javed
Ali Ahmad

2016-CH-436
Define smoke point? Importance of smoke point of fuel. Smoke point tester
working principle and components? What is smoke point of diesel,kerosene and
gasoline

Define kinematic and dynamic viscosity? Types of viscometer? Engler viscometer

working principle and components?

Define cloud point and pour point? Importance of cloud point and pour point?
Cloud point and pour point tester working principle and components? What are
pour point and cloud point of diesel ,kerosene and gasoline?

What is penetration test of greases? importance? working principle of

penetrometer?

What is ried vapour pressure? Importance of RVP? Working principle of RVP

tester assembly?

What is softening point? What are working principle of softening point tester?

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Smoke point
The smoke point also known as burning point of an oil or fat is the temperature at
which, under specific and defined conditions, it begins to produce a continuous
bluish smoke that becomes clearly visible. ... The more FFA an oil contains, the
quicker it will break down and start smoking.

Importance of smoke point of fuel.

A high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke producing tendency. ...
4 Significance and use: The smoke point test is very important in evaluating the
quality of petroleum products such as kerosene and aviation turbine fuels,
because it detects undesirable components of fuel such as aromatic compounds
and sulfur.

The smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition of such fuels.
Generally the more aromatic the fuel the smokier the flame. A high smoke
point indicates a fuel of low smokeproducing tendency.[ref 1] As the wick of a
yellow-flame type lamp is turned up, a point is reached where smoking occurs.

The Smoke Point method, in accordance with ASTM D1322, IP 598, is one of the
oldest test methods in the petroleum industry. This test method provides an
indication of the relative smoke producing properties of kerosenes and aviation
turbine fuels in a diffusion flame. The smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon
composition of such fuels.

Smoke point tester working principle

This unique automated instrument uses a patented system (License TOTAL RM)
based on a video camera that measures the flame. The flame image is digitalized.
The dedicated software determines the height of the flame when its shape
corresponds to the one described in the test method. This specific flame is the
one with the maximum height without smoke generation. The SP10 performs
three determinations of the flame heights and reports the average value in strict
accordance with the test method. The results are saved in an internal database
and can be printed, transferred to a USB memory stick and/or sent to a LIMS.

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Every test is fully documented and traceable, which is imperative for aviation
industry quality procedures.

The SP10 is an Automatic Smoke Point instrument that strictly follows the test
method while both eliminating the subjectivity inherent to the manual test and
significantly improving repeatability and reproducibility. Additionally, the SP10
eliminates all safety risks linked to the visual observation of an open flame.

Smoke point Tester apparatus

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Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a
quantity in which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by
dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density like

ν=μ/ρ (2)

where

ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

In the SI-system the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s - or the

commonly used Stoke (St) where

 1 St (Stokes) = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s

Stoke comes from the CGS (Centimetre Gram Second) unit system.

Since the Stoke is a large unit it is often divided by 100 into the smaller
unit centiStoke (cSt) - where

 1 St = 100 cSt
-6 2 2
 1 cSt (centiStoke) = 10 m /s = 1 mm /s
2 6
 1 m /s = 10 centiStokes
The specific gravity for water at 20.2oC (68.4oF) is almost one, and the kinematic
viscosity for water at 20.2oC (68.4oF) is for practical purpose 1.0 mm2/s
(cStokes). A more exact kinematic viscosity for water at 20.2oC (68.4oF) is 1.0038
mm2/s (cSt).

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity

Absolute viscosity - coefficient of absolute viscosity - is a measure of internal
resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area

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required to move one horizontal plane with respect to an other plane - at an unit
velocity - when maintaining an unit distance apart in the fluid.

The shearing stress between the layers of a non turbulent fluid moving in straight
parallel lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as

Shear stress can be expressed

τ = μ dc / dy

=μγ (1)

where

τ = shearing stress in fluid (N/m2)

μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid (N s/m2)

dc = unit velocity (m/s)

dy = unit distance between layers (m)

γ = dc / dy = shear rate (s-1)

Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.

(1) can be rearranged to express Dynamic viscosity as

μ = τ dy / dc

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 =τ /γ (1b)

In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s or kg/(m s) - where

 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/(m s)
Dynamic viscosity may also be expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) system as g/(cm s), dyne s/cm2 or poise (p) where

 1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 1 g/(cm s) = 1/10 Pa s = 1/10 N s/m2

For practical use the Poise is normally too large and the unit is therefore often
divided by 100 - into the smaller unit centipoise (cP) - where

 1 P = 100 cP
 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 gram per cm second = 0.001 Pascal second = 1
milliPascal second = 0.001 N s/m2
Water at 20.2oC (68.4oF) has the absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

U-Tube Viscometers

These viscometers are often used in laboratory settings. Users can obtain the
dynamic viscosity by measuring how long it takes the fluid to flow between two
points of a capillary of known radius; it is necessary to know the fluid's density to
calculate viscosity in this manner.

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Falling Sphere Viscometers

As the name implies, these viscometers use a falling sphere to measure viscosity.
The time taken for the falling sphere, whose density and radius are known, to
move between two markings is measured, and then users can calculate viscosity.
This model is also typically used in the lab. They work on principles derived from
Stokes' Law, which gives drag force on a sphere.

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Falling Piston Viscometers

Falling Piston viscometers operate on similar principles as the falling sphere

viscometers, except that they measure resistance to a piston moving through a
fluid. These devices are very long-lasting and simple to operate, and require little
maintenance. For this reason, they are very popular in industry.

Rotational Viscometers

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Rotational viscometers measure the resistance of fluids to torque. There are
several types of rotational viscometers: the Stabinger viscometer was developed
in 2000, while the Stormer viscometer is commonly used to measure viscosity of
paints. The Stabinger viscometer uses a proprietary unit, the Krebs Unit (KU).

Bubble Viscometers

Bubble viscometers measure the time it takes for bubbles to rise through a liquid.
These viscometers are most often used for resins or varnishes. These viscometers
are fast, and very useful for measuring viscosity in the field. Models that use the
alphabetical comparison method measure viscosity in stokes, which is equal to 1
cm2s-1.

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Rheometers

Rheometers are most useful for non-newtonian fluids; that is, fluids whose
viscosity isn't described by a single value. Larger forces typically induce larger
viscosity in non-newtonian fluids. There are several commercial rheometers on
the market. For forces below 10 pascals, ThermoFisher's CaBER is popular. Tthe
Cambridge Polymer Group's FiSer can be used for values from 1 to 1000 pascals,
while the Gottfert Rheotens is rated for values above 100 Pa and the Xpansion
Instruments Sentmanat extensional rheometer is rated for over 10 kPa.

The Engler Viscometer

It is used to compare the specific viscosity of road-oils and tars to the viscosity of
water. It consists of: Water bath. Digital precision thermo-regulator.

Cloud point
In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax
in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance. The presence of
solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines.

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Pour point
The pour point of a liquid is the temperature below which the liquid loses its flow
characteristics. In crude oil a high pour point is generally associated with a
high paraffin content, typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion of
plant material. That type of crude oil is mainly derived from a kerogen Type III.

The significance of cloud and pour points

Cloud point is of more significance for fuel oils than lubricating oils. Pour
point isimportant for the lubricants used in low temperature. If the high pour
point of lubricant is used at low temperature then it would freeze jamming the
machine parts. The fluid film mechanism of lubrication will also fail.
o Cloud point is of more significance for fuel oils than lubricating oils.
o Pour point is important for the lubricants used in low temperature.
o If the high pour point of lubricant is used at low temperature then it would
freeze jamming the machine parts.
o The fluid film mechanism of lubrication will also fail.
o Pour point is generally lower using depressants like polymethacrylates.

Cloud point and pour point tester working principle and

components

 Brass lamp body with chimney;

 0-50mm scale markings;
 Brass plated door with glass window;
 Candle socket;
 Brass candle with wicked tube and air vent;
 Iron base;
Working principle of pour point
MPC-102S detects the pour point (freezing point) using our unique air
pressure [Link] test specimenis preheated up to specific
temperature,rhen cooled at controlled rate by the sequence program
.at certain present points reachesd during cooling,the specimen surface
is subjected to the increased pressure from the connected Pressurizing

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syrnge whose pressure is applied onto the circumference of the
specimen [Link] central surface area of the specimen has the
pressure conducting tube inserted into [Link] incressed air pressure
onto circumference surface of specimen causes its surface level to fall
slightly. As a consequence(using the principle of u-tube),the surface
level of specimen inside the pressure conducting tube rises, and
pressure change caused by this rise is detected by pressure sensor,
confirming that specimen has not yet solidified. Cooling of specimen
continues and pour point detection is performed at present detection
intervals. As the specimen movement reduces(which means
solidification has started), the surface level outside the conducting tube
become steady. In spite of the application of increased air pressure,
and therefore no more pressure change inside the conducting tube.
The measured temperature at this time is determined as the pour
point.

Working principle of cloud point

The temperature sensor to measure the specimen temperature is
installed as well as cloud point sensor on the detector head reflux seal
is fitted on the bottom of specimen cup, Which can reflect the light
from sensor. Sensor is the double structure that consist of projector
and receiver, and it observes the automatically adjusted light level
during a test. When wax content appears from the bottom of
specimen, then receiving light become weaker. The cloud point is
detected when it reached down to specific level.

The Cloud Point is the temperature at which paraffin, which is naturally

present in
1-diesel fuel, begins to form cloudy wax crystals. ...
2- diesel fuel (or kerosene) contains very little paraffin, and therefore
has cloud and pour points near -40°F (-40°C).

The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F),
and its autoignition temperature is 220 °C (428 °F). The pour point of
kerosenedepends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized
at −47 °C (−53 °F).

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 However, the pour point—the temperature below which crude oil
becomes plastic and will not flow—is important to recovery and
transport and is always determined.

Penetration test of greases

The cone penetration method employs a weighted cone that is dropped into a
fixed-size volume of grease for a defined time period. The depth that the
cone is able to penetrate the grease is used to rate the grease's consistency with a
scale developed by the National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI).

Cone penetration is considered the most important of the laboratory-

performedtests. While this ASTM test method provides a measure
of grease consistency or stiffness, it is not well-suited for used grease, as it
requires a large sample, which precludes its use for in-service testing.

The principle of the hand penetrometer is based on measuring the highest

penetration resistance of a cone over a distance of about 10 cm. The penetration
resistance is measured by means of a compression spring. A number of cones and
compression springs are available.

Working principle of penetrometer

There are many types of penetrometer designed to be used on soil. They are
usually round or cone shaped. The penetrometer is dropped on the test subject or
pressed against it and the depth of the resulting hole is measured. The
measurements find whether the soil is strong enough to build a road on.
Scientists also use a penetrometer to measure how much moisture is in soil.
Penetrometers are used by space probes such as the Cassini–Huygens probe, to
measure the amount of moisture in soil on other planets. Penetrometers are
furthermore used in glaciology to measure the strength and nature of materials
underlying a glacier at its bed.

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Importance of penetrometer
A penetrometer is also used in longer professional cricket matches, to measure
how the pitch is holding up over the course of a multi-day match.
British horse racing courses have been required, since 2009, to report the
readings obtained using a penetrometer designed by Cranfield University and
TurfTrax, known as the GoingStick, on each day of a race meeting.[

Reid vapour persuure

Reid vapor pressures (RVPs) are sometimes specified by crude oil purchasers,
particularly if the crude is to be transported by tanker or truck prior to reaching a
processing plant. Purchasers specify low RVPs so that they will not be paying for
light components in the liquid, which will be lost due to weathering.

Importance of RVP
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) The Reid Vapor Pressure is an importantproperty of
gasolines and jet fuels and it is used as a criterion for blending of products. It is
also a useful parameter for the estimation of losses from storage tanks during
filling or draining.

Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is commonly used as a control point or specification. It

is a measure of the normal butane content of motor gasoline. Historically, crude
oil was valued by its API gravity, the higher the API, the more valuable the crude.
Soon suppliers learned to cheat this system by spiking the crude with low value
butanes to raise its API. The RVP test detects this [Link] ASTM procedure to
measure RVP is very explicit. The sample is to be chilled to 36F then placed in a
bomb with four parts air. The lid with the pressure gauge is tightened and the
bomb is shaken and placed in a constant temperature bath at 100F. After a
specified time, the pressure gauge is read and reported as RVP in PSI [Link] is
an inexpensive measurement correlating to the vapor pressure of a fluid. The test
approximates the true vapor pressure at 100F for gasoline range materials (5 - 15
RVP). Crude oils exhibit a much wider deviation between TVP and RVP.

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Working principle of RVD assembly
This method covers the determination of the absolute pressure, measured against
a vacuum of a gasoline or gasoline-oxygenate blend sample saturated with air at
32-40 °F (0-4.5 °C). The absolute (measured) pressure is observed with a system
volume ratio of 1 part sample and 4 parts evacuated space at 100 °F (37.8
°C).1.2The values stated in pounds per square inch absolute are standard.2.
Summary of method.2.1A known volume of air-saturated fuel at 32-40 °F is
introduced into an evacuated, thermostatically controlled test chamber, the
internal volume of which is or becomes five times that of the total test specimen
introduced into the test chamber. After the injection the test specimen is allowed
to reach thermal equilibrium at the test temperature, 100 °F (37.8 °C). The
resulting pressure increase is measured with an absolute pressure measuring
device whose volume is included in the total of the test chamber volume. The
measured pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the sample and the
dissolved air.2.2The total measured pressure is converted to Reid vapor pressure
by use of a correlation equation

The softening point is the temperature at which a material softens beyond some
arbitrary softness.[1] It can be determined, for example, by the Vicat method
(ASTM-D1525 or ISO 306), Heat Deflection Test (ASTM-D648) or a ring and ball
method (ISO 4625 or ASTM E28-67/E28-99 or ASTM D36 or ASTM D6493 - 11). A
ring and ball apparatus can also be used for the determination of softening point
of bituminous materials

Working principle of softnening point tester

Procedure for Softening Point Test on Bitumen. Heat the material to
a temperature between 75-100° C above its softening point; stir until, it is
completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water.

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