English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day 1

English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the

Present Day

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Title: English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day

Author: Walter W. Skeat

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ENGLISH DIALECTS

From the Eighth Century to the Present Day

by the

REV. WALTER W. SKEAT, Litt.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.B.A. Elrington and Bosworth Professor of
Anglo−Saxon and Fel− low of Christ's College. Founder and formerly Director of the English Dialect Society

"English in the native garb;" _K. Henry V._ V. 1. 80

Cambridge at the University Press 1912

*****

With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the title page is a reproduction of one used by
the earliest known Cambridge printer, John Siberch, 1521

First Edition 1911. Reprinted 1912.

*****

PREFACE

The following brief sketch is an attempt to present, in a popular form, the history of our English dialects, from
the eighth century to the present day. The evidence, which is necessarily somewhat imperfect, goes to show
that the older dialects appear to have been few in number, each being tolerably uniform over a wide area; and
that the rather numerous dialects of the present day were gradually developed by the breaking up of the older
groups into subdialects. This is especially true of the old Northumbrian dialect, in which the speech of
Aberdeen was hardly distinguishable from that of Yorkshire, down to the end of the fourteenth century; soon
after which date, the use of it for literary purposes survived in Scotland only. The chief literary dialect, in the
earliest period, was Northumbrian or "Anglian," down to the middle of the ninth century. After that time our
literature was mostly in the Southern or Wessex dialect, commonly called "Anglo−Saxon," the dominion of
which lasted down to the early years of the thirteenth century, when the East Midland dialect surely but
gradually rose to pre−eminence, and has now become the speech of the empire. Towards this result the two
great universities contributed not a little. I proceed to discuss the foreign elements found in our dialects, the
chief being Scandinavian and French. The influence of the former has long been acknowledged; a due
recognition of the importance of the latter has yet to come. In conclusion, I give some selected specimens of
English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day 3

the use of the modern dialects.

I beg leave to thank my friend Mr P. Giles, M.A., Hon. LL.D. of Aberdeen, and University Reader in
Comparative Philology, for a few hints and for kindly advice.

W. W. S.

Cambridge

3 March 1911

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

I. DIALECTS AND THEIR VALUE. The meaning of dialect. Phonetic decay and dialectic regeneration. The
words twenty, madam, alms. Keats; use of awfully. Tennyson and Ben Jonson; use of flittermouse.
Shakespeare; use of bolter and child. Sir W. Scott; use of eme. The English yon. Hrinde in Beowulf.

II. DIALECTS IN EARLY TIMES. The four old dialects. Meaning of "Anglo−Saxon." Documents in the
Wessex dialect.

III. THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; TILL A.D. 1300. The Anglian period. Beda's History and
"Death−song." The poet Cædmon. Cædmon's hymn. The Leyden Riddle. The Ruth well Cross. Liber Vitæ.
The Durham Ritual. The Lindisfarne and Rushworth MSS. Meaning of a "gloss." Specimen.

IV. THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; A.D. 1300−1400. The Metrical Psalter; with an extract. Cursor
Mundi. Homilies in Verse. Prick of Conscience. Minot's Poems. Barbour's Bruce; with an extract. Great
extent of the Old Northern dialect; from Aberdeen to the Humber. Lowland Scotch identical with the
Yorkshire dialect of Hampole. Lowland Scotch called "Inglis" by Barbour, Henry the Minstrel, Dunbar, and
Lyndesay; first called "Scottis" by G. Douglas. Dr Murray's account of the Dialect of the Southern Counties of
Scotland.

V. NORTHUMBRIAN IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Northumbrian of Scotland and of England in

different circumstances. Literature of the fifteenth century; poems, romances, plays, and ballads. List of
Romances. Caxton. Rise of the Midland dialect. "Scottish" and "English." Jamieson's Dictionary. "Middle
Scots." Quotation from Dunbar.

VI. THE SOUTHERN DIALECT. Alfred the Great. The Anglo−Saxon Chronicle. Old English Homilies. The
Brut. St Juliana. The Ancren Riwle. The Proverbs of Alfred. The Owl and the Nightingale. A Moral Ode.
Robert of Gloucester. Early history of Britain. The South−English Legendary. The Harleian MS. 2253. The
Vernon MS. John Trevisa. The Testament of Love.

VII. THE SOUTHERN DIALECT OF KENT. Quotation from Beda. Extract from an Old Kentish Charter.
Kentish Glosses. Kentish Sermons. William of Shoreham; with an extract. The Ayenbite of Inwyt. The
Apostles' Creed in Old Kentish. The use of e for A.S. y in Kentish. Use of Kentish by Gower and Chaucer.
Kentish forms in modern English.

VIII. THE MERCIAN DIALECT. East Midland. Old Mercian Glossaries of the eighth century. The Lorica
Prayer. The Vespasian Psalter. The Rushworth MS. Old Mercian and Wessex compared. Laud MS. of the
Anglo−Saxon Chronicle. The Ormulum. The English Proclamation of Henry III. (_see the facsimile_). Robert
Mannyng of Brunne (Bourn). West Midland. The Prose Psalter. William of Palerne. The Pearl and Alliterative
CHAPTER I 4

Poems. Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight.

IX. FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN THE DIALECTS. Words from Norman, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, etc. Celtic.
List of Celtic words. Examples of Latin words. Greek words. Hebrew words. List of Scandinavian words.
French words. Anglo−French words; gauntree. Literary French words, as used in dialects.

X. LATER HISTORY OF THE DIALECTS. Spenser. John Fitzherbert. Thomas Tusser. Skinner's
Etymologicon (Lincolnshire words). John Ray. Dialect glossaries. Dr Ellis on Early English Pronunciation.
The English Dialect Society. The English Dialect Dictionary. The English Dialect Grammar.

XI. THE MODERN DIALECTS. Prof. Wright's account of the modern English Dialects.

XII. A FEW SPECIMENS. Some writers in dialect. Specimens: Scottish (Aberdeen, Ayrshire, Edinburgh).
Northern England (Westmorland). Midland (Lincoln, S.E. Lancashire, Sheffield, Cheshire). Eastern (N.
Essex, Norfolk). Western (S.W. Shropshire). Southern (Wiltshire, Isle of Wight, Sussex).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

FACSIMILE. The only English Proclamation of Henry III. Oct. 18, 1258

*** For a transcription of the Facsimile see pp. 75−6.

{Transcriber's Note: The Facsimile is not included in this e−text.}

CHAPTER I
DIALECTS AND THEIR VALUE

According to the New English Dictionary, the oldest sense, in English, of the word dialect was simply "a
manner of speaking" or "phraseology," in accordance with its derivation from the Greek dialectos, a discourse
or way of speaking; from the verb dialegesthai, to discourse or converse.

The modern meaning is somewhat more precise. In relation to a language such as English, it is used in a
special sense to signify "a local variety of speech differing from the standard or literary language." When we
talk of "speakers of dialect," we imply that they employ a provincial method of speech to which the man who
has been educated to use the language of books is unaccustomed. Such a man finds that the dialect−speaker
frequently uses words or modes of expression which he does not understand or which are at any rate strange
to him; and he is sure to notice that such words as seem to be familiar to him are, for the most part, strangely
pronounced. Such differences are especially noticeable in the use of vowels and diphthongs, and in the mode
of intonation.

The speaker of the "standard" language is frequently tempted to consider himself as the dialect−speaker's
superior, unless he has already acquired some elementary knowledge of the value of the science of language
or has sufficient common sense to be desirous of learning to understand that which for the moment lies
beyond him. I remember once hearing the remark made−−"What is the good of dialects? Why not sweep them
all away, and have done with them?" But the very form of the question betrays ignorance of the facts; for it is
no more possible to do away with them than it is possible to suppress the waves of the sea. English, like every
other literary language, has always had its dialects and will long continue to possess them in secluded
districts, though they are at the present time losing much of that archaic character which gives them their chief
value. The spread of education may profoundly modify them, but the spoken language of the people will ever
CHAPTER I 5
continue to devise new variations and to initiate developments of its own. Even the "standard" language is
continually losing old words and admitting new ones, as was noted long ago by Horace; and our so−called
"standard" pronunciation is ever imperceptibly but surely changing, and never continues in one stay.

In the very valuable Lectures on the Science of Language by Professor F. Max Müller, the second Lecture,
which deserves careful study, is chiefly occupied by some account of the processes which he names
respectively "phonetic decay" and "dialectic regeneration"; processes to which all languages have always been
and ever will be subject.

By "phonetic decay" is meant that insidious and gradual alteration in the sounds of spoken words which,
though it cannot be prevented, at last so corrupts a word that it becomes almost or wholly unmeaning. Such a
word as twenty does not suggest its origin. Many might perhaps guess, from their observation of such numbers
as _thirty, forty_, etc., that the suffix _−ty_ may have something to do with ten, of the original of which it is in
fact an extremely reduced form; but it is less obvious that _twen−_ is a shortened form of twain. And perhaps
none but scholars of Teutonic languages are aware that twain was once of the masculine gender only, while
two was so restricted that it could only be applied to things that were feminine or neuter. As a somewhat
hackneyed example of phonetic decay, we may take the case of the Latin mea domina, i.e. my mistress, which
became in French ma dame, and in English _madam_; and the last of these has been further shortened to mam,
and even to _'m_, as in the phrase "Yes, 'm." This shows how nine letters may be reduced to one. Similarly,
our monosyllable alms is all that is left of the Greek _ele{−e}mosyn{−e}_. Ten letters have here been reduced
to four.

This irresistible tendency to indistinctness and loss is not, however, wholly bad; for it has at the same time
largely contributed, especially in English, to such a simplification of grammatical inflexions as certainly has
the practical convenience of giving us less to learn. But in addition to this decay in the forms of words, we
have also to reckon with a depreciation or weakening of the ideas they express. Many words become so
hackneyed as to be no longer impressive. As late as in 1820, Keats could say, in stanza 6 of his poem of
Isabella, that "His heart beat awfully against his side"; but at the present day the word awfully is suggestive of
schoolboys' slang. It is here that we may well have the benefit of the principle of "dialectic regeneration." We
shall often do well to borrow from our dialects many terms that are still fresh and racy, and instinct with a full
significance. Tennyson was well aware of this, and not only wrote several poems wholly in the Lincolnshire
dialect, but introduced dialect words elsewhere. Thus in The Voyage of Maeldune, he has the striking line:
"Our voices were thinner and fainter than any flittermouse−shriek." In at least sixteen dialects a flittermouse
means "a bat."

I have mentioned Tennyson in this connexion because he was a careful student of English, not only in its
dialectal but also in its older forms. But, as a matter of fact, nearly all our chief writers have recognised the
value of dialectal words. Tennyson was not the first to use the above word. Near the end of the Second Act of
his Sad Shepherd, Ben Jonson speaks of:

Green−bellied snakes, blue fire−drakes in the sky, And giddy flitter−mice with leather wings.

Similarly, there are plenty of "provincialisms" in Shakespeare. In an interesting book entitled _Shakespeare,
his Birthplace and its Neighbourhood_, by J.R. Wise, there is a chapter on "The Provincialisms of
Shakespeare," from which I beg leave to give a short extract by way of specimen.

"There is the expressive compound 'blood−boltered' in Macbeth (Act IV, Sc. 1), which the critics have all
thought meant simply blood−stained. Miss Baker, in her Glossary of Northamptonshire Words, first pointed
out that 'bolter' was peculiarly a Warwickshire word, signifying to clot, collect, or cake, as snow does in a
horse's hoof, thus giving the phrase a far greater intensity of meaning. And Steevens, too, first noticed that in
the expression in _The Winter's Tale_ (Act III, Sc. 3), 'Is it a boy or a child?'−−where, by the way, every actor
tries to make a point, and the audience invariably laughs−−the word 'child' is used, as is sometimes the case in
CHAPTER I 6
the midland districts, as synonymous with girl; which is plainly its meaning in this passage, although the
speaker has used it just before in its more common sense of either a boy or a girl."

In fact, the English Dialect Dictionary cites the phrase "is it a lad or a child?" as being still current in
Shropshire; and duly states that, in Warwickshire, "dirt collected on the hairs of a horse's leg and forming into
hard masses is said to bolter." Trench further points out that many of our pure Anglo−Saxon words which
lived on into the formation of our early English, subsequently dropped out of our usual vocabulary, and are
now to be found only in the dialects. A good example is the word eme, an uncle (A.S. _{−e}am_), which is
rather common in Middle English, but has seldom appeared in our literature since the tune of Drayton. Yet it
is well known in our Northern dialects, and Sir Walter Scott puts the expression "Didna his eme die" in the
mouth of Davie Deans (Heart of Midlothian, ch. XII). In fact, few things are more extraordinary in the history
of our language than the singularly capricious manner in which good and useful words emerge into or
disappear from use in "standard" talk, for no very obvious reason. Such a word as yonder is common enough
still; but its corresponding adjective yon, as in the phrase "yon man," is usually relegated to our dialects.
Though it is common in Shakespeare, it is comparatively rare in the Middle English period, from the twelfth
to the fifteenth century. It only occurs once in Chaucer, where it is introduced as being a Northern word; and it
absolutely disappears from record in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. Bosworth's _Anglo−Saxon
Dictionary_ gives no example of its use, and it was long supposed that it would be impossible to trace it in our
early records. Nevertheless, when Dr Sweet printed, for the first time, an edition of King Alfred's translation
of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care, an example appeared in which it was employed in the most natural manner,
as if it were in everyday use. At p. 443 of that treatise is the sentence−−"Aris and gong to geonre byrg," i.e.
Arise and go to yon city. Here the A.S. geon (pronounced like the modern _yon_) is actually declined after the
regular manner, being duly provided with the suffix _−re_, which was the special suffix reserved only for the
genitive or dative feminine. It is here a dative after the preposition to.

There is, in fact, no limit to the good use to which a reverent study of our dialects may be put by a diligent
student. They abound with pearls which are worthy of a better fate than to be trampled under foot. I will
content myself with giving one last example that is really too curious to be passed over in silence.

It so happens that in the Anglo−Saxon epic poem of Beowulf, one of the most remarkable and precious of our
early poems, there is a splendid and graphic description of a lonely mere, such as would have delighted the
heart of Edgar Allan Poe, the author of Ulalume. In Professor Earle's prose translation of this passage, given
in his Deeds of Beowulf, at p. 44, is a description of two mysterious monsters, of whom it is said that "they
inhabit unvisited land, wolf−crags, windy bluffs, the dread fen−track, where the mountain waterfall amid
precipitous gloom vanisheth beneath−−flood under earth. Not far hence it is, reckoning by miles, that the
Mere standeth, and over it hang rimy groves; a wood with clenched roots overshrouds the water." The word to
be noted here is the word rimy, i.e. covered with rime or hoar−frost. The original Anglo−Saxon text has the
form hrinde, the meaning of which was long doubtful. Grein, the great German scholar, writing in 1864,
acknowledged that he did not know what was intended, and it was not till 1880 that light was first thrown
upon the passage. In that year Dr Morris edited, for the first time, some Anglo−Saxon homilies (commonly
known as the Blickling Homilies, because the MS. is in the library of Blickling Hall, Norfolk); and he called
attention to a passage (at p. 209) where the homilist was obviously referring to the lonely mere of the old
poem, in which its overhanging groves were described as being hrimige, which is nothing but the true old
spelling of rimy. He naturally concluded that the word hrinde (in the MS. of Beowulf) was miswritten, and
that the scribe had inadvertently put down hrinde instead of hrimge, which is a legitimate contraction of
hrimige. Many scholars accepted this solution; but a further light was yet to come, viz. in 1904. In that year,
Dr Joseph Wright printed the fifth volume of the English Dialect Dictionary, showing that in the dialects of
Scotland, Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire, the word for "hoarfrost" is not rime, but rind, with a
derived adjective rindy, which has the same sense as rimy. At the same time, he called attention yet once more
to the passage in Beowulf. It is established, accordingly, that the suspected mistake in the MS. is no mistake at
all; that the form hrinde is correct, being a contraction of hrindge or hrindige, plural of the adjective hrindig,
which is preserved in our dialects, in the form rindy, to this very day. In direct contradiction of a common
CHAPTER II 7

popular error that regards our dialectal forms as being, for the most part, "corrupt," it will be found by
experience that they are remarkably conservative and antique.

CHAPTER II
DIALECTS IN EARLY TIMES

The history of our dialects in the earliest periods of which we have any record is necessarily somewhat
obscure, owing to the scarcity of the documents that have come down to us. The earliest of these have been
carefully collected and printed in one volume by Dr Sweet, entitled The Oldest English Texts, edited for the
Early English Text Society in 1885. Here we already find the existence of no less than four dialects, which
have been called by the names of Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex (or Anglo−Saxon), and Kentish. These
correspond, respectively, though not quite exactly, to what we may roughly call Northern, Midland, Southern,
and Kentish. Whether the limits of these dialects were always the same from the earliest times, we cannot tell;
probably not, when the unsettled state of the country is considered, in the days when repeated invasions of the
Danes and Norsemen necessitated constant efforts to repel them. It is therefore sufficient to define the areas
covered by these dialects in quite a rough way. We may regard the Northumbrian or Northern as the dialect or
group of dialects spoken to the north of the river Humber, as the name implies; the Wessex or Southern, as the
dialect or group of dialects spoken to the south of the river Thames; the Kentish as being peculiar to Kent; and
the Mercian as in use in the Midland districts, chiefly to the south of the Humber and to the north of the
Thames. The modern limits are somewhat different, but the above division of the three chief dialects
(excluding Kentish) into Northern, Midland, and Southern is sufficient for taking a broad general view of the
language in the days before the Norman Conquest.

The investigation of the differences of dialect in our early documents only dates from 1885, owing to the
previous impossibility of obtaining access to these oldest texts. Before that date, it so happened that nearly all
the manuscripts that had been printed or examined were in one and the same dialect, viz. the Southern (or
Wessex). The language employed in these was (somewhat unhappily) named "Anglo−Saxon"; and the very
natural mistake was made of supposing that this "Anglo−Saxon" was the sole language (or dialect) which
served for all the "Angles" and "Saxons" to be found in the "land of the Angles" or England. This is the reason
why it is desirable to give the more general name of "Old English" to the oldest forms of our language,
because this term can be employed collectively, so as to include Northumbrian, Mercian, "Anglo−Saxon" and
Kentish under one designation. The name "Anglo−Saxon" was certainly rather inappropriate, as the speakers
of it were mostly Saxons and not Angles at all; which leads up to the paradox that they did not speak
"English"; for that, in the extreme literal sense, was the language of the Angles only! But now that the true
relationship of the old dialects is known, it is not uncommon for scholars to speak of the Wessex dialect as
"Saxon," and of the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects as "Anglian"; for the latter are found to have some
features in common that differ sharply from those found in "Saxon."

Manuscripts in the Southern dialect are fairly abundant, and contain poems, homilies, land−charters, laws,
wills, translations of Latin treatises, glossaries, etc.; so that there is considerable variety. One of the most
precious documents is the history known as the _Anglo−Saxon Chronicle_, which was continued even after
the Conquest till the year 1154, when the death and burial of King Stephen were duly recorded.

But specimens of the oldest forms of the Northern and Midland dialects are, on the other hand, very much
fewer in number than students of our language desire, and are consequently deserving of special mention.
They are duly enumerated in the chapters below, which discuss these dialects separately.

Having thus sketched out the broad divisions into which our dialects may be distributed, I shall proceed to
enter upon a particular discussion of each group, beginning with the Northern or Northumbrian.
CHAPTER III 8

CHAPTER III
THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; TILL A.D. 1000

In Professor Earle's excellent manual on Anglo−Saxon Literature, chapter V is entirely occupied with "the
Anglian Period," and begins thus:−−"While Canterbury was so important a seminary of learning, there was, in
the Anglian region of Northumbria, a development of religious and intellectual life which makes it natural to
regard the whole brilliant period from the later seventh to the early ninth century as the Anglian Period....
Anglia became for a century the light−spot of European history; and we here recognise the first great stage in
the revival of learning, and the first movement towards the establishment of public order in things temporal
and spiritual."

Unfortunately for the student of English, though perhaps fortunately for the historian, the most important book
belonging to this period was written in Latin. This was the Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, or the
Church History of the Anglian People. The writer was Beda, better known as "the Venerable Bede," who was
born near Wearmouth (Durham) in 672, and lived for the greater part of his life at Jarrow, where he died in
735. He wrote several other works, also in Latin, most of which Professor Earle enumerates. It is said of Beda
himself that he was "learned in our native songs," and it is probable that he wrote many things in his native
Northumbrian or Durham dialect; but they have all perished, with the exception of one precious fragment of
five lines, printed by Dr Sweet (at p. 149) from the St Gall MS. No. 254, of the ninth century. It is usually
called Beda's Death−song, and is here given:

Fore there neidfaerae naenig uuiurthit thonc−snotturra than him thar[f] sie, to ymbhycggannae, aer his
hin−iong[a]e, huaet his gastae, godaes aeththa yflaes, aefter deoth−daege doemid uueorth[a]e.

Literally translated, this runs as follows:

Before the need−journey no one becomes more wise in thought than he ought to be, (in order) to contemplate,
ere his going hence, what for his spirit, (either) of good or of evil, after (his) death−day, will be adjudged.

It is from Beda's Church History, Book IV, chap. 24 (or 22), that we learn the story of Cædmon, the famous
Northumbrian poet, who was a herdsman and lay brother in the abbey of Whitby, in the days of the abbess
Hild, who died in 680, near the close of the seventh century. He received the gift of divine song in a vision of
the night; and after the recognition by the abbess and others of his heavenly call, became a member of the
religious fraternity, and devoted the rest of his life to the composition of sacred poetry.

He sang (says Beda) the Creation of the world, the origin of the human race, and all the history of Genesis; the
departure of Israel out of Egypt and their entrance into the land of promise, with many other histories from
holy writ; the incarnation, passion, and resurrection of our Lord, and His ascension into heaven; the coming of
the Holy Spirit and the teaching of the Apostles. Likewise of the terror of the future judgement, the horror of
punishment in hell, and the bliss of the heavenly kingdom he made many poems; and moreover, many others
concerning divine benefits and judgements; in all which he sought to wean men from the love of sin, and to
stimulate them to the enjoyment and pursuit of good action.

It happens that we still possess some poems which answer more or less to this description; but they are all of
later date and are only known from copies written in the Southern dialect of Wessex; and, as the original
Northumbrian text has unfortunately perished, we have no means of knowing to what extent they represent
Cædmon's work. It is possible that they preserve some of it in a more or less close form of translation, but we
cannot verify this possibility. It has been ascertained, on the other hand, that a certain portion (but by no
means all) of these poems is adapted, with but slight change, from an original poem written in the Old Saxon
of the continent.
CHAPTER III 9

Nevertheless, it so happens that a short hymn of nine lines has been preserved nearly in the original form, as
Cædmon dictated it; and it corresponds closely with Beda's Latin version. It is found at the end of the
Cambridge MS. of Beda's Historia Ecclesiastica in the following form:

Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard, metudæs maecti end his modgidanc, uerc uuldurfadur; sue he uundra
gihuaes, eci Dryctin, or astelidæ. He aerist scop aelda barnum heben til hrofe, haleg scepen[d]. Tha
middungeard moncynnæs uard, eci Dryctin, æfter tiadæ firum fold[u], frea allmectig.

I here subjoin a literal translation.

Now ought we to praise the warden of heaven's realm, the Creator's might and His mind's thought, the works
of the Father of glory; (even) as He, of every wonder, (being) eternal Ruler, established the beginning. He first
(of all) shaped, for the sons of men, heaven as (their) roof, (He) the holy Creator. The middle world (He),
mankind's warden, eternal Ruler, afterwards prepared, the world for men−−(being the) Almighty Lord.

The locality of these lines is easily settled, as we may assign them to Whitby. Similarly, Beda's Death−song
may be assigned to the county of Durham.

A third poem, extending to fourteen lines, may be called the "Northumbrian Riddle." It is called by Dr Sweet
the "Leiden Riddle," because the MS. that contains it is now at Leyden, in Holland. The locality is unknown,
but we may assign it to Yorkshire or Durham without going far wrong. There is another copy in a Southern
dialect. These three brief poems, viz. Beda's Death−song, Cædmon's Hymn, and the Riddle, are all printed,
accessibly, in Sweet's _Anglo−Saxon Reader_.

There is another relic of Old Northumbrian, apparently belonging to the middle of the eighth century, which is
too remarkable to be passed over. I refer to the famous Ruthwell cross, situate not far to the west of Annan,
near the southern coast of Dumfriesshire, and near the English border. On each of its four faces it bears
inscriptions; on two opposite faces in Latin, and on the other two in runic characters. Each of the latter pair
contains a few lines of Northern poetry, selected from a poem (doubtless by the poet Cynewulf) which is
preserved in full in a much later Southern (or Wessex) copy in a MS. at Vercelli in Piedmont (Italy). On the
side which Professor Stephens calls the front of the cross, the runic inscriptions give us two quotations, both
imperfect at the end; and the same is true of the opposite side or back. The MS. helps us to restore letters that
are missing or broken, and in this way we can be tolerably sure of the correct readings.

The two quotations in front are as follows: it will be seen that the cross itself is supposed to be the speaker.

1. [on]geredæ hinæ god almechttig tha he walde on galgu gistiga, modig fore allæ men; buga [ic ni darstæ.]

2. [ahof] ic riicnæ kyningc, heafunæs hlafard; hælda ic ni darstæ. bismæradu ungket men ba æt−gadre. ic wæs
mith blodæ bistemid bigoten of [his sidan.]

The two quotations at the back are these:

3. Crist wæs on rodi; hwethræ ther fusæ fearran cwomu æththilæ til anum; ic thæt al biheald. sare ic wæs mith
sorgum gidr{oe}fid; hnag [ic hwethræ tham secgum til handa.]

4. mith strelum giwundad alegdun hiæ hinæ limw{oe}rignæ; gistoddum him æt his licæs heafdum, bihealdun
hiæ ther heafun[æs hlafard.]

The literal meaning of the lines is as follows:

1. God almighty stripped Himself when He would mount upon the gallows (the cross), courageous before all
CHAPTER III 10

men; I (the cross) durst not bow down

2. I (the cross) reared up the royal King, the Lord of heaven; I durst not bend down. men reviled us two (the
cross and Christ) both together. I was moistened with the blood poured forth from His side.

3. Christ was upon the cross; howbeit, thither came eagerly from afar princes to (see) that One; I beheld all
that. sorely was I afflicted with sorrows; I submitted however to the men's hands.

4. wounded with arrows, they laid Him down, weary in His limbs. they stood beside Him, at the head of His
corpse. they beheld there the Lord of heaven.

In the late MS. it is the cross that is wounded by arrows; whereas in the runic inscription it seems to be
implied that it was Christ Himself that was so wounded. The allusion is in any case very obscure; but the latter
notion makes the better sense, and is capable of being explained by the Norse legend of Balder, who was
frequently shot at by the other gods in sport, as he was supposed to be invulnerable; but he was slain thus one
day by a shaft made of mistletoe, which alone had power to harm him.

There is also extant a considerable number of very brief inscriptions, such as that on a column at Bewcastle, in
Cumberland; but they contribute little to our knowledge except the forms of proper names. The _Liber Vitæ_
of Durham, written in the ninth century, contains between three and four thousand such names, but nothing
else.

Coming down to the tenth century, we meet with three valuable documents, all of which are connected with
Durham, generally known as the Durham Ritual and the Northumbrian Gospels.

The Durham Ritual was edited for the Surtees Society in 1840 by the Rev. J. Stevenson. The MS. is in the
Cathedral library at Durham, and contains three distinct Latin service−books, with Northumbrian glosses in
various later hands, besides a number of unglossed Latin additions. A small portion of the MS. has been
misplaced by the binder; the Latin prose on pp. 138−145 should follow that on p. 162. Mr Stevenson's edition
exhibits a rather large number of misreadings, most of which (I fear not quite all) are noted in my "Collation
of the Durham Ritual" printed in the _Philological Society's Transactions_, 1877−9, Appendix II. I give, by
way of specimen, a curious passage (at p. 192), which tells us all about the eight pounds of material that went
to make up the body of Adam.

aehto pundo of thæm aworden is Adam pund lames of thon Octo pondera de quibus factus est Adam. Pondus
limi, inde

aworden is flæsc pund fyres of thon read is blod and hat factus est caro; pondus ignis, inde rubeus est sanguis
et calidus;

pund saltes of thon sindon salto tehero pund deawes of thon pondus salis, inde sunt salsae lacrimae; pondus
roris, unde

aworden is swat pund blostmes of thon is fagung egena factus est sudor; pondus floris, inde est uarietas
oculorum;

pund wolcnes of thon is unstydfullnisse vel unstatholfæstnisse pondus nubis, inde est instabilitas

thohta mentium;

pund windes of thon is oroth cald pund gefe of thon is pondus uenti, inde est anhela frigida: pondus gratiae, id
est
CHAPTER III 11
thoht monnes sensus hominis.

We thus learn that Adam's flesh was made of a pound of loam; his red and hot blood, of fire; his salt tears, of
salt; his sweat, of dew; the colour of his eyes, of flowers; the instability of his thoughts, of cloud; his cold
breath, of wind; and his intelligence, of grace.

The Northumbrian glosses on the four Gospels are contained in two MSS., both of remarkable interest and
value. The former of these, sometimes known as the Lindisfarne MS., and sometimes as the Durham Book, is
now MS. Cotton, Nero D. 4 in the British Museum, and is one of the chief treasures in our national collection.
It contains a beautifully executed Latin text of the four Gospels, written in the isle of Lindisfarne, by Eadfrith
(bishop of Lindisfarne in 698−721), probably before 700. The interlinear Northumbrian gloss is two and a half
centuries later, and was made by Aldred, a priest, about 950, at a time when the MS. was kept at
Chester−le−Street, near Durham, whither it had been removed for greater safety. Somewhat later it was again
removed to Durham, where it remained for several centuries.

The second MS. is called the Rushworth MS., as it was presented to the Bodleian Library (Oxford) by John
Rushworth, who was deputy−clerk to the House of Commons during the Long Parliament. The Latin text was
written, probably in the eighth century, by a scribe named Macregol. The gloss, written in the latter half of the
tenth century, is in two hands, those of Farman and Owun, whose names are given. Farman was a priest of
Harewood, on the river Wharfe, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He glossed the whole of St Matthew's
Gospel, and a very small portion of St Mark. It is worthy of especial notice, that his gloss, throughout St
Matthew, is not in the Northumbrian dialect, but in a form of Mercian. But it is clear that when he had
completed this first Gospel, he borrowed the Lindisfarne MS. as a guide to help him, and kept it before him
when he began to gloss St Mark. He at once began to copy the glosses in the older MS., with slight occasional
variations in the grammar; but he soon tired of his task, and turned it over to Owun, who continued it to the
end. The result is that the Northumbrian glosses in this MS., throughout the three last Gospels, are of no great
value, as they tell us little more than can be better learnt from the Durham book; on the other hand, Farman's
Mercian gloss to St Matthew is of high value, but need not be considered at present. Hence it is best in this
case to rely, for our knowledge of Old Northumbrian, on the Durham book alone.

It must be remembered that a gloss is not quite the same thing as a free translation that observes the rules of
grammar. A gloss translates the Latin text word by word, in the order of that text; so that the glossator can
neither observe the natural English order nor in all cases preserve the English grammar; a fact which
somewhat lessens its value, and must always be allowed for. It is therefore necessary, in all cases, to ascertain
the Latin text. I subjoin a specimen, from Matt, v 11−15.

eadge aron ge mith thy yfle hia gecuoethas iuh and mith thy 11. Beati estis cum maledixerunt uobis et cum

oehtas iuih and cuoethas eghwelc yfel with iuih persecuti uos fuerint et dixerint omne malum aduersum uos

gesuicas vel wæges fore mec gefeath and wynnsumiath forthon mentientes propter me. 12. gaudete et exultate
quoniam

mearda iuere monigfalde is vel sint merces uestra copiosa est

in heofnum suæ vel suelce ec forthon in caelis sic enim

ge−oehton tha witgo tha the weron ær iuih gee persecuti sunt prophetas qui fuerunt ante uos. 13. Uos

sint salt eorthes thæt gif salt forworthes in thon gesælted bith to estis sal terrae quod si sal euanuerit in quo
sallietur ad
CHAPTER IV 12

nowihte vel nænihte mæge ofer thæt nihilum ualet ultra

buta thæt gesended bith vel geworpen út nisi ut mittatur foras

and getreden bith from monnum et conculcetur ab hominibus

gie aron vel sint leht middangeardes 14. Uos estis lux mundi

ne mæg burug vel ceastra gehyda vel gedeigla ofer mor geseted non potest ciuitas abscondi supra monte
posita.

ne ec bernas thæccille vel leht−fæt 15. neque accendunt lucernam

and settas tha vel hia unther mitte et ponunt eam sub

vel under sestre ah ofer leht−isern and lihteth allum tha the in modio sed super candelabrum et luceat omnibus
qui in

hus bithon vel sint domo sunt.

The history of the Northern dialect during the next three centuries, from the year 1000 to nearly 1300, with a
few insignificant exceptions, is a total blank.

CHAPTER IV
THE DIALECTS OF NORTHUMBRIA; A.D. 1300−1400

A little before 1300, we come to a Metrical English Psalter, published by the Surtees Society in 1843−7. The
language is supposed to represent the speech of Yorkshire. It is translated (rather closely) from the Latin
Vulgate version. I give a specimen from Psalm xviii, 14−20.

14. He sent his arwes, and skatered tha; Felefalded levening, and dreved tham swa. 15. And schewed welles of
watres ware, And groundes of ertheli world unhiled are, For thi snibbing, Laverd myne; For onesprute of gast
of wreth thine. 16. He sent fra hegh, and uptoke me; Fra many watres me nam he. 17. He out−toke me thare
amang Fra my faas that war sa strang, And fra tha me that hated ai; For samen strenghthed over me war thai
18. Thai forcome me in daie of twinging, And made es Layered mi forhiling. 19. And he led me in brede to
be; Sauf made he me, for he wald me; 20. And foryhelde to me Laverd sal After mi rightwisenes al. And after
clensing of mi hende Sal he yhelde to me at ende.

The literal sense is:−−"He sent His arrows and scattered them; multiplied (His) lightning and so afflicted
them. And the wells of waters were shown, and the foundations of the earthly world are uncovered because of
Thy snubbing (rebuke), O my Lord! because of the blast (Lat. _inspiratio_) of the breath of Thy wrath. He
sent from on high, and took me up; from many waters He took me. He took me out there−among from my
foes that were so strong, and from those that alway hated me; for they were strengthened together over me.
They came before me in the day of affliction, and the Lord is made my protection. And He led me (so as) to
be in a broad place; He made me safe, because He desired (lit. would) me; and the Lord shall requite me
according to all my righteousness, and according to the cleanness of my hands shall He repay me in the end."

In this specimen we can already discern some of the chief characteristics which are so conspicuous in
Lowland Scotch MSS. of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The most striking is the almost total loss of
the final _−e_ which is so frequently required to form an extra syllable when we try to scan the poetry of
Chaucer. Even where a final _−e_ is written in the above extract, it is wholly silent. The words ware (were),
Part II, 13
are (are), myne, thine, toke, made, brede, hende, ende, are all monosyllabic; and in fact the large number of
monosyllabic words is very striking. The words onesprute, forcome, foryhelde are, in like manner, dissyllabic.
The only suffixes that count in the scansion are _−en_, _−ed_, and _−es_; as in _sam−en_, _skat'r−èd_,
_drev−èd_, _hat−èd_, etc., and _arw−ès_, _well−ès_, _watr−ès_, etc. The curious form sal, for "shall," is a
Northern characteristic. So also is the form hende as the plural of "hand"; the Southern plural was often
_hond−en_, and the Midland form was _hond−ès_ or _hand−ès_. Note also the characteristic long _a_; as in
swa for swo, so; gast, ghost; fra, fro; faas, foes. It was pronounced like the a in father.

A much longer specimen of the Metrical English Psalter will be found in Specimens of Early English, ed.
Morris and Skeat,

Part II,
pp. 23−34, and is easily accessible. In the same volume, the Specimens numbered VII, VIII, X, XI, and XVI
are also in Northumbrian, and can easily be examined. It will therefore suffice to give a very brief account of
each.

VII. Cursor Mundi, or Cursor o Werld, i.e. Over−runner of the World; so called because it rehearses a great
part of the world's history, from the creation onwards. It is a poem of portentous length, extending to 29,655
lines, and recounts many of the events found in the Old and New Testaments, with the addition of legends
from many other sources, one of them, for example, being the Historia Scholastica of Peter Comestor. Dr
Murray thinks it may have been written in the neighbourhood of Durham. The specimen given (pp. 69−82)
corresponds to lines 11373−11796.

VIII. _Sunday Homilies in Verse_; about 1330. The extracts are taken from English Metrical Homilies, edited
by J. Small (Edinburgh, 1862) from a MS. in Edinburgh. The Northern dialect is well marked, but I do not
know to what locality to assign it.

X. Richard Rolle, of Hampole, near Doncaster, wrote a poem called The Prick of Conscience, about 1340. It
extends to 9624 lines, and was edited by Dr Morris for the Philological Society in 1863. The Preface to this
edition is of especial value, as it carefully describes the characteristics of Northumbrian, and practically laid
the foundation of our knowledge of the old dialects as exhibited in MSS. Lists are given of orthographical
differences between the Northern dialect and others, and an analysis is added giving the grammatical details
which determine its Northern character. Much of this information is repeated in the Introduction to the
Specimens of English,

Part II, pp. xviii−xxxviii.

XI. The Poems of Laurence Minot belong to the middle of the fourteenth century. He composed eleven poems
in celebration of events that occurred between the years 1333 and 1352. They were first printed by Ritson in
1795; and subsequently by T. Wright, in his Political Poems and Songs (London, 1859); and are now very
accessible in the excellent and cheap (second) edition by Joseph Hall (Oxford University Press). There is also
a German edition by Dr Wilhelm Scholle. The poet seems to have been connected with Yorkshire, and the
dialect is not purely Northern, as it shows a slight admixture of Midland forms.

XVI. _The Bruce_; by John Barbour; partly written in 1375. It has been frequently printed, viz. in 1616, 1620,
1670, 1672, 1715, 1737, and 1758; and was edited by Pinkerton in 1790, by Jamieson in 1820, and by Cosmo
Innes in 1866; also by myself (for the Early English Text Society) in 1870−89; and again (for the Scottish
Text Society) in 1893−5. Unfortunately, the two extant MSS. were both written out about a century after the
date of composition. Nevertheless, we have the text of more than 260 lines as it existed in 1440, as this
portion was quoted by Andro of Wyntown, in his Cronykil of Scotland, written at that date. I quote some lines
Part II, 14

from this portion, taken from The Bruce, Book i, 37−56, 91−110; with a few explanations in the footnotes.

Qwhen Alysandyre oure kyng wes dede, That Scotland had to stere{1} and lede, The land sex yhere and mayr
perfay{2} Wes desolate efftyr his day. The barnage{3} off Scotland, at the last, Assemblyd thame, and
fandyt{4} fast To chess{5} a kyng, thare land to stere, That off awncestry cummyn were Off kyngis that
aucht{6} that reawté{7}, And mast{8} had rycht thare kyng to be.

But inwy{9}, that is sa fellowne{10}, Amang thame mad dissensiown: For sum wald have the Ballyolle kyng,
For he wes cumyn off that ofspryng That off the eldest systere was; And other sum nyt{11} all that cas, And
sayd, that he thare kyng suld be, That wes in als nere{12} degre, And cummyn wes off the nerrast male In
thai{13} brawnchys collateralle...

{Footnotes: 1: govern 2: _more, by my faith_ 3: nobility 4: endeavoured 5: choose 6: possessed 7: royalty 8:

most 9: envy 10: wicked 11: others denied 12: as near 13: those }

A! blynd folk, fulle off all foly, Had yhe wmbethowcht{14} yowe inkkyrly{15} Quhat peryle to yowe mycht
appere, Yhe had noucht wroucht on this manèr. Had yhe tane kepe{16}, how that that kyng Off Walys,
forowtyn sudiowrnyng{17}, Trawaylyd{18} to wyn the senyhowry{19}, And throw his mycht till occupy
Landys, that ware till hym marchand{20}, As Walys was, and als Irland, That he put till sic threllage{21},
That thai, that ware off hey parage{22}, Suld ryn on fwte, as rybalddale{23}, Quhen ony folk he wald assale.
Durst nane of Walis in batale ryd, Na yhit, fra evyn fell{24}, abyde Castell or wallyd towne within, Than{25}
he suld lyff and lymmys tyne{26}. Into swylk thryllage{27} thame held he That he owre−come with his
powsté{28}.

{Footnotes: 14: bethought 15: especially 16: taken heed 17: without delay 18: laboured 19: sovereignty 20:
bordering 21: such subjection 22: high rank 23: rabble 24: after evening fell 25: but 26: lose 27: thraldom 28:
power }

In this extract, as in that from the Metrical Psalter above, there is a striking preponderance of monosyllables,
and, as in that case also, the final _−e_ is invariably silent in such words as oure, stere, lede, yhere, thare,
were, etc., just as in modern English. The grammar is, for the most part, extremely simple, as at the present
day. The chief difficulty lies in the vocabulary, which contains some words that are either obsolete or
provincial. Many of the obsolete words are found in other dialects; thus stere, to control, perfay, fonden (for
_fanden_), chesen, to choose, feloun, adj. meaning "angry," take kepe, soiourne, to tarry, travaile, to labour,
parage, rank, all occur in Chaucer; barnage, _reauté_, in William of Palerne (in the Midland dialect, possibly
Shropshire); oughte, owned, possessed, tyne, to lose, in _Piers the Plowman_; umbethinken, in the
_Ormulum_; enkerly (for _inkkyrly_), in the alliterative _Morte Arthure_; march, to border upon, in
_Mandeville_; seignorie, in Robert of Gloucester. Barbour is rather fond of introducing French words;
rybalddale occurs in no other author. Threllage or thryllage may have been coined from threll (English
_thrall_), by adding a French suffix. As to the difficult word nyt, see Nite in the _N.E.D._

In addition to the poems, etc., already mentioned, further material may be found in the prose works of Richard
Rolle of Hampole, especially his translation and exposition of the Psalter, edited by the Rev. H.R. Bramley
(Oxford, 1884), and the Prose Treatises edited by the Rev. G.G. Perry for the Early English Text Society. Dr
Murray further calls attention to the Early Scottish Laws, of which the vernacular translations partly belong to
the fourteenth century.

I have now mentioned the chief authorities for the study of the Northern dialect from early times down to
1400. Examination of them leads directly to a result but little known, and one that is in direct contradiction to
general uninstructed opinion; namely that, down to this date, the varieties of Northumbrian are much fewer
and slighter than they afterwards became, and that the written documents are practically all in one and the
same dialect, or very nearly so, from the Humber as far north as Aberdeen. The irrefragable results noted by
Part II, 15
Dr Murray will probably come as a surprise to many, though they have now been before the public for more
than forty years. The Durham dialect of the Cursor Mundi and the Aberdeen Scotch of Barbour are hardly
distinguishable by grammatical or orthographical tests; and both bear a remarkable resemblance to the
Yorkshire dialect as found in Hampole. What is now called Lowland Scotch is so nearly descended from the
Old Northumbrian that the latter was invariably called "Ingliss" by the writers who employed it; and they
reserved the name of "Scottish" to designate Gaelic or Erse, the tongue of the original "Scots," who gave their
name to the country. Barbour (Bruce, IV 253) calls his own language "Ynglis." Andro of Wyntown does the
same, near the beginning of the Prologue to his Cronykil. The most striking case is that of Harry the Minstrel,
who was so opposed to all Englanders, from a political point of view, that his whole poem breathes fury and
hatred against them; and yet, in describing Wallace's French friend, Longueville, who knew no tongue but his
own, he says of him (Wallace, IX 295−7):

Lykly he was, manlik of contenance, Lik to the Scottis be mekill governance Saiff off his tong, for Inglis had
he nane.

Later still, Dunbar, near the conclusion of his Golden Targe, apostrophises Chaucer as being "in oure Tong
ane flouir imperiall," and says that he was "of oure Inglisch all the lycht." It was not till 1513 that Gawain
Douglas, in the Prologue to the first book of his translation of Virgil, claimed to have "writtin in the langage
of Scottis natioun"; though Sir David Lyndesay, writing twenty−two years later, still gives the name of the
"Inglisch toung" to the vulgar tongue of Scotland, in his Satyre of the three Estaitis.

We should particularly notice Dr Murray's statement, in his essay on The Dialect of the Southern Counties of
Scotland, at p. 29, that "Barbour at Aberdeen, and Richard Rolle de Hampole near Doncaster, wrote for their
several countrymen in the same identical dialect." The division between the English of the Scottish Lowlands
and the English of Yorkshire was purely political, having no reference to race or speech, but solely to locality;
and yet, as Dr Murray remarks, the struggle for supremacy "made every one either an Englishman or a
Scotchman, and made English and Scotch names of division and bitter enmity." So strong, indeed, was the
division thus created that it has continued to the present day; and it would be very difficult even now to
convince a native of the Scottish Lowlands−−unless he is a philologist−−that he is likely to be of Anglian
descent, and to have a better title to be called an "Englishman" than a native of Hampshire or Devon, who,
after all, may be only a Saxon. And of course it is easy enough to show how widely the old "Northern" dialect
varies from the difficult Southern English found in the Kentish Ayenbite of Inwyt, or even from the Midland of
Chaucer's poems.

To quote from Dr Murray once more (p. 41):

"the facts are still far from being generally known, and I have repeatedly been amused, on reading passages
from Cursor Mundi and Hampole to men of education, both English and Scotch, to hear them all pronounce
the dialect 'Old Scotch.' Great has been the surprise of the latter especially on being told that Richard the
Hermit [i.e. of Hampole] wrote in the extreme south of Yorkshire, within a few miles of a locality so
thoroughly English as Sherwood Forest, with its memories of Robin Hood. Such is the difficulty which people
have in separating the natural and ethnological relations in which national names originate from the accidental
values which they acquire through political complications and the fortunes of crowns and dynasties, that
oftener than once the protest has been made−− 'Then he must have been a Scotchman settled there!'"

The retort is obvious enough, that Barbour and Henry the Minstrel and Dunbar and Lyndesay have all
recorded that their native language was "Inglis" or "Inglisch"; and it is interesting to note that, having regard
to the pronunciation, they seem to have known, better than we do, how that name ought to be spelt.
CHAPTER V 16

CHAPTER V
NORTHUMBRIAN IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

The subject of the last chapter was one of great importance. When it is once understood that, down to 1400 or
a little later, the men of the Scottish Lowlands and the men of the northern part of England spoke not only the
same language, but the same dialect of that language, it becomes easy to explain what happened afterwards.

There was, nevertheless, one profound difference between the circumstances of the language spoken to the
north of the Tweed and that spoken to the south of it. In Scotland, the Northumbrian dialect was spoken by all
but the Celts, without much variety; the minor differences need not be here considered. And this dialect,
called Inglis (as we have seen) by the Lowlanders themselves, had no rival, as the difference between it and
the Erse or Gaelic was obvious and immutable.

To the South of the Tweed, the case was different. England already possessed three dialects at least, viz.
Northumbrian, Mercian, and Saxon, i.e. Northern, Midland, and Southern; besides which, Midland had at the
least two main varieties, viz. Eastern and Western. Between all these there was a long contention for
supremacy. In very early days, the Northern took the lead, but its literature was practically destroyed by the
Danes, and it never afterwards attained to anything higher than a second place. From the time of Alfred, the
standard language of literature was the Southern, and it kept the lead till long after the Conquest, well down to
1200 and even later, as will be explained hereafter. But the Midland dialect, which is not without witness to
its value in the ninth century, began in the thirteenth to assume an important position, which in the fourteenth
became dominant and supreme, exalted as it was by the genius of Chaucer. Its use was really founded on
practical convenience. It was intermediate between the other two, and could be more or less comprehended
both by the Northerner and the Southerner, though these could hardly understand each other. The result was,
naturally, that whilst the Northumbrian to the north of the Tweed was practically supreme, the Northumbrian
to the south of it soon lost its position as a literary medium. It thus becomes clear that we must, during the
fifteenth century, treat the Northumbrian of England and that of Scotland separately. Let us first investigate its
position in England.

But before this can be appreciated, it is necessary to draw attention to the fact that the literature of the
fifteenth century, in nearly all the text−books that treat of the subject, has been most unjustly underrated. The
critics, nearly all with one accord, repeat the remark that it is a "barren" period, with nothing admirable about
it, at any rate in England; that it shows us the works of Hoccleve and Lydgate near the beginning, The Flower
and the Leaf near the middle (about 1460), and the ballad of _The Nut−brown Maid_ at the end of it, and
nothing else that is remarkable. In other words, they neglect its most important characteristic, that it was the
chief period of the lengthy popular romances and of the popular plays out of which the great dramas of the
succeeding century took their rise. To which it deserves to be added that it contains many short poems of a
fugitive character, whilst a vast number of very popular ballads were in constant vogue, sometimes handed
down without much change by a faithful tradition, but more frequently varied by the fancy of the more
competent among the numerous wandering minstrels. To omit from the fifteenth century nearly all account of
its romances and plays and ballads is like omitting the part of Hamlet the Dane from Shakespeare's greatest
tragedy.

The passion for long romances or romantic poems had already arisen in the fourteenth century, and, to some
extent, in the thirteenth. Even just before 1300, we meet with the lays of Havelok and Horn. In the fourteenth
century, it is sufficient to mention the romances of Sir Guy of Warwick (the earlier version), Sir Bevis of
Hamtoun, and Libeaus Desconus, all mentioned by Chaucer; Sir Launfal, The Seven Sages (earlier version, as
edited by Weber); Lai le Freine, Richard Coer de Lion, Amis and Amiloun, The King of Tars, William of
Palerne, Joseph of Arimathea (a fragment), Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight, Alisaunder of Macedoine and
Alexander and Dindimus (two fragments of one very long poem), Sir Ferumbras, and Sir Isumbras. The
spirited romance generally known as the alliterative Morte Arthure must also belong here, though the MS.
CHAPTER V 17
itself is of later date.

The series was actively continued during the fifteenth century, when we find, besides others, the romances of
Iwain and Gawain, Sir Percival, and _Sir Cleges_; The Sowdon (Sultan) _of Babylon_; The Aunturs
(Adventures) of Arthur, Sir Amadas, The Avowing of Arthur, and _The Life of Ipomidoun_; The Wars of
Alexander, The Seven Sages (later version, edited by Wright); Torrent of Portugal, Sir Gowther, Sir
Degrevant, Sir Eglamour, Le Bone Florence of Rome, and _Partonope of Blois_; the prose version of Merlin,
the later version of Sir Guy of Warwick, and the verse Romance, of immense length, of _The Holy Grail_;
Emare, The Erl of Tolous, and The Squire of Low Degree. Towards the end of the century, when the
printing−press was already at work, we find Caxton greatly busying himself to continue the list. Not only did
he give us the whole of Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte D'Arthur_, "enprynted and fynysshed in thabbey
Westmestre the last day of Iuyl, the yere of our lord MCCCCLXXXV"; but he actually translated several
romances into very good English prose on his own account, viz. Godefroy of Boloyne (1481), Charles the
Grete (1485), The Knight Paris and the fair Vyene (1485), Blanchardyn and Eglantine (about 1489), and The
Four Sons of Aymon (about 1490). We must further put to the credit of the fifteenth century the remarkable
English version of the Gesta Romanorum, and many more versions by Caxton, such as The Recuyell of the
Historyes of Troye, The Life of Jason, Eneydos (which is Virgil's _Æneid_ in the form of a prose romance),
The Golden Legend or Lives of Saints, and Reynard the Fox. When all these works are considered, the
fifteenth century emerges with considerable credit.

It remains to look at some of the above−named romances a little more closely, in order to see if any of them
are in the dialect of Northern England. Some of them are written by scribes belonging to other parts, but there
seems to be little doubt that the following were in that dialect originally, viz. (1) Iwain and Gawain, printed in
Ritson's Ancient Metrical Romances, and belonging to the very beginning of the century, extant in the same
MS. as that which contains Minot's _Poems_: (2) The Wars of Alexander (Early English Text Society, 1886),
edited by myself; see the Preface, pp. xv, xix, for proofs that it was originally written in a pure Northumbrian
dialect, which the better of the two MSS. very fairly preserves. Others exhibit strong traces of a Northern
dialect, such as The Aunturs of Arthur, Sir Amadas, and The Avowing of Arthur, but they may be in a West
Midland dialect, not far removed from the North. In the preface to The Sege of Melayne (Milan) and Roland
and Otuel, edited for the Early English Text Society by S.J. Herrtage, it is suggested that both these poems
were by the author of Sir Percival, and that all three were originally in the dialect of the North of England.

Iwain and Gawain and The Wars of Alexander belong to quite the beginning of the fifteenth century, and they
appear to be among the latest examples of the literary use of dialect in the North of England considered as a
vehicle for romances; but we must not forget the "miracle plays," and in particular The Towneley Mysteries or
plays acted at or near Wakefield in Yorkshire, and The York Plays, lately edited by Miss Toulmin Smith.
Examples of Southern English likewise come to an end about the same time; it is most remarkable how very
soon, after the death of Chaucer, the Midland dialect not only assumed a leading position, but enjoyed that
proud position almost alone. The rapid loss of numerous inflexions, soon after 1400, made that dialect, which
was already in possession of such important centres as London, Oxford, and Cambridge, much easier to learn,
and brought its grammar much nearer to that in use in the North. It even compromised, as it were, with that
dialect by accepting from it the general use of such important words as they, their, them, the plural verb are,
and the preposition till. There can be little doubt that one of the causes of the cessation of varying forms of
words in literary use was the civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses, which must for a brief period have
been hostile to all literary activity; and very shortly afterwards the printing−presses of London all combined to
recognise, in general, one dialect only.

Hence it came about, by a natural but somewhat rapid process, that the only dialect which remained
unaffected by the triumph of the Midland variety was that portion of the Northern dialect which still held its
own in Scotland, where it was spoken by subjects of another king. As far as literature was concerned, only
two dialects were available, the Northumbrian of Scotland and the East Midland in England. It is obvious that
the readiest way of distinguishing between the two is to call the one "Scottish" and the other "English,"
CHAPTER V 18
ignoring accuracy for the sake of practical convenience. This is precisely what happened in course of time,
and the new nomenclature would have done no harm if the study of Middle English had been at all general.
But such was not the case, and the history of our literature was so much neglected that even those who should
have been well informed knew no better than others. The chief modern example is the well−known case of
that most important and valuable book entitled An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, by John
Jamieson, D.D., first published in Edinburgh in 1808. There is no great harm in the title, if for "Language" we
read "Dialect"; but this great and monumental work was unluckily preceded by a "Dissertation on the Origin
of the Scottish Language," in which wholly mistaken and wrongheaded views are supported with great
ingenuity and much show of learning. In the admirable new edition of "Jamieson" by Longmuir and
Donaldson, published at Paisley in 1879, this matter is set right. They quite rightly reprint this "Dissertation,"
which affords valuable testimony as to the study of English in 1808, but accompany it with most judicious
remarks, which are well worthy of full repetition.

"That once famous Dissertation can now be considered only a notable feat of literary card−building; more
remarkable for the skill and ingenuity of its construction than for its architectural correctness, strength and
durability, or practical usefulness. That the language of the Scottish Lowlands is in all important particulars
the same as that of the northern counties of England, will be evident to any unbiassed reader who takes the
trouble to compare the Scottish Dictionary with the Glossaries of Brockett, Atkinson, and Peacock. And the
similarity is attested in another way by the simple but important fact, that regarding some of our Northern
Metrical Romances it is still disputed whether they were composed to the north or the south of the Tweed....
And to this conclusion all competent scholars have given their consent."

For those who really understand the situation there is no harm in accepting the distinction between "Scottish"
and "English," as explained above. Hence it is that the name of "Middle Scots" has been suggested for "the
literary language of Scotland written between the latter half of the fifteenth century and the early decades of
the seventeenth." Most of this literature is highly interesting, at any rate much more so than the "English"
literature of the same period, as has been repeatedly remarked. Indeed, this is so well known that special
examples are needless; I content myself with referring to the Specimens of Middle Scots, by G. Gregory
Smith, Edinburgh and London, 1902. These specimens include extracts from such famous authors as
Henryson, Dunbar, Gawain (or Gavin) Douglas, Sir David Lyndesay, John Knox, and George Buchanan.
Perhaps it is well to add that "Scottis" or "Scots" is the Northern form of "Scottish" or "Scotch"; just as
"Inglis" is the Northern form of "English."

"Middle Scots" implies both "Old Scots" and "Modern Scots." "Old Scots" is, of course, the same thing as
Northumbrian or Northern English of the Middle English Period, which may be roughly dated as extant from
1300 to 1400 or 1450. "Modern Scots" is the dialect (when they employ dialect) illustrated by Allan Ramsay,
Alexander Ross, Robert Tannahill, John Galt, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Robert Burns, Sir Walter
Scott, and very many others.

I conclude this chapter with a characteristic example of Middle Scots. The following well−known passage is
from the conclusion to Dunbar's Golden Targe.

And as I did awake of my sweving{1}, The ioyfull birdis merily did syng For myrth of Phebus tendir bemës
schene{2}; Swete war the vapouris, soft the morowing{3}, Halesum the vale, depaynt wyth flouris ying{4};
The air attemperit, sobir, and amene{5}; In quhite and rede was all the feld besene{6} Throu Naturis nobil
fresch anamalyng{7}, In mirthfull May, of eviry moneth Quene.

O reverend Chaucere, rose of rethoris{8} all, As in oure tong ane flour{9} imperiall, That raise{10} in Britane
evir, quho redis rycht, Thou beris of makaris{11} the tryúmph riall; Thy fresch anamalit termës celicall{12}
This mater coud illumynit have full brycht; Was thou noucht of oure Inglisch all the lycht, Surmounting eviry
tong terrestriall Als fer as Mayis morow dois mydnycht?
CHAPTER VI 19

O morall Gower, and Ludgate laureate, Your sugurit lippis and tongis aureate{13} Bene to oure eris cause of
grete delyte; Your angel mouthis most mellifluate{14} Oure rude langage has clere illumynate, And faire
our−gilt{15} oure speche, that imperfýte Stude, or{16} your goldyn pennis schupe{17} to wryte; This ile
before was bare, and desolate Of rethorike, or lusty{18} fresch endyte{19}.

{Footnotes: 1: dream 2: bright 3: morn 4: young 5: pleasant 6: arrayed 7: enamelling 8: orators 9: flower 10:
didst rise 11: poets 12: heavenly 13: golden 14: honeyed 15: overgilt 16: ere 17: undertook 18: pleasant 19:
_composition_}

CHAPTER VI
THE SOUTHERN DIALECT

We have seen that the earliest dialect to assume literary supremacy was the Northern, and that at a very early
date, namely, in the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries; but its early documents have nearly all perished. If,
with the exception of one short fragment, any of Cædmon's poems have survived, they only exist in Southern
versions of a much later date.

The chief fosterer of our rather extensive Wessex (or Southern) literature, commonly called Anglo−Saxon,
was the great Alfred, born at Wantage in Berkshire, to the south of the Thames. We may roughly define the
limits of the Old Southern dialect by saying that it formerly included all the counties to the south of the
Thames and to the west and south−west of Berkshire, including Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and
Devonshire, but excluding Cornwall, in which the Cornish dialect of Celtic prevailed. It was at Athelney in
Somersetshire, near the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett, that Alfred, in the memorable year 878, when
his dominions were reduced to a precarious sway over two or three counties, established his famous
stronghold; from which he issued to inflict upon the foes of the future British empire a crushing and decisive
defeat. And it was near Athelney, in the year 1693, that the ornament of gold and enamel was found, with its
famous legend−−ÆLFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN−−"Ælfred commanded (men) to make me."

From his date to the Norman Conquest, the MSS. in the Anglo−Saxon or Southern dialect are fairly
numerous, and it is mainly to them that we owe our knowledge of the grammar, the metre, and the
pronunciation of the older forms of English. Sweet's _Anglo−Saxon Primer_ will enable any one to begin the
study of this dialect, and to learn something valuable about it in the course of a month or two.

The famous _Anglo−Saxon Chronicle_, beginning with a note concerning the year 1, when Augustus was
emperor of Rome, not only continues our history down to the Conquest, but for nearly a century beyond it, to
the year 1154. The language of the latter part, as extant in the (Midland) Laud MS., belongs to the twelfth
century, and shows considerable changes in the spelling and grammar as compared with the Parker MS.,
which (not counting in a few later entries) ends with the year 1001.

After the Conquest, the Southern dialect continued to be the literary language, and we have several examples
of it. Extracts from some of the chief works are given in

Part I of Morris's Specimens of Early

English. They are selected from the following: (1) Old English Homilies, 1150−1200, as printed for the Early
English Text Society, and edited by Dr Morris, 1867−8. (2) _Old English Homilies, Second Series_, before
1200, ed. Morris (E.E.T.S.), 1873. (3) The Brut, being a versified chronicle of the legendary history of Britain,
compiled by Layamon, a Worcestershire priest, and extending to 32,240 (short) lines; in two versions, the date
of the earlier being about 1205. (4) A Life of St Juliana, in two versions, about 1210; ed. Cockayne and Brock
(E.E.T.S.), 1872. (5) The Ancren Riwle, or Rule of anchorite nuns (Camden Society), ed. Morton, 1853; the
date of composition is about 1210. (6) The Proverbs of Alfred, about 1250; printed in Dr Morris's Old English
Part II. 20
Miscellany (E.E.T.S.), 1872. A later edition, by myself, was printed at Oxford in 1907. (7) A poem by
Nicholas de Guildford, entitled The Owl and the Nightingale, about 1250; ed. Rev. J. Stevenson, 1838; ed. T.
Wright, 1843; ed. F.H. Stratmann, of Krefeld, 1868. (8) A curious poem of nearly 400 long lines, usually
known as A Moral Ode, which seems to have been originally written at Christchurch, Hampshire, and
frequently printed; one version is in Morris's Old English Homilies, and another in the Second Series of the
same. (9) _The Romance of King Horn_; before 1300, here printed in full.

Just at the very end of the century we meet with two Southern poems of vast length. The Metrical Chronicle
of Robert of Gloucester, comprising the History of Britain from the Siege of Troy to the year 1272, the date of
the accession of Edward I, and written in the dialect of Gloucester, was completed in 1298. It must seem
strange to many to find that our history is thus connected with the Siege of Troy; but it must be remembered
that our old histories, including Layamon's poem of The Brut mentioned above, usually included the fabulous
history of very early Britain as narrated by Geoffrey of Monmouth; and it is useful to remember that we owe
to this circumstance such important works as Shakespeare's King Lear and Cymbeline, as well as the old play
of Locrine, once attributed to Shakespeare. According to Robert's version of Geoffrey's story, Britain was
originally called Brutain, after Brut or Brutus, the son of Æneas. Locrin was the eldest son of Brutus and his
wife Innogen, and defeated Humber, king of Hungary, in a great battle; after which Humber was drowned in
the river which still bears his name. Locrin's daughter Averne (or Sabre in Geoffrey) was drowned likewise, in
the river which was consequently called Severn. The British king Bathulf (or, in Geoffrey, Bladud) was the
builder of Bath; and the son of Bladud was Leir, who had three daughters, named Gornorille, Began, and
Cordeille. Kymbel (in Geoffrey, Kymbelinus), who had been brought up by Augustus Cæsar, was king of
Britain at the time of the birth of Christ; his sons were Guider and Arvirag (Guiderius and Arviragus).
Another king of Britain was King Cole, who gave name (says Geoffrey falsely) to Colchester. We come into
touch with authentic history with the reign of Vortigern, when Hengist and Horsa sailed over to Britain. An
extract from Robert of Gloucester is given in Specimens of Early English,

Part II.
The other great work of the same date is the vast collection edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr
Horstmann in 1887, entitled, _The Early South−English Legendary_, or Lives of Saints. It is extant in several
MSS., of which the oldest (MS. Laud 108) originally contained 67 Lives; with an Appendix, in a later hand,
containing two more. The eleventh Life is that of St Dunstan, which is printed in Specimens of Early English,

Part II, from another MS.

Soon after the year 1300 the use of the Southern dialect becomes much less frequent, with the exception of
such pieces as belong particularly to the county of Kent and will be considered by themselves. There are two
immense manuscript collections of various poems, originally in various dialects, which are worth notice. One
of these is the Harleian MS. No. 2253, in the British Museum, the scribe of which has reduced everything into
the South−Western dialect, though it is plain that, in many cases, it is not the dialect in which the pieces were
originally composed; this famous manuscript belongs to the beginning of the fourteenth century. Many poems
were printed from it, with the title of Altenglische Dichtungen, by Dr K. Böddeker, in 1878. Another similar
collection is contained in the Vernon MS. at Oxford, and belongs to the very end of the same century; the
poems in it are all in a Southern dialect, which is that of the scribe. It contains, e.g., a copy of the earliest
version of Piers the Plowman, which would have been far more valuable if the scribe had retained the spelling
of his copy. This may help us to realise one of the great difficulties which beset the study of dialects, namely,
that we usually find copies of old poems reduced to the scribe's own dialect; and it may easily happen that
such a copy varies considerably from the correct form.

It has already been shown that the rapid rise and spread of the Midland dialect during the fourteenth century
practically put an end to the literary use of Northern not long after 1400, except in Scotland. It affected
CHAPTER VII 21
Southern in the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date; so that (even in Kent) it is very difficult to find a
Southern work after 1350. There is, however, one remarkable exception in the case of a work which may be
dated in 1387, written by John Trevisa. Trevisa (as the prefix Tre− suggests) was a native of Cornwall, but he
resided chiefly in Gloucestershire, where he was vicar of Berkeley, and chaplain to Thomas Lord Berkeley.
The work to which I here refer is known as his translation of Higden. Ralph Higden, a Benedictine monk in
the Abbey of St Werburg at Chester, wrote in Latin a long history of the world in general, and of Britain in
particular, with the title of the Polychronicon, which achieved considerable popularity. The first book of this
history contains 60 chapters, the first of which begins with P, the second with R, and so on. If all these initials
are copied out in their actual order, we obtain a complete sentence, as follows:−−"Presentem cronicam
compilavit Frater Ranulphus Cestrensis monachus"; i.e. Brother Ralph, monk of Chester, compiled the present
chronicle. I mention this curious device on the part of Higden because another similar acrostic occurs
elsewhere. It so happens that Higden's Polychronicon was continued, after his death, by John Malverne, who
brought down the history to a later date, and included in it an account of a certain Thomas Usk, with whom he
seems to have been acquainted. Now, in a lengthy prose work of about 1387, called The Testament of Love, I
one day discovered that its author had adopted a similar device−−no doubt imitating Higden−−and had so
arranged that the initial letters of his chapters should form a sentence, as follows:−−"Margarete of virtw, have
merci on Thsknvi." There is no difficulty about the expression "Margarete of virtw," because the treatise itself
explains that it means Holy Church, but I could make nothing of Thsknvi, as the letters evidently require
rearrangement. But Mr Henry Bradley, one of the editors of the New English Dictionary, discovered that the
chapters near the end of the treatise are out of order; and when he had restored sense by putting them as they
should be, the new reading of the last seven letters came out as "thin vsk," i.e. "thine Usk"; and the attribution
of this treatise to Thomas Usk clears up every difficulty and fits in with all that John Malverne says. This, in
fact, is the happy solution of the authorship of The Testament of Love, which was once attributed to Chaucer,
though it is obviously not his at all.

But it is time to return to John Trevisa, Higden's translator. This long translation is all in the Southern dialect,
originally that of Gloucestershire, though there are several MSS. that do not always agree. A fair copy of it,
from a MS. in the library of St John's College, Cambridge, is given side by side with the original Latin in the
edition already noticed. It is worth adding that Caxton printed Trevisa's version, altering the spelling to suit
that of his own time, and giving several variations of reading.

Trevisa was also the author of some other works, of which the most important is his translation into English,
from the original Latin, of _Bartholomæus de Proprietatibus Rerum_.

I am not aware of any important work in the Southern dialect later than these translations by Trevisa. But in
quite modern times, an excellent example of it has appeared, viz. in the _Poems of Rural Life, in the Dorset
Dialect_, by William Barnes.

CHAPTER VII
THE SOUTHERN DIALECT OF KENT

Though the Kentish dialect properly belongs to Southern English, from its position to the south of the
Thames, yet it shows certain peculiarities which make it desirable to consider it apart from the rest.

In Beda's Ecclesiastical History, Bk I, ch. 15, he says of the Teutonic invaders: "Those who came over were
of the three most powerful nations of Germany−−Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended the
people of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the province of the West−Saxons who are to this
day called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight"; a remark which obviously implies the southern part of
Hampshire. This suggests that the speech of Kent, from the very first, had peculiarities of its own. Dr Sweet,
in his _Second Anglo−Saxon Reader, Archaic and Dialectal_, gives five very brief Kentish charters of the
seventh and eighth centuries, but the texts are in Latin, and only the names of persons and places appear in
Part I, p. 141. The former of these is for the Epiphany, 22

Kentish forms. In the ninth century, however, there are seven Kentish charters, of a fuller description, from
the year 805 to 837. In one of these, dated 835, a few lines occur that may be quoted:

Ic bidde and bebeode swælc monn se thæt min lond hebbe thæt he ælce gere agefe them higum æt Folcanstane
l. ambra maltes, and vi. ambra gruta, and iii. wega spices and ceses, and cccc. hlafa, and an hrithr, and vi.
scep.... Thæm higum et Cristes cirican of thæm londe et Cealflocan: thæt is thonne thritig ombra alath, and
threo hund hlafa, theara bith fiftig hwitehlafa, an weg spices and ceses, an ald hrithr, feower wedras, an suin
oththe sex wedras, sex gosfuglas, ten hennfuglas, thritig teapera, gif hit wintres deg sie, sester fulne huniges,
sester fulne butran, sester fulne saltes.

That is to say:

I ask and command, whosoever may have my land, that he every year give to the domestics at Folkestone fifty
measures of malt, and six measures of meal, and three weys [_heavy weights_] of bacon and cheese, and four
hundred loaves, and one rother [_ox_], and six sheep.... To the domestics at Christ's church, from the land at
Challock: that is, then, thirty vessels of ale, and three hundred loaves, of which fifty shall be white loaves, one
wey of bacon and cheese, one old rother, four wethers, one swine or six wethers, six goose−fowls, ten
hen−fowls, thirty tapers, if it be a day in winter, a jar full of honey, a jar full of butter, and a jar full of salt.

At pp. 152−175 of the same volume, Dr Sweet gives 1204 Kentish glosses of a very early date. No. 268 is:
"Cardines, hearran"; and in several modern dialects, including Hampshire, the upright part of a gate to which
the hinges are fastened is called a harr.

Several years ago, M. Paul Mayer found five short sermons in a Kentish dialect in MS. Laud 471, in the
Bodleian Library, along with their French originals. They are printed in Morris's Old English Miscellany, and
two of them will be found in Specimens of Early English,

Part I, p. 141. The former of these is for the Epiphany,

the text being taken from Matt. ii 1. The date is just before 1250. I give an extract.

The kinges hem wenten and hi seghen the sterre thet yede bifore hem, alwat hi kam over tho huse war ure
loverd was; and alswo hi hedden i−fonden ure loverd, swo hin an−urede, and him offrede hire offrendes, gold,
and stor, and mirre. Tho nicht efter thet aperede an ongel of hevene in here slepe ine metinge, and hem seide
and het, thet hi ne solde ayen wende be herodes, ac be an other weye wende into hire londes.

That is:

The kings went (them), and they saw the star that went before them until it came over the house where our
Lord was; and as−soon−as they had found our Lord, so (they) honoured him, and offered him their offerings,
gold, and frankincense, and myrrh. The night after that (there) appeared an angel from heaven in their sleep, in
a dream, and said to−them and commanded, that they should not wend again near Herod, but by another way
wend to their lands.

In the days of Edward II (1307−27) flourished William of Shoreham, named from Shoreham (Kent), near
Otford and Sevenoaks, who was appointed vicar of Chart−Sutton in 1320. He translated the Psalter into
English prose, and wrote some religious poems, chiefly relating to church−services, which were edited by T.
Wright for the Percy Society in 1849. His poem "On Baptism" is printed in Specimens of Early English,
Part II. I give an extract: 23

Part II. I give an extract:

In water ich wel the cristny her{1} As Gode him−self hyt dightë{2}; For mide to wesschë{3} nis{4}
nothynge That man cometh to so lightë{5} In londë{6}; Nis non that habben hit ne may{7} That habbe hit
wilë foundë{8}.

This bethe{9} the wordës of cristning By thyse Englísschë costës{10}−− "Ich{11} cristni the{12} ine the
Vader{13} name And Sone and Holy Gostes"−− And more, "Amen!" wane hit{14} is ised{15} thertoe,
Confermeth thet ther−to−fore{16}.

{Footnotes: 1: I desire thee to christen here 2: ordaine it 3: to wash with 4: is not 5: easily 6: _in (the) land_ 7:
there is noe that may not have it 8: that will try to have it 9: these are 10: _coasts, regions_ 11: I 12: thee 13:
_Father's_ 14: when it 15: said 16: that which precedes }

In the year 1340, Dan Michel of Northgate (Kent) translated into English a French treatise on Vices and
Virtues, under the title The Ayenbite of Inwyt, literally, "The Again−biting of In−wit," i.e. Remorse of
Conscience. This is the best specimen of the Kentish dialect of the fourteenth century, and is remarkable for
being much more difficult to make out than other pieces of the same period. The whole work was edited by Dr
Morris for the Early English Text Society in 1866. A sermon of the same date and in the same dialect, and
probably by the same author, is given in Specimens of Early English,

Part II. The sermon is followed by the Lord's Prayer, the Ave
Maria,
and the "Credo" or Apostles' Creed, all in the same dialect; and I here give the last of these, as being not
difficult to follow:

Ich leve ine God, Vader almighti, makere of hevene and of erthe. And ine Iesu Crist, His zone onlepi [_only
son_], oure lhord, thet y−kend [_conceived_] is of the Holy Gost, y−bore of Marie mayde, y−pyned [was
crucified, lit. _made to suffer_] onder Pouns Pilate, y−nayled a rode [_on a cross_], dyad, and be−bered; yede
[_went_] doun to helle; thane thridde day aros vram the dyade; steay [_rose, ascended_] to hevenes; zit
[_sitteth_] athe [_on the_] right half of God the Vader almighti; thannes to comene He is, to deme the quike
and the dyade. Ich y−leve ine the Holy Gost; holy cherche generalliche; Mennesse of halyen [_communion of
holy−ones_]; Lesnesse of zennes [_remission of sins_]; of vlesse [_flesh, body_] arizinge; and lyf
evrelestinde. Zuo by hyt [_so be it_].

A few remarks may well be made here on some of the peculiarities of Southern English that appear here. The
use of v for f (as in vader, vram, _vlesshe_), and of z for s (as in zone, zit, _zennes_) are common to this day,
especially in Somersetshire. The spelling lhord reminds us that many Anglo−Saxon words began with hl, one
of them being _hl{−a}fweard_, later _hl{−a}ford_, a lord; and this hl is a symbol denoting the so−called
"whispered l," sounded much as if an aspirate were prefixed to the l, and still common in Welsh, where it is
denoted by ll, as in llyn, a lake. In every case, modern English substitutes for it the ordinary l, though lh (=
_hl_) was in use in 1340 in Southern. The prefix _y−_, representing the extremely common A.S.
(Anglo−Saxon) prefix _ge−_, was kept up in Southern much longer than in the other dialects, but has now
disappeared; the form _y−clept_ being archaic. The plural suffix _−en_, as in _haly−en_, holy ones, saints, is
due to the fact that Southern admitted the use of that suffix very freely, as in _cherch−en_, churches,
_sterr−en_, stars, etc.; whilst Northern only admitted five such plurals, viz. _egh−en_, _ey−en_, eyes
(Shakespeare's _eyne_), _hos−en_, stockings, _ox−en_, _shoo−n_, shoes, and _f{−a}−n_, foes; _ox−en_
being the sole survivor, since shoon (as in Hamlet, IV iv 26) is archaic. The modern _child−r−en_,
_breth−r−en_, are really double plurals; Northern employed the more original forms childer and brether, both
of which, and especially the former, are still in dialectal use. _Evrelest−inde_ exhibits the Southern _−inde_
CHAPTER VIII 24
for present participles.

But the word zennes, sins, exhibits a peculiarity that is almost solely Kentish, and seldom found elsewhere,
viz. the use of e for i. The explanation of this rests on an elementary lesson in Old English phonology, which
it will do the reader no harm to acquire. The modern symbol i (when denoting the short sound, as in _pit_)
really does double duty. It sometimes represents the A.S. short i, as in it (A.S. _hit_), sit (A.S. _sittan_), bitten
(A.S. _b{)i}ten_), etc.; and sometimes the A.S. short y, as in pyt, a pit. The sound of the A.S. short i was much
the same as in modern English; but that of the short y was different, as it denoted the "mutated" form of short
u for which German has a special symbol, viz. _ü_, the sound intended being that of the German _ü_ in
_schützen_, to protect. In the latter case, Kentish usually has the vowel e, as in the modern Kentish pet, a pit,
and in the surname Petman (at Margate), which means _pitman_; and as the A.S. for "sin" was synn (dat.
_synne_), the Kentish form was zenne, since Middle English substantives often represent the A.S. dative case.
The Kentish plural had the double form, zennes and zennen, both of which occur in the Ayenbite, as might
have been expected.

The poet Gower, who completed what may be called the first edition of his poem named the Confessio
Amantis (or Confession of a Lover) in 1390, was a Kentish man, and well acquainted with the Kentish dialect.
He took advantage of this to introduce, occasionally, Kentish forms into his verse; apparently for the sake of
securing a rime more easily. See this discussed at p. ci of vol. II of Macaulay's edition of Gower. I may
illustrate this by noting that in _Conf. Amant._ i 1908, we find pitt riming with witt, whereas in the same, v
4945, pet rimes with let.

We know that, in 1386, the poet Chaucer was elected a knight of the shire for Kent, and in 1392−3 he was
residing at Greenwich. He evidently knew something of the Kentish dialect; and he took advantage of the
circumstance, precisely as Gower did, for varying his rimes. The earliest example of this is in his Book of the
Duchess, l. 438, where he uses the Kentish ken instead of kin (A.S. _cynn_) in order to secure a rime for ten.
In the Canterbury Tales, E 1057, he has kesse, to kiss (A.S. _cyssan_), to rime with stedfastnesse. In the same,
A 1318, he has fulfille, to fulfil (cf. A.S. fyllan, to fill), to rime with _wille_; but in Troilus, iii 510, he changes
it to fulfelle, to rime with _telle_; with several other instances of a like kind.

It is further remarkable that some Kentish forms seem to have established themselves in standard English, as
when we use dent with the sense of dint (A.S. _dynt_). When we speak of the left hand, the form left is really
Kentish, and occurs in the _Ayenbite of Inwyt_; the Midland form is properly lift, which is common enough
in Middle English; see the New English Dictionary, s.v. Left, adj. Hemlock is certainly a Kentish form; cf.
A.S. hymlice, and see the New English Dictionary. So also is kernel (A.S. _cyrnel_); knell (A.S. cnyllan,
verb); merry (A.S. myrge, _myrige_); and perhaps stern, adj. (A.S. _styrne_).

There are some excellent remarks upon the vocalism of the Kentish dialect in Middle English by W. Heuser,
in the German periodical entitled Anglia, vol XVII pp. 73−90.

CHAPTER VIII
THE MERCIAN DIALECT

I. EAST MIDLAND

The Mercian district lies between the Northern and Southern, occupying an irregular area which it is very
difficult to define. On the east coast it reached from the mouth of the Humber to that of the Thames. On the
western side it seems to have included a part of Lancashire, and extended from the mouth of the Lune to the
Bristol Channel, exclusive of a great part of Wales.
CHAPTER VIII 25
There were two chief varieties of it which differed in many particulars, viz. the East Midland and the West
Midland. The East Midland included, roughly speaking, the counties of Lincoln, Rutland, Northampton, and
Buckingham, and all the counties (between the Thames and Humber) to the east of these, viz. Cambridge,
Huntingdon, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. We must also certainly include, if
not Oxfordshire, at any rate the city of Oxford. This is by far the most important group of counties, as it was
the East Midland that finally prevailed over the rest, and was at last accepted as a standard, thus rising from
the position of a dialect to be the language of the Empire. The Midland prevailed over the Northern and
Southern dialects because it was intermediate between them, and so helped to interpret between North and
South; and the East Midland prevailed over the Western because it contained within its area all three of the
chief literary centres, namely, Oxford, Cambridge, and London. It follows from this that the Old Mercian
dialect is of greater interest than either the Northumbrian or Anglo−Saxon.

Unfortunately, the amount of extant Old Mercian, before the Conquest, is not very large, and it is only of late
years that the MSS. containing it have been rightly understood. Practically, the study of it dates only from
1885, when Dr Sweet published his Oldest English Texts.

But there is more Mercian to be found than was at first suspected; and it is desirable to consider this question.

An important discovery was that the language of the oldest Glossaries seems to be Mercian. We have extant
no less than four Glossaries in MSS. of as early a date as the eighth century, named respectively, the Epinal,
Erfurt, Corpus, and Leyden Glossaries. The first is now at Epinal, in France (in the department Vosges); the
second, at Erfurt, near Weimar, in Germany; the third, in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge; and the fourth,
at Leyden, in Holland. The Corpus MS. may be taken as typical of the rest. It contains an enumeration of a
large number of difficult words, arranged, but imperfectly, in alphabetical order; and after each of these is
written its gloss or interpretation. Thus the fifth folio begins as follows:

Abminiculum . adiutorium. Abelena . haeselhnutu. Abiecit . proiecit. Absida . sacrarium. Abies . etspe. Ab
ineunte ætate . infantia.

The chief interest of these Glossaries lies in the fact that a small proportion of the hard words is explained, not
in Latin, but in Mercian English, of which there are two examples in the six glosses here quoted. Thus
Abelena, which is another spelling of Abellana or Avellana, "a filbert," is explained as "haeselhnutu"; which
is a perfectly familiar word when reduced to its modern form of "hazel−nut." And again, Abies, which usually
means "a fir−tree," is here glossed by "etspe." But this is certainly a false spelling, as we see by comparing it
with the following glosses in Epinal and Erfurt (Nos. 37, 1006):−−"Abies. saeppae−−sæpae"; and "Tremulus.
aespae−−espæ." This shows that the scribe ought to have explained Abies by "saeppae," meaning the tree full
of sap, called in French _sapin_; but he confused it with another tree, the "trembling" tree, of which the Old
Mercian name was "espe" or "espæ," or "aespae," and he miswrote espe as etspe, inserting a needless t. This
last tree is the one which Chaucer called the asp in l. 180 of his Parliament of Fowls, but in modern times the
adjectival suffix _−en_ (as in _gold−en_, _wood−en_) has been tacked on to it, and it is now the aspen.

The interpretation of these ancient glosses requires very great care, but they afford a considerable number of
interesting results, and are therefore valuable, especially as they give us spellings of the eighth century, which
are very scarce.

One of the oldest specimens of Old Mercian that affords intelligible sentences is known as the "Lorica
Prayer," because it occurs in the same MS. (Ll. 1. 10 in the Cambridge University Library) as the "Lorica
Glosses," or the glosses which accompany a long Latin prayer, really a charm, called "lorica" or
"breast−plate," because it was recited thrice a day to protect the person who used it from all possible injury
and accident. I give this Prayer as illustrating the state of our language about A.D. 850.

And the georne gebide gece and miltse fore alra his haligra gewyrhtum and ge−earningum and boenum be
CHAPTER VIII 26

[hiwe]num, tha the domino deo gelicedon from fruman middan−geardes; thonne gehereth he thec thorh hiora
thingunge. Do thonne fiorthan sithe thin hleor thriga to iorthan, fore alle Godes cirican, and sing thas fers:
_domini est salus, saluum fac populum tuum, domine, praetende misericordiam tuam_. Sing thonne pater
noster. Gebide thonne fore alle geleaffulle menn in mundo. Thonne bistu thone deg dael−niomende thorh
Dryhtnes gefe alra theara goda the ænig monn for his noman gedoeth, and thec alle soth−festæ fore thingiath
in caelo et in terra. Amen.{1}

{Footnote 1: I write hiwenum in l. 2 in place of an illegible word.}

That is:−−

And earnestly pray for−thyself for help and mercy by−reason−of the deeds and merits and prayers of all his
saints on−behalf−of the [households] that have pleased the Lord God from the beginning of the world; then
will He hear thee because−of their intercession. Bow−down then, at the fourth time, thy face thrice to the
earth before all God's church, and sing these verses: The Lord is my salvation, save Thy people, O Lord: show
forth Thy mercy. Sing then a pater−noster. Pray then for all believing men in the world. Then shalt thou be, on
that day, a partaker, by God's grace, of all the good things that any man doth for His name, and all true−men
will intercede for thee in heaven and in earth. Amen.

Another discovery was the assignment of a correct description to the glosses found in a document known as
the _Vespasian Psalter_; so called because it is an early Latin Psalter, or book of Psalms, contained in a
Cotton MS. in the British Museum, marked with the class−mark "Vespasian, A. 1." This Psalter is
accompanied throughout with glosses which were at first mistakenly thought to be in a Northumbrian dialect,
and were published as such by the Surtees Society in 1843. They were next, in 1875, wrongly supposed to be
Kentish; but since they were printed by Sweet in 1885 it has been shown that they are really Mercian. This set
of glosses is very important for the study of Old Mercian, because they are rather extensive; they occupy 213
pages of the Oldest English Texts, and are followed by 20 more pages of similar glosses to certain Latin
canticles and hymns that occur in the same MS.

There are also a few Charters extant in the Mercian dialect, but the earliest contain little else than old forms of
the names of persons and places. There are, however, some later Charters, from 836 to 1058 in the Mercian
dialect, which contain some boundaries of lands and afford other information. Most of these relate to
Worcestershire.

But the most interesting Mercian glosses are those to be found in the Rushworth MS., which has already been
mentioned as containing Northumbrian glosses of the Latin Gospels of St Mark, St Luke, and St John. For the
Gospel of St Matthew was glossed by the scribe Farman, who was a priest of Harewood, situate on the river
Wharfe, in the West Riding of Yorkshire; whose language, accordingly, was Mercian. In my _Principles of
English Etymology, First Series_ (second edition, 1892), p. 44, I gave a list of words selected from these
glosses, in order to show how much nearer they stand, as a rule, to modern English than do the corresponding
Anglo−Saxon forms. I here repeat this list, as it is very instructive. The references, such as "5. 15," are to the
chapters and verses of St Matthew's Gospel, as printed in my edition of _The Holy Gospels, in Anglo−Saxon,
Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions, synoptically arranged_ (Cambridge, 1871−87). The first column
below gives the Modern English form, the second the Old Mercian form (with references), and the third the
Anglo−Saxon or Wessex form:

MODERN OLD MERCIAN WESSEX (A.S.) all all, 5. 15 eall are arun, 19. 28 (_not used_) betwixt betwix,
27. 56 betweox cheek c{−e}ke, 5. 39 c{−e}ace 5 cold cald, 10. 42 ceald eke {−e}k, 5. 39 {−e}ac eleven
enlefan, 28. 16 endlufon eye {−e}ge, 5. 29 {−e}age falleth falleth, 10. 29 fealleth 10 fell, _pt.t.pl._ fellun, 7.
25 f{−e}ollon −fold −fald, 19. 29 −feald (in ten−fold) gall, _sb._ galla, 27. 34 gealla half, _sb._ half, 20. 23
healf halt, _adj._ halt, 11. 5 healt 15 heard, _pt.t.s._ (ge)h{−e}rde, 2. 3 (ge)h{−i}erde lie l{−i}gan, 5. 11
l{−e}ogan (_tell lies_) light, _sb._ l{−i}ht, 5. 16 l{−e}oht light, _adj._ liht, 11. 30 leoht narrow naru, 7. 14
Part I. 27
nearu 20 old áld, 9. 16 eald sheep sc{−e}p, 25. 32 sc{−e}ap shoes sc{−o}as, 10. 10 sc{−e}os, sc{−y} silver
sylfur, 10. 9 seolfor slept, _pt.t.pl._ sleptun, 13. 25 sl{−e}pon 25 sold, _pp._ sald, 10. 19 seald spit, _vb._
spittan, 27. 30 sp{−æ}tan wall wall, 21. 33 weall yard (_rod_) ierd, 10. 10 gyrd yare (_ready_) iara, 22. 4
gearo 30 yoke ioc, 11. 29 geoc youth iuguth, 19. 20 geoguth

In l.5, the scribe Farman miswrote caldas as galdas, in Matt. x 42; but it is a mere mistake. In l. 20, the accent
over the a in _áld_ is marked in the MS., though the vowel was not originally long.

Even a glance at this comparative table reveals a peculiarity of the Wessex dialect which properly belongs
neither to Mercian nor to Modern English, viz. the use of the diphthong ea (in which each vowel was
pronounced separately) instead of simple a, before the sounds denoted by l, r, h, especially when another
consonant follows. We find accordingly such Wessex forms as eall, ceald, fealleth, _−feald_, gealla, healf,
healt, nearu, eald, seald, weall, gearo, where the Old Mercian has simply all, cald, falleth, _−fald_, galla,
half, halt, naru, ald, sald, wall, iara. Similarly, Wessex has the diphthongs _{−e}a_, _{−e}o_, in which the
former element is long, where the Old Mercian has simply _{−e}_ or _{−i}_. We find accordingly the
Wessex _c{−e}ace_, _{−e}ac_, _{−e}age_, _sc{−e}ap_, as against the Mercian _c{−e}ke_, _{−e}k_,
_{−e}ge_, _sc{−e}p_; and the Wessex _l{−e}ogan_, _l{−e}oht_, as against the Mercian _l{−i}gan_,
_l{−i}ht_.

I have now mentioned nearly all the examples of Old Mercian to be found before the Conquest. After that
event it was still the Southern dialect that prevailed, and there is scarcely any Mercian (or Midland) to be
found except in the Laud MS. of the _Anglo−Saxon Chronicle_, which was written at Peterborough. See the
extract, describing the miserable state of England during the reign of Stephen, in Specimens of Early English,

Part I.
It was about the year 1200 that the remarkable work appeared that is known by the name of The Ormulum,
written in the North−East Midland of Lincolnshire, which is the first clear example of the form which our
literary language was destined to assume. It is an extremely long and dreary poem of about 10,000 long lines,
written in a sadly monotonous unrimed metre; and it contains an introduction, paraphrases relating to the
gospels read in the church during the year, and homilies upon the same. It was named Ormulum by the author
after his own name, which was Orm; and the sole existing MS. is probably in the handwriting of Orm himself,
who employed a phonetic spelling of his own invention which he strongly recommends. Owing to this
circumstance and to the fact that his very regular metre leaves no doubt as to his grammatical forms, this
otherwise uninviting poem has a high philological value. In my book entitled The Chaucer Canon, published
at Oxford in 1900, I quote 78 long lines from the Ormulum, reduced to a simpler system of spelling, at pp.
9−14; and, at pp. 15−18, I give an analysis of the suffixes employed by Orm to mark grammatical inflexions.
At pp. 30−41, I give an analysis of similar inflexions as employed by Chaucer, who likewise employed the
East Midland dialect, but with such slight modifications of Orm's language as were due to his living in
London instead of Lincolnshire, and to the fact that he wrote more than 150 years later. The agreement, as to
grammatical usages, of these two authors is extremely close, allowing for lapse of time; and the comparison
between them gives most indubitable and valuable results. There is no better way of learning Chaucer's
grammar.

As East Midland was spread over a wide area, there are, as might be expected, some varieties of it. The
dialects of Lincolnshire and of Norfolk were not quite the same, and both differed somewhat from that of
Essex and Middlesex; but the general characteristics of all three sub−dialects are very much alike. As time
went on, the speech of the students of Oxford and Cambridge was closely assimilated to that of the court as
held in London; and this "educated" type was naturally that to which Caxton and the great writers of the
sixteenth century endeavoured to conform.
Part I. 28
We have one ancient specimen of the London dialect which is eminently authentic and valuable, and has the
additional advantage of being exactly dated. This is the document known as "The only English Proclamation
of Henry III," issued on Oct. 18, 1258. Its intention was to confirm to the people the "Provisions of Oxford," a
charter of rights that had been wrested from the king, from which we may conclude that the Proclamation was
issued by Henry rather by compulsion than by his own free will. There is a note at the end which tells us that a
copy was sent to every shire in England and to Ireland. If every copy had been preserved, we should have a
plentiful supply. As it is, only two copies have survived. One is the copy which found its way to Oxford; and
the other is the original from which the copies were made, which has been carefully preserved for six
centuries and a half in the Public Record Office in London. I here give the contents of the original,
substituting y (at the beginning of a word) or gh (elsewhere) for the symbol _{g}_, and th for the symbol _þ_,
and v for u when between two vowels.

¶ Henri, thurgh Godes fultume king on Engleneloande, Lhoaverd on Yrloande, Duk on Norm(andi), on
Aquitaine, and Eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise holde ilærde and ileawede on Huntendoneschire:
thæt witen ye wel alle, thæt we willen and unnen thæt, thæt ure rædesmen alle, other the moare dæl of heom
thæt beoth ichosen thurgh us and thurgh thæt loandes folk on ure kuneriche, habbeth idon and schullen don in
the worthnesse of Gode and on ure treowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurgh the besighte of than to−foren
iseide redesmen, beo stedefaest and ilestinde in alle thinge, abuten ænde.

And we hoaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe thæt heo us ogen, thæt heo stedefæstliche healden, and swerien
to healden and to werien, tho isetnesses thæt beon imakede and beon to makien, thurgh than to−foren iseide
rædesmen, other thurgh the moare dæl of hem, alswo also hit is biforen iseid; And thæt æhc other helpe thæt
for to done bi than ilche othe, ayenes alle men, right for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande
ne of eghte, wherthurgh this besighte mughe beon ilet other iwersed on onie wise.

And yif oni other onie cumen her onyenes, we willen and hoaten thæt alle ure treowe heom healden deadliche
ifoan. And for thæt we willen thæt this beo stedefæst and lestinde, we senden yew this writ open, iseined with
ure seel, to halden a−manges yew me hord.

Witnesse us selven æt Lundene, thane eghtetenthe day on the monthe of Octobre, in the two and fowertighthe
yeare of ure cruninge.

And this wes idon ætforen ure isworene redesmen, Boneface archebischop on Kanterburi, Walter of
Cantelow, bischop on Wirechestre, Simon of Muntfort, eorl on Leirchestre, Richard of Clare, eorl on
Glowchestre and on Hurtforde, Roger Bigod, eorl on Northfolke and marescal on Engleneloande, Perres of
Sauveye, Willelm of Fort, eorl on Aubemarle, Iohan of Pleisseiz, eorl on Warewike, Iohan Geffreës sune,
Perres of Muntfort, Richard of Grey, Roger of Mortemer, James of Aldithel; and ætforen othre inoghe.

¶ And al on tho ilche worden is isend in−to ævrihce othre shcire over al thære kuneriche on Engleneloande,
and ek in−tel Irelonde.

This document presents at first sight many unfamiliar forms, but really differs from Modern English mainly in
the spelling, which of course represents the pronunciation of that period. The grammar is perfectly intelligible,
and this is the surest mark of similarity of language; we may, however, note the use of send as a contraction of
sendeth, and of oni for "any man" in the singular, while onie, being plural, represents "any men."

The other chief variations are in the vocabulary or word−list, due to the fact that this Proclamation is older
than the reigns of the first three Edwards, which was the period when so many words of Anglo−Norman
origin entered our language, displacing many words of native origin that thus became obsolete; though some
were exchanged for other native words. We may notice, for example, fultume, "assistance"; holde, "faithful";
_ilærde and ileawede_, "learned and unlearned"; unnen, "grant"; _rædesmen_, "councillors"; kuneriche,
"kingdom"; and so on. I subjoin a closely literal translation, retaining awkward expressions.
Part II, most of which can be read with ease. The 29
¶ Henry, through God's assistance, king in England, Lord in Ireland, Duke in Normandy, in Aquitaine, and
Earl in Anjou, sendeth greeting to all his faithful, learned and unlearned, in Huntingdonshire; that wit ye well
all, that we will and grant that which our councillors all, or the more deal (_part_) of them, that be chosen
through us and through the land's folk in our kingdom, have done and shall do in the worship of God and in
our truth, for the benefit of the land, through the provision of the beforesaid councillors, be steadfast and
lasting in all things without end. And we command all our true−men, in the truth that they us owe, that they
steadfastly hold, and swear to hold and to defend, the statutes that be made and be to make, through the
aforesaid councillors, or through the more deal of them, even as it is before said; and that each help other that
for to do, by the same oath, against all men, right for to do and to receive. And (let) none take of land nor of
property, wherethrough this provision may be let or worsened in any wise. And if any−man or any−men come
here−against, we will and command that all our true−men hold them (as) deadly foes. And for that we will
that thi bes steadfast and lasting, we send you this writ open, signed with our seal, to hold amongst you in
hoard. Witness us−selves at London, the eighteenth day in the month of October, in the two and fortieth year
of our crowning. And this was done before our sworen councillors, Boneface, archbishop of Canterbury,
Walter of Cantelow, bishop of Worcester, Simon of Muntfort, earl of Leicester, ... and before others enough.

¶ And all in the same words is sent into every other shire over all the kingdom in England, and eke into
Ireland.

In the year 1303, Robert Manning, of Bourn in Lincolnshire, translated a French poem entitled Manuel des
Pechiez (Manual of Sins) into very fair East Midland verse, giving to his translation the title of Handling
Synne. Many of the verses are easy and smooth, and the poem clearly shows us that the East Midland dialect
was by this time at least the equal of the others, and that the language was good enough to be largely
permanent. When we read such lines as:

Than seyd echone that sate and stode, Here comth Pers, that never dyd gode−−

we have merely to modernise the spelling, and we at once have:

Then said each one that sat and stood, Here cometh Pierce, that never did good,

These are lines that could be written now.

An extract from Manning's Handlyng Synne is given in Specimens of Early English,

Part II, most of which can be read with ease. The

obsolete words are not very numerous, and we meet now and then with half a dozen consecutive lines that
would puzzle no one. It is needless to pursue the history of this dialect further. It had, by this time, become
almost the standard language, differing from Modern English chiefly in date, and consequently in
pronunciation. We pass on from Manning to Chaucer, from Chaucer to Lydgate and Caxton, and from Caxton
to Lord Surrey and Sackville and Spenser, without any real change in the actual dialect employed, but only in
the form of it.

II. WEST MIDLAND

We have seen that there are two divisions of the Mercian dialect, into East and West Midland.

The West Midland does not greatly differ from the East Midland, but it approaches more nearly, in some
respects, to the Northumbrian. The greatest distinction seems to be in the present and past participles of verbs.
In the West Midland, the present participle frequently ends in _−and_, as in Northumbrian, especially in the
Northern part of the Midland area. The East Midland usually employs _−ende_ or _−inge_ instead. In the
CHAPTER IX 30

West Midland, the prefix _i−_ or _y−_ is seldom used for the past participle, whilst the East Midland admits it
more freely. In the third person singular of the present tense, the West Midland favours the Northern suffix
_−es_ or _−is_; whilst the East Midland favours the Southern suffix _−eth_. The suffix _−us_ appears to be
altogether peculiar to West Midland, in which it occurs occasionally; and the same is true of _−ud_ for _−ed_
in the preterite of a weak verb.

There is a rather early West Midland Prose Psalter, belonging to the former half of the fourteenth century,
which was edited for the Early English Text Society by Dr Karl Bulbring in 1891.

The curious poem called William of Palerne (Palermo) or William and the Werwolf, written in alliterative
verse about 1350−60, and edited by me for the E.E.T.S. in 1867, seems to be in a form of West Midland, and
has been claimed for Shropshire; nothing is known as to its author.

The very remarkable poem called The Pearl, and three Alliterative Poems by the same author, were first
edited by Dr Morris for the E.E.T.S. in 1864; with a preface in which the peculiarities of the dialect were
discussed. Dr Morris showed that the grammatical forms are uniform and consistent throughout, and may be
safely characterised as being West Midland. Moreover, they are frequently very like Northumbrian, and must
belong to the Northern area of the West Midland dialect. "Much," says Dr Morris, "may be said in favour of
their Lancashire origin."

The MS. which contains the above poems also contains the excellent alliterative romance−poem named Sir
Gawayne and the Green Knight, evidently written by the same author; so that this poem also may be
considered as a specimen of West Midland. For further particulars, see the "Grammatical Details" given in Dr
Morris's preface to The Pearl, etc., pp. xxviii−xl. Sir Gawayne was likewise edited by Morris in 1864.

It would not be easy to trace the history of this dialect at a later date, and the task is hardly necessary. It was
soon superseded in literary use by the East Midland, with which it had much in common.

CHAPTER IX
FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN THE DIALECTS

There is a widely prevalent notion that the speakers of English Dialects employ none but native words; and it
is not uncommon for writers who have more regard for picturesque effect than for accuracy to enlarge upon
this theme, and to praise the dialects at the expense of the literary language. Of course there is a certain
amount of truth in this, but it would be better to look into the matter a little more closely.

A very little reflection will show that dialect−speakers have always been in contact with some at least of those
who employ words that belong rather, or once belonged, to foreign nations. Even shopkeepers are familiar
with such words as beef, mutton, broccoli, soda, cork, sherry, brandy, tea, coffee, sugar, sago, and many more
such words that are now quite familiar to every one. Yet beef and mutton are Norman; broccoli and soda are
Italian; cork and sherry are Spanish; brandy is Dutch; tea is Chinese; coffee is Arabic; sugar is of Sanskrit
origin; and sago is Malay. It must be evident that many similar words, having reference to very various useful
things, have long ago drifted into the dialects from the literary language. Hence the purity of the dialects from
contamination with foreign influences is merely comparative, not absolute.

Our modern language abounds with words borrowed from many foreign tongues; but a large number of them
have come to us since 1500. Before that date the chief languages from which it was possible for us to borrow
words were British or Gaelic, Irish, Latin, Greek (invariably through the medium of Latin), Hebrew (in a
small degree, through the medium of Latin), Arabic (very slightly, and indirectly), Scandinavian, and French.
A few words as to most of these are sufficient.
CHAPTER IX 31
It is not long since a great parade was made of our borrowings from "Celtic"; it was very easy to give a wild
guess that an obscure word was "Celtic"; and the hardihood of the guesser was often made to take the place of
evidence. The fact is that there is no such language as "Celtic"; it is the name of a group of languages,
including "British" or Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Manx, Gaelic, and Irish; and it is now incumbent on the
etymologist to cite the exact forms in one or more of these on which he relies, so as to adduce some
semblance of proof. The result has been an extraordinary shrinkage in the number of alleged Celtic words.
The number, in fact, is extremely small, except in special cases. Thus we may expect to find a few Welsh
words in the dialects of Cheshire, Shropshire, or Herefordshire, on the Welsh border; and a certain proportion
of Gaelic words in Lowland Scotch; though we have no reliable lists of these, and it is remarkable that such
words have usually been borrowed at no very early date, and sometimes quite recently. The legacy of words
bequeathed to us by the ancient Britons is surprisingly small; indeed, it is very difficult to point to many clear
cases. The question is considered in my _Principles of English Etymology, Series I_, pp. 443−452, to which I
may refer the reader; and a list of words of (probably) Celtic origin is given in my larger Etymological
Dictionary, ed. 1910, p. 765. It is also explained, in my Primer of English Etymology that, in the fifth century,
the time of Hengist's invasion, "the common language of the more educated classes among the British was
Latin, which was in use as a literary language and as the language of the British Christian Church. Hence, the
Low German tribes [of invaders] found no great necessity for learning ancient British; and this explains the
fact, which would otherwise be extraordinary, that modern English contains but a very small Celtic element."
Of the Celts that remained within the English pale, it is certain that, in a very short time, they accepted the
necessity of learning Anglian or Saxon, and lost their previous language altogether. Hence, in many dialects,
as for example, in the East Midland district, the amount of words of "British" origin is practically nil. For
further remarks on this subject, see Chapter V of _Anglo−Saxon Britain_, by Grant Allen, London, n.d.

I here give a tentative list of some Celtic words found in dialects. Their etymologies are discussed in my
Etymological Dictionary (1910), as they are also found in literary use; and the words are fully explained in the
English Dialect Dictionary, which gives all their senses, and enumerates the counties in which they are found.
It is doubtless imperfect, as I give only words that are mostly well known, and can be found, indeed, in the
New English Dictionary. I give only one sense of each, and mark it as N., M., or S. (Northern, Midland, or
Southern), as the case may be. The symbol "gen." means "in general use"; and "Sc." means Lowland Scotch.

Art, or airt, Sc., a direction of the wind; banshee, Irish, a female spirit who warns families of a death; beltane,
N., the first of May; bin, M., a receptacle; boggart, bogle, N., M., a hobgoblin; bragget, N., M., a drink made
of honey and ale; brat, N., M., a cloth, clout; brock, gen., a badger; bug, N., a bogy; bugaboo, N., M., a
hobgoblin; capercailyie, Sc., a bird; cateran, Sc., a Highland robber; char, N., a fish; clachan, Sc., a hamlet;
clan, N., M., a class, set of people; claymore, Sc., a two−handed sword; colleen, Irish, a young girl; combe,
gen., the head of a valley; coracle, M., a wicker boat; coronach, Sc., a dirge; corrie, Sc., a circular hollow in a
hill−side; cosher, Irish, a feast; crag, craig, N., a rock; crowd, N., S., a fiddle; dulse, N., an edible sea−weed;
dun, gen., brown, greyish; duniwassal, Sc., a gentleman of secondary rank; fillibeg, Sc., a short kilt; flummery,
Sc., M., oatmeal boiled in water; gallowglass, Sc., Irish, an armed foot−soldier; galore, gen., in abundance;
gillie, Sc., a man−servant; gull, a name of various birds; hubbub, hubbaboo, Irish, a confused clamour; inch,
Sc., Irish, a small island; ingle, N., M., fire, fire−place; kelpie, Sc., a water−spirit; kibe, gen., a chilblain; linn,
N., a pool; loch, N., lough, Irish, a lake; metheglin, M., S., beer made from honey; omadhaun, Irish, a
simpleton; pose, gen. (but perhaps obsolete), a catarrh; rapparee, Sc., Irish, a vagabond; shillelagh, Irish, a
cudgel; skain, skean, Sc., Irish, a knife, dagger; sowens, sowans, Sc., a dish made from oatmeal−husks steeped
in water (from Gael, _sùghan_, the juice of sowens); spalpeen, Irish, a rascal; spleuchan, Sc., Irish, a pouch, a
purse; strath, N., a valley; strathspey, Sc., a dance, named from the valley of the river Spey; tocher, N., a
dowry; usquebaugh, Sc., Irish, whiskey; wheal, Cornish, a mine.

Latin is a language from which English has borrowed words in every century since the year 600. In my
_Principles of English Etymology, First Series_, Chap. XXI, I give a list of Latin words imported into English
before the Norman Conquest. Several of these must be familiar in our dialects; we can hardly suppose that
country people do not know the meaning of ark, beet, box, candle, chalk, cheese, cook, coulter, cup, fennel,
CHAPTER IX 32
fever, font, fork, inch, kettle, kiln, kitchen, and the like. Indeed, ark is quite a favourite word in the North for a
large wooden chest, used for many purposes; and Kersey explains it as "a country word for a large chest to put
fruit or corn in." Candle is so common that it is frequently reduced to _cannel_; and it has given its name to
"cannel coal." Every countryman is expected to be able to distinguish "between chalk and cheese." Coulter
appears in ten dialect forms, and one of the most familiar agricultural implements is a pitch−fork. The
influence of Latin requires no further illustration.

I also give a list of early words of Greek origin; some of which are likewise in familiar use. I may instance
alms, angel, bishop, butter, capon, chest, church, clerk, copper, devil, dish, hemp, imp, martyr, paper
(ultimately of Egyptian origin), plaster, plum, priest, rose, sack, school, silk, treacle, trout. Of course the poor
old woman who says she is "a martyr to tooth−ache" is quite unconscious that she is talking Greek. Probably
she is not without some smattering of Persian, and knows the sense of lilac, myrtle, orange, peach, and rice; of
Sanskrit, whence pepper and sugar−candy; of Arabic, whence coffee, cotton, jar, mattress, senna, and sofa;
and she will know enough Hebrew, partly from her Bible, to be quite familiar with a large number of biblical
names, such as Adam and Abraham and Isaac, and very many more, not forgetting the very common John,
Joseph, Matthew, and Thomas, and the still more familiar Jack and Jockey; and even with a few words of
Hebrew origin, such as alleluia, balm, bedlam, camel, cider, and sabbath. The discovery of the New World has
further familiarised us all with chocolate and tomato, which are Mexican; and with potato, which is probably
old Caribbean. These facts have to be borne in mind when it is too rashly laid down that words in English
dialects are of English origin.

Foreign words of this kind are, however, not very numerous, and can easily be allowed for. And, as has been
said, our vocabulary admits also of a certain amount of Celtic. It remains to consider what other sources have
helped to form our dialects. The two most prolific in this respect are Scandinavian and French, which require
careful consideration.

It is notorious that the Northern dialect admits Scandinavian words freely; and the same is true, to a lesser
degree, of East Midland. They are rare in Southern, and in the Southern part of West Midland. The constant
invasions of the Danes, and the subjection of England under the rule of three Danish kings, Canute and his
two successors, have very materially increased our vocabulary; and it is remarkable that they have perhaps
done more for our dialects than for the standard language. The ascendancy of Danish rule was in the eleventh
century; but (with a few exceptions) it was long before words which must really have been introduced at that
time began to appear in our literature. They must certainly have been looked upon, at the first, as being rustic
or dialectal. I have nowhere seen it remarked, and I therefore call attention to the fact, that a certain note of
rustic origin still clings to many words of this class; and I would instance such as these: bawl, bloated,
blunder, bungle, clog, clown, clumsy, to cow, to craze, dowdy, dregs, dump, and many more of a like
character. I do not say that such words cannot be employed in serious literature; but they require skillful
handling.

For further information, see the chapter on "The Scandinavian Element in English," in my _Principles of
English Etymology, Series I_.

With regard to dialectal Scandinavian, see the List of English Words, as compared with Icelandic, in my
Appendix to Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary. In this long list, filling 80 columns, the dialectal
words are marked with a dagger {+*}. But the list of these is by no means exhaustive, and it will require a
careful search through the pages of the English Dialect Dictionary to do justice to the wealth of this Old
Norse element. There is an excellent article on this subject by Arnold Wall, entitled "A Contribution towards
the Study of the Scandinavian element in the English Dialects," printed in the German periodical entitled
_Anglia, Neue Folge_, Band VIII, 1897.

I now give a list, a mere selection, of some of the more remarkable words of Scandinavian origin that are
known to our dialects. For their various uses and localities, see the _English Dialect Dictionary_; and for their
CHAPTER IX 33

etymologies, see my Index to Cleasby and Vigfusson. Many of these words are well approved and forcible,
and may perhaps be employed hereafter to reinforce our literary language.

Addle, to earn; and (in Barbour, _aynd_) sb., breath; arder, a ploughing; arr, a scar; arval, a funeral repast;
aund, fated, destined; bain, ready, convenient; _bairns' lakings_, children's playthings; beck, a stream; big, to
build; bigg, barley; bing, a heap; birr, impetus; blaeberry, a bilberry; blather, blether, empty noisy talk; bouk,
the trunk of the body; boun, ready; braid, to resemble, to take after; brandreth, an iron framework over a fire;
brant, steep; bro, a foot−bridge with a single rail; bule, bool, the curved handle of a bucket; busk, to prepare
oneself, dress; caller, fresh, said of fish, etc.; carle, a rustic, peasant; carr, moist ground; cleck, to hatch (as
chickens); cleg, a horse−fly; coup, to exchange, to barter; dag, dew; daggle, to trail in the wet; dowf, dull,
heavy, stupid; dump, a deep pool.

Elding, eliding, fuel; ettle, to intend, aim at; feal, to hide; fell, a hill; fey, doomed, fated to die; flake, a hurdle;
force, a water−fall; gab, idle talk; gain, adj., convenient, suitable; gait, a hog; gar, to cause, to make; garn,
yarn; garth, a field, a yard; gate, a way, street; ged, a pike; gilder, a snare, a fishing−line; gilt, a young sow;
gimmer, a young ewe; gloppen, to scare, terrify; glare, to stare, to glow; goam, gaum, to stare idly, to gape,
whence gomeril, a blockhead; gowk, a cuckoo, a clown; gowlan, gollan, a marigold; gowpen, a double
handful; gradely, respectable; graithe, to prepare; grice, a young pig; haaf, the open sea; haver, oats; how, a
hillock, mound; _immer−goose_, _ember−goose_, the great Northern diver; ing, a lowlying meadow; intake, a
newly enclosed or reclaimed portion of land; keld, a spring of water; kenning, knowledge, experience; kilp,
kelp, the iron hook in a chimney on which pots are hung; kip, to catch fish in a particular way; kittle, to tickle;
lain, lane, to conceal; lair, a muddy place, a quick−sand; lait, to seek; lake, to play; lathe, a barn; lax, a
salmon; lea, a scythe; leister, a fish−spear with prongs and barbs; lift, the air, sky; lig, to lie down; lispund, a
variable weight; lit, to dye; loon, the Northern diver; lowe, a flame, a blaze.

Mense, respect, reverence, decency, sense; mickle, great; mirk, dark; morkin, a dead sheep; muck, dirt; mug,
fog, mist, whence muggy, misty, close, dull; neif, neive, the fist; ouse, ouze, to empty out liquid, to bale out a
boat; paddock, a frog, a toad; quey, a young heifer; rae, a sailyard; rag, hoarfrost, rime; raise, a cairn, a
tumulus; ram, rammish, rank, rancid; rip, a basket; risp, to scratch; rit, to scratch slightly, to score; rawk,
roke, a mist; roo, to pluck off the wool of sheep instead of shearing them; roose, to praise; roost, roust, a
strong sea−current, a race.

Sark, a shirt; scarf, a cormorant; scopperil, a teetotum; score, a gangway down to the sea−shore; screes, rough
stones on a steep mountain−side, really for screethes (the th being omitted as in _clothes_), from Old Norse
_skriða_, a land−slip on a hill−side; scut, a rabbit's tail; seave, a rush; sike, a small rill, gutter; sile, a young
herring; skeel, a wooden pail; skep, a basket, a measure; skift, to shift, remove, flit; skrike, to shriek; slocken,
to slake, quench; slop, a loose outer garment; snag, a projecting end, a stump of a tree; soa, a large round tub;
spae, to foretell, to prophesy; spean, a teat, (as a verb) to wean; spelk, a splinter, thin piece of wood; steg, a
gander; storken, to congeal; swale, a shady place; tang, the prong of a fork, a tongue of land; tarn, a mountain
pool; tath, manure, tathe, to manure; ted, to spread hay; theak, to thatch; thoft, a cross−bench in a boat; thrave,
twenty−four sheaves, or a certain measure of corn; tit, a wren; titling, a sparrow; toft, a homestead, an old
enclosure, low hill; udal, a particular tenure of land; ug, to loathe; wadmel, a species of coarse cloth; wake, a
portion of open water in a frozen lake or stream; wale, to choose; wase, a wisp or small bundle of hay or
straw; whauve, to cover over, especially with a dish turned upside down; wick, a creek, bay; wick, a corner,
angle.

Another source of foreign supply to the vocabulary of the dialects is French; a circumstance which seems
hitherto to have been almost entirely ignored. The opinion has, I think, been expressed more than once, that
dialects are almost, if not altogether, free from French influence. Some, however, have called attention,
perhaps too much attention, to the French words found in Lowland Scotch; and it is common to adduce
always the same set of examples, such as ashet, a dish (F. assiette, a trencher, plate: Cotgrave), gigot, a leg of
mutton, and _petticoat−tails_, certain cakes baked with butter (ingeniously altered from petits gastels, old
CHAPTER IX 34
form of _petits gâteaux_), by way of illustration. Indeed, a whole book has been written on this subject; see A
Critical Enquiry into the Scottish Language, by Francisque−Michel, 4to, Edinburgh, 1882. But the importance
of the borrowings, chiefly in Scotland, from Parisian French, has been much exaggerated, as in the work just
mentioned; and a far more important source has been ignored, viz. Anglo−French, which I here propose to
consider.

By Anglo−French is meant the highly important form of French which is largely peculiar to England, and is of
the highest value to the philologist. The earliest forms of it were Norman, but it was afterwards supplemented
by words borrowed from other French dialects, such as those of Anjou and Poitou, as well as from the Central
French of Paris. It was thus developed in a way of its own, and must always be considered, in preference to
Old Continental French, when English etymologies are in question. It is true that it came to an end about
1400, when it ceased to be spoken; but at an earlier date it was alive and vigorous, and coined its own peculiar
forms. A very simple example is our word duty, which certainly was not borrowed from the Old French
devoir, but from the Anglo−French duetee, a word familiar in Old London, but absolutely unknown to every
form of continental French.

The point which I have here to insist upon is that not only does our literary language abound with
Anglo−French words, but that they are also common enough in our dialects; a point which, as far as I know, is
almost invariably overlooked. Neither have our dialects escaped the influence of the Central French of Paris,
and it would have been strange if they had; for the number of French words in English is really very large. It
is not always possible to discriminate between the Old French of France and of England, and I shall here
consider both sources together, though the Old Norman words can often be easily discerned by any one who is
familiar with the Norman peculiarities. Of such peculiarities I will instance three, by way of example. Thus
Anglo−French often employs ei or ey where Old French (i.e. of the continent) has oi or _oy_; and English has
retained the old pronunciations of ch and j. Hence, whilst convoy is borrowed from French, convey is
Anglo−French. Machine is French, because the ch is pronounced as _sh_; but chine, the backbone, is
Anglo−French. Rouge is French, because of the peculiar pronunciation of the final _ge_; but rage is
Anglo−French; and jaundice is Anglo−French, as it has the old j. See Chapters III−VI of my _Principles of
English Etymology, Second Series_.

A good example of a dialect word is gantry or gauntree, a wooden stand for barrels, known in varying forms
in many dialects. It is rightly derived, in the _E.D.D._, from gantier, which must have been an A.F.
(Anglo−French) form, though now only preserved in the Rouchi dialect, spoken on the borders of France and
Belgium, and nearly allied to Norman; in fact, M. Hécart, the author of the Dictionnaire _Rouchi−Français_,
says he had heard the word in Normandy, and he gives a quotation for it from Olivier Basselin, a poet who
lived in Normandy at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Parisian form is chantier, which Cotgrave
explains as "a Gauntrey... for hogs−heads to stand on." Here is a clear example of a word which is of Norman,
or A.F., origin; and there must be many more such of which the A.F. form is lost. There is no greater literary
disgrace to England than the fact that there is no reasonable Dictionary in existence of Anglo−French, though
it contains hundreds of highly important legal terms. It ought, in fact, to have been compiled before either the
English Dialect Dictionary or the New English Dictionary, both of which have suffered from the lack of it.

It would indeed be tedious to enumerate the vast number of French words in our dialects. Many are literary
words used in a peculiar sense, often in one that has otherwise been long obsolete; such as able, rich; access,
an ague−fit; according, comparatively; to act, to show off, be ridiculous; afraid, conj., for fear that;
agreeable, willing; aim, to intend; aisle, a central thoroughfare in a shop, etc.; alley, the aisle of a church;
allow, to suppose; anatomy, a skeleton; ancient, an ensign, flag; anguish, inflammation; annoyance, damage;
anointed, notoriously vicious; apron, the diaphragm of an animal; apt, sure; arbitrary, impatient of restraint;
archangel, dead nettle; argue, to signify; arrant, downright; auction, an untidy place, a crowd; avise (for
_advise_), to inform. It is needless to go through the rest of the alphabet.

Moreover, dialect−speakers are quite capable of devising new forms for themselves. It is sufficient to instance
CHAPTER X 35
abundation, abundance; ablins, possibly (made from _able_); argle, _argie−bargie_, _argle−bargle_, argufy,
all varieties of the verb _to argue_; and so on.

The most interesting words are those that have survived from Middle English or from Tudor English times.
Examples are aigre, sour, tart, which is Shakespeare's eagre, Hamlet, I, v 69; ambry, aumbry, cupboard, spelt
almarie in Piers the Plowman, B XIV 246; arain, a spider, spelt yreyn in Wyclif's translation of Psalm XC 10,
which, after all, is less correct; arles, money paid on striking a bargain, a highly interesting word, spelt erles
in the former half of the thirteenth century; arris, the angular edge of a cut block of stone, etc., from the O.F.
areste, L. arista, which has been revived by our Swiss mountain−climbers in the form _aréte_; _a−sew_, dry,
said of cows that give no milk (cf. F. essuyer, to dry); assoilyie, to absolve, acquit, and assith, to compensate,
both used by Sir W. Scott; astre, aistre, a hearth, a Norman word found in 1292; aunsel, a steelyard, of which
the etymology is given in the _E.D.D._; aunter, an adventure, from the A.F. _aventure_; aver, a beast of
burden, horse, used by Burns, from the A.F. aveir, property, cattle; averous, A.F. averous, avaricious, in
Wyclif's translation of 1 Cor. vi 10.

Here is ample proof of the survival of Anglo−French in our dialects. Indeed, their chief philological use
consists in the great antiquity of many of the terms, which often preserve Old English and Anglo−French
forms with much fidelity. The charge often brought against dialect speakers of using "corrupt" forms is only
occasionally and exceptionally true. Much worse "corruptions" have been made by antiquaries, in order to suit
their false etymologies.

CHAPTER X
LATER HISTORY OF THE DIALECTS

With the ascendancy of East Midland, and its acceptance as the chief literary language, the other dialects
practically ceased to be recorded, with the exception (noted above) of the Scottish Northumbrian. Of English
Northumbrian, the sixteenth century tells us nothing beyond what we can glean from belated copies of
Northern ballads or such traces of a Northern (apparently a Lancashire) dialect as appear in Spenser's
_Shepherd's Calendar_. Fitzherbert's Boke of Husbandry (1534) was reprinted for the E.D.S. in 1882. It was
written, not by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, as I erroneously said in the Preface, but by his brother, John
Fitzherbert, as has been subsequently shown. It contains a considerable number of dialectal words. Thomas
Tusser (1525−1580), born in Essex, wrote A Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie (1557), and Fiue
Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie (1573); see the edition by Payne and Herrtage, E.D.S., 1878. He
employs many country words, presumably Essex. The dialect assumed by Edgar in Shakespeare's King Lear is
not to be taken as being very accurate; he talks somewhat like a Somersetshire peasant, but I suppose his
speech to be in a conventional stage dialect, such as we find also in The London Prodigall, Act II, Sc. 4,
where Olyver, "a Devonshire Clothier," uses similar expressions, viz. chill for Ich will, I will; and chy vor
thee, I warn thee.

Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the value of dialectal words as helping to explain our English
vocabulary began to be recognised. Particular mention may be made of the _Etymologicon Linguæ
Anglicanæ_, by Stephen Skinner, London, 1671; and it should be noted that this is the Dictionary upon which
Dr Johnson relied for the etymology of native English words. At the same time, we must not forget to note
two Dictionaries of a much earlier date, which are of high value. The former of these is the Promptorium
Parvulorum, completed in 1440, published by the Camden Society in 1865; which contains a rather large
proportion of East Anglian words. The second is the Catholicon Anglicum, dated 1483, ed. S.J. Herrtage,
E.E.T.S., 1881, which is distinctly Northern (possibly of Yorkshire origin).

We find in Skinner occasional mention of Lincolnshire words, with which he was evidently familiar.
Examples are: _boggle−boe_, a spectre; bratt, an apron; _buffet−stool_, a hassock; bulkar, explained by
Peacock as "a wooden hutch in a workshop or a ship."
Part II, a distinct work (1727, etc.). The celebrated 36
The study of modern English Dialects began with the year 1674, when the celebrated John Ray, Fellow of the
Royal Society, botanist, zoologist, and collector of local words and proverbs, issued his _Collection of
English Words not generally used_; of which a second edition appeared in 1691. See my reprint of these;
E.D.S., 1874. This was the first general collection, and one of the best; and after this date (1674) many dialect
words appeared in English Dictionaries, such as those of Elisha Coles (1676, and four subsequent editions);
John Kersey (1708, etc.); Nathaniel Bailey (1721, etc.); N. Bailey's Dictionary,

Part II, a distinct work (1727, etc.). The celebrated

Dictionary by Dr Johnson, 2 vols., folio, London, 1755, owed much to Bailey. Later, we may notice the
Dictionary by John Ash, London, 1775; and Todd's edition of Johnson, London, 1818. It is needless to
mention later works; see the Complete List of Dictionaries, by H.B. Wheatley, reprinted in the E.D.S.
Bibliographical List (1877), pp. 3−11; and the long List of Works which more particularly relate to English
Dialects in the same, pp. 11−17. Among the latter may be mentioned A Provincial Glossary, by F. Grose,
London, 1787, second edition 1790; Supplement to the same, by the late S. Pegge, F.S.A., London, 1814; and
Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words, by the late Rev. J. Boucher, ed. Hunter and Stevenson, 1832−3.
The last of these was attempted on a large scale, but never got beyond the word _Blade_; so that it was
practically a failure. The time for producing a real Dialect Dictionary had not yet come; but the valuable
Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, by J. Jamieson, published at Edinburgh in 4 vols., 4to, in
1808−25, made an excellent beginning.

The nineteenth century not only accumulated for our use a rather large number of general works on Dialects,
but also a considerable quantity of works illustrating them separately. I may instance those on the dialect of
Bedfordshire, by T. Batchelor, 1809; of Berkshire, by Job Lousley, 1852; Cheshire, by R. Wilbraham, 1820,
1826; East Anglia, by R. Forby, 1830, and by Nall, 1866; Teesdale, co. Durham, by F.T. Dinsdale, 1849;
Herefordshire, by G.C. Lewis, 1839; Lincolnshire, by J.E. Brogden, 1866; Northamptonshire, by Miss A.E.
Baker, 2 vols., 1854; the North Country, by J.T. Brockett, 1825, 1846; Somersetshire, by J. Jennings, 1825,
1869; Suffolk, by E. Moor, 1823; Sussex, by W.D. Cooper, 1836, 1853; Wiltshire, by J.Y. Akerman, 1842;
the Cleveland dialect (Yorks.), by J.C. Atkinson, 1868; the Craven dialect, by W. Carr, 1824; and many more
of the older type that are still of value. We have also two fairly good general dictionaries of dialect words; that
by T. Wright, 1857, 1869; and that by J.O. Halliwell, 2 vols., 1847, 11th ed., 1889. See the exhaustive
Bibliographical List of all works connected with our dialects in the _E.D.D._, pp. 1−59, at the end of vol. VI.

In 1869 appeared

Part I of Dr A.J. Ellis's great work on Early

English Pronunciation, with especial reference to Shakespeare and Chaucer; followed by

Part II of the same, on the Pronunciation of the

thirteenth and previous centuries, of Anglo−Saxon, Icelandic, Old Norse, and Gothic. In 1871 appeared

Part III of the same, on the

Pronunciation of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Part IV was 37

Part IV was
then planned to include the Pronunciation of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, including
the Phonology of the Dialects; and for this purpose it was necessary to gain particulars such as could hardly be
accomplished without special research. It was partly with this in view, and partly in order to collect material
for a really comprehensive dictionary, that, in 1873, I founded the English Dialect Society, undertaking the
duties of Secretary and Director. The Society was brought to an end in 1896, after producing 80 publications
and collecting much material. Mr Nodal, of Manchester, was Secretary from 1876 to 1893; and from 1893 to
1896 the headquarters of the Society were in Oxford. Besides this, I raised a fund in 1886 for collecting
additional material in manuscript, and thus obtained a considerable quantity, which the Rev. A. Smythe
Palmer, D.D., in the course of two years and a half, arranged in fair order. But even in 1889 more was
required, and the work was then taken in hand by Dr Joseph Wright, who gives the whole account of the
means by which, in 1898, he was enabled to issue Vol. I of the English Dialect Dictionary. The sixth and
concluding volume of this most valuable work was issued in 1905.

To this I refer the reader for all further information, which is there given in a very complete form. At the
beginning is a Preface explaining the history of the book; followed by lists of voluntary readers, of unprinted
MS. collections, and of correspondents consulted; whilst Vol. VI, besides a Supplement of 179 pages, gives a
Bibliography of Books and MSS. quoted, with a full Index; to which is added the English Dialect Grammar.

This English Dialect Grammar was also published, in 1905, as a separate work, and contains a full account of
the phonology of all the chief dialects, the very variable pronunciation of a large number of leading words
being accurately indicated by the use of a special set of symbols; the Table of Vowel−sounds is given at p. 13.
The Phonology is followed by an Accidence, which discusses the peculiarities of dialect grammar. Next
follows a rather large collection of important words, that are differently pronounced in different counties; for
example, more than thirty variations are recorded of the pronunciation of the word house. The fulness of the
Vocabulary in the Dictionary, and the minuteness of the account of the phonology and accidence in the
Grammar, leave nothing to desire. Certainly no other country can give so good an account of its Dialects.

CHAPTER XI
THE MODERN DIALECTS

It has been shown that, in the earliest period, we can distinguish three well−marked dialects besides the
Kentish, viz. Northumbrian, Mercian, and Anglo−Saxon; and these, in the Middle English period, are known
as Northern, Midland, and Southern. The modern dialects are very numerous, but can be arranged under five
divisions, two of which may be called Northern and Southern, as before; whilst the other three arise from a
division of the widely spread Midland into subdivisions. These may be called, respectively, West Midland,
Mid Midland (or simply Midland), and East Midland; and it has been shown that similar subdivisions appear
even in the Middle English period.

This arrangement of the modern dialects under five divisions is that adopted by Prof. Wright, who further
simplifies the names by using Western in place of West Midland, and Eastern in place of East Midland. This
gives us, as a final result, five divisions of English dialects, viz. Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern, and
Southern; to which we must add the dialects of modern Scotland (originally Northern), and the dialects of
Ireland, viz. of Ulster (a kind of Northern), Dublin, and Wexford (a kind of Southern).

No map of dialects is here given in illustration, because it is practically impossible to define their boundaries
accurately. Such a map was once given by Dr Ellis, but it is only arbitrary; and Prof. Wright expressly says
that, in his work also, the boundaries suggested are inexact; they are only given for convenience, as an
approximation to the truth. He agrees with Dr Ellis in most of the particulars.
CHAPTER XII 38

Many of the counties are divided between two, or even three, dialects; I somewhat simplify matters by
omitting to mention some of them, so as to give merely a general idea of the chief dialectal localities. For
fuller information, see the Dialect Grammar.

I. The dialects of Scotland may be subdivided into nine groups:

1. Shetland and Orkney. 2. Caithness. 3. Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen. 4. E. Forfar, Kincardine. 5. W. Forfar,
most of Perth, parts of Fife and Stirling. 6. S. Ayr, W. Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton. 7. S.E. Argyle, N.
Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark. 8. Kinross, Clackmannan, Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Haddington, Berwick, Peebles. 9. E.
Dumfries, Selkirk, Roxburgh.

II. Ireland.−−Ulster, Dublin, Wexford.

III. England and Wales, in five divisions: (_a_) Northern; (_b_) Midland; (_c_) Eastern; (_d_) Western; (_e_)
Southern.

(_a_) Three groups: 1. Northumberland, N. Durham. 2. S. Durham; most of Cumberland, Westmoreland, N.

Lancashire, hilly parts of W. Riding of Yorkshire. 3. N. and E. Ridings of Yorkshire.

(_b_) Ten groups: 1. Lincolnshire. 2. S.E. Lancashire, N.E. Cheshire, N.W. Derby. 3. S.W. Lancashire, S. of
the Ribble. 4. Mid Lancashire, Isle of Man. 5. S. Yorkshire; to the S.W. of the Wharfe. 6. Most of Cheshire,
N. Staffordshire. 7. Most of Derby. 8. Nottingham. 9. Flint, Denbigh. 10. E. Shropshire, S. Stafford, most of
Warwickshire, S. Derby, Leicestershire.

(_c_) Five groups: 1. Cambridge, Rutland, N.E. Northampton. 2. Most of Essex and Hertford, Huntingdon,
Bedford, Mid Northampton. 3. Norfolk and Suffolk. 4. Most of Buckingham. 5. Middlesex, S.E. Buckingham,
S. Hertford, S.W. Essex.

N.B. S.W. Northampton is Southern; see (_e_), 4.

(_d_) Two groups: 1. W. and S. Shropshire (W. of Severn). 2. Hereford (except E.), Radnor, E. Brecknock.

(_e_) Ten groups. 1. Parts of Pembroke and Glamorgan. 2. Wiltshire, Dorset, N. and E. Somerset, most of
Gloucester, S.W. Devon. 3. Most of Hampshire, Isle of Wight, most of Berkshire, S. Surrey, W. Sussex. 4. N.
Gloucester, E. Hereford, Worcester, S. Warwick, N. Oxford, S.W. Northampton. 5. Most of Oxford. 6. N.
Surrey, N.W. Kent. 7. Most of Kent, E. Sussex. 8. W. Somerset, N.E. Devon. 9. Most of Devon, E. Cornwall.
10. W. Cornwall.

CHAPTER XII
A FEW SPECIMENS

There is a great wealth of modern dialect literature, as indicated by the lists in the _E.D.D._ Some of these
dialect books are poor and inaccurate, and they are frequently spelt according to no intelligible phonetic
principles. Yet it not unfrequently happens, as in the works of Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, that the
dialectal scraps indicate the pronunciation with tolerable fidelity, which is more than can be said of such
portions of their works as are given in the normal spelling. It is curious to notice that writers in dialect are
usually, from a phonetic point of view, more careful and consistent in their modes of indicating sounds than
are the rest of us. Sometimes their spelling is, accordingly, very good. Those who are interested in this subject
may follow up this hint with advantage.
CHAPTER XII 39
It is impossible to mention even a tithe of the names of our better dialect writers. In Scotland alone there is a
large number, some of the more recent bearing such well−known names as those of R.L. Stevenson, George
Macdonald (Aberdeen), J.M. Barrie (Forfarshire), and S.R. Crockett (Galloway). Dean Ramsay's humorous
Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character must not be passed over. For Ireland we have William
Carleton's Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, and the novels by Lever and Lover. Cumberland has its
delightful stories of Joe and the Geologist, and _Bobby Banks' Bodderment_. Cornwall has its Tales, by J.T.
Tregellas. Devon can boast of R.D. Blackmore, Dorset of Hardy and Barnes, and Lincoln of Tennyson. The
literature of Lancashire is vast; it suffices to mention John Collier (otherwise Tim Bobbin), author of Tummus
and Meary, Ben Brierley, John Byrom, J.P. Morris, author of _T' Lebby Beck Dobby_, and Edwin Waugh,
prose author and poet. _Giles's Trip to London_, and the other sketches by the same author, are highly
characteristic of Norfolk. Northamptonshire has its poet, John Clare; and Suffolk can boast of Robert
Bloomfield. According to her own statement, printed in the Preface (p. viii) to the E.D.S. Bibliographical List,
George Eliot, when writing Adam Bede, had in mind "the talk of N. Staffordshire and the neighbouring part of
Derbyshire"; whilst, in Silas Marner, "the district imagined is in N. Warwickshire." Southey wrote _T'
Terrible Knitters e' Dent_ in the Westmoreland dialect. Yorkshire, like Lancashire, has a large literature, to
which the _E.D.D._ Booklist can alone do justice.

SCOTTISH (Group 3): ABERDEEN.

The following extract is from Chapter XVIII of Johnny Gibb of Gushetneuk, by W. Alexander, LL.D.,
fifteenth edition, Edinburgh, 1908. One special peculiarity of the dialect is the use of f for wh, as in fat, what,
fan, when. The extract describes how the speaker and his friends went to hear a bellman make a proclamation
about the appointment of a new minister to a church.

It's a vera stiff brae, an' ere we wan up to the kirk, it was gyaun upon eleyven o'clock. "Hooever," says the
mannie, "we'll be in braw time; it's twal ere the sattlement begin, an' I'se warran they sanna apen the
kirk−doors till's till than." So we tak's a luik roun' for ony kent fowk. They war stannin' aboot a'gate roun'
aboot the kirk, in scores an' hunners, fowk fae a' the pairis'es roun' aboot, an' some fae hyne awa' as far doon's
Marnoch o' the tae han' an' Kintore o' the tither, aw believe; some war stampin' their feet an' slappin' their
airms like the yauws o' a win'mill to keep them a−heat; puckles wus sittin' o' the kirk−yard dyke, smokin' an'
gyaun on wi' a' kin' o' orra jaw aboot the minaisters, an' aye mair gedderin' in aboot−−it was thocht there wus
weel on to twa thoosan' there ere a' was deen. An' aye a bit fudder was comin' up fae the manse aboot fat the
Presbytery was deein−−they war chaumer't there, ye see, wi' the lawvyers an' so on. "Nyod, they maun be
sattlin' 'im i' the manse," says ane, "we'll need a' gae doon an' see gin we can win in." "Na, na," says anither, "a
bit mair bather aboot thair dissents an' appales bein' ta'en; muckle need they care, wi' sic a Presbytery, fat they
try. But here's Johnny Florence, the bellman, at the lang length, I'se be at the boddom o' fat they're at noo."
And wi' that he pints till a carlie comin' across the green, wi' a bit paper in's han', an' a gryte squad o' them 't
hed been hingin' aboot the manse−door at's tail. "Oo, it's Johnny gyaun to read the edick," cries a gey stoot
chap, an' twa three o' them gya a roar o' a lauch.... "Speek oot, min!" cries ane. "I think ye mith pronunce
some better nor that, Johnny," says anither; an' they interrupit 'im fan he was tryin' to read wi' a' kin' of
haivers, takin' the words oot o's mou, an' makin' the uncoest styte o't 't cud be.

Notes.−−brae, hill; wan up, got up; gyaun upon, going close upon; braw, excellent; twal, twelve; sattlement,
decision; _I'se_, I will (lit. I shall); sanna, will not; _till's_, for us; kent fowk, known people, acquaintances;
_a'gate_, in all ways; hunners, hundreds; fae, from; _hyne awa'_, hence away, as far off; the tae, the one; the
tither, the other; yauws, sails; puckles, numbers, many; dyke, stone fence; orra jaw, various loud talk; _mair
gedderin'_, more gathering; on to, near; deen, done; bit fudder, bit of a rumour (lit. gust of wind); fae, from;
fat, what; deein, doing; _chaumer't_, chambered, shut up; nyod, a disguised oath; _we'll need_, we must; gin,
if; win in, get in: bather, bother; at the lang length, at last; carlie, churl; gryte squad, great crowd; gey stoot,
rather stout; twa three, two or three; gya, gave; mith, might; nor that, than that; haivers, foolish talk; mou,
mouth; uncoest, most uncouth, strangest; styte, nonsense.
CHAPTER XII 40

SCOTTISH (Group 7): AYRSHIRE.

The following lines are quoted from a well−known poem by Robert Burns (1759−1796).

The Twa Dogs (Cæsar and Luath).

_Cæs_. "I've notic'd, on our Laird's court−day, An' mony a time my heart's been wae, Poor tenant bodies,
scant o' cash, How they maun thole a factor's snash He'll stamp an' threaten, curse an' swear, He'll apprehend
them, poind their gear; While they maun stan', wi' aspect humble, An' hear it a', an' fear and tremble! I see
how folk live that hae riches; But surely poor folk maun be wretches." _Lu._ "They're no sae wretched's are
wad think; Tho' constantly on poortith's brink, They're sae accustom'd wi' the sight, The view o't gies them
little fright.... The dearest comfort o' their lives, Their grushie weans an' faithfu' wives: The prattling things
are just their pride, That sweetens a' their fire−side.... That merry day the year begins, They bar the door on
frosty win's; The nappy reeks wi' mantling ream, An' sheds a heart−inspiring steam; The luntin' pipe an'
sneeshin−mill Are handed round wi' right good will; The cantie auld folks crackin' crouse, The young anes
ranting thro' the house−− My heart has been sae fain to see them That I, for joy, hae barkit wi' them!"... By
this, the sun was out o' sight, An' darker gloamin' brought the night: The bum−clock humm'd wi' lazy drone,
The kye stood rowtin' i' the loan; When up they gat, an' shook their lugs, Rejoic'd they were na men but
_dogs_; An' each took aff his several way, Resolv'd to meet some ither day.

Notes.−−wae, sorrowful; maun thole, must endure, must put up with; _factor's snash_, agent's abuse; poind,
seize upon, sequester; gear, property; hae, have; no sae, not so; wad, would; poortith, poverty; grushie, of
thriving growth, well−grown; weans, children; _win's_, winds; nappy, foaming ale; reeks, smokes; ream,
cream; _luntin'_, smoking, emitting smoke; _sneeshin−mill_, snuff box; cantie, merry; _crackin'_, conversing;
crouse, with good spirits; ranting, running noisily; fain, glad; _gloamin'_, twilight; _bum−clock_, beetle (that
booms); kye, cows; _rowtin'_, lowing; loan, milking−place; lugs, ears.

SCOTTISH (Group 8): EDINBURGH.

The following stanzas are from _The Farmer's Ingle_, a poem by Robert Fergusson (1750−1774), a native of
Edinburgh.

Whan gloming grey out o'er the welkin keeks, Whan Batie ca's his owsen to the byre, Whan Thrasher John,
sair dung, his barn−door steeks, And lusty lasses at the dighting tire: What bangs fu' leal the e'enings coming
cauld, And gars snaw−tappit winter freeze in vain, Gars dowie mortals look baith blythe and bauld, Nor fley'd
wi' a' the poortith o' the plain; Begin, my Muse, and chant in hamely strain.

Frae the big stack, weel−winnow't on the hill, Wi' divets theekit frae the weet and drift, Sods, peats, and
heath'ry trufs the chimley fill, And gar their thick'ning smeek salute the lift; The gudeman, new come hame, is
blythe to find, Whan he out o'er the halland flings his een, That ilka turn is handled to his mind, That a' his
housie looks sae cosh and clean; For cleanly house lo'es he, tho' e'er sae mean.

Weel kens the gudewife that the pleughs require A heartsome meltith, and refreshing synd O' nappy liquor,
o'er a bleezing fire; Sair wark and poortith downa weel be join'd. Wi' buttered bannocks now the girdle reeks;
I' the far nook the bowie briskly reams; The readied kail stands by the chimley−cheeks, And hauds the riggin
het wi' welcome streams; Whilk than the daintiest kitchen nicer seems....

Then a' the house for sleep begin to grien, Their joints to slack frae industry a while; The leaden god fa's
heavy on their een, And hafflins steeks them frae their daily toil; The cruizy too can only blink and bleer, The
restit ingle's done the maist it dow; Tackman and cottar eke to bed maun steer, Upo' the cod to clear their
drumly pow, Till waukened by the dawning's ruddy glow.
CHAPTER XII 41

Notes.−−Ingle, chimney−corner. Gloming, twilight; keeks, peeps; _ca's_, drives (lit. calls); owsen, oxen; byre,
cow−house; sair dung, sorely tired; steeks, shuts; dighting, winnowing; _bangs fu' leal_, defeats right well;
gars, makes; _−tappit_, crested; dowie, melancholy; _fley'd_, frighted; poortith, poverty.

Divets, turfs; theekit, thatched; weet, wet; _sods, peats, and heath'ry trufs_, various turf fuels; chimley,
fire−place; gar, make; smeek, smoke; lift, sky; halland, partition forming a screen; een, eyes; ilka, each; cosh,
cosy; _lo'es_, loves.

Kens, knows; meltith, meal−tide, meal; synd, wash−down, draught; nappy, heady, strong; downa, cannot;
bannocks, cakes; girdle, hot−plate; reeks, smokes; bowie, cask, beer−barrel; reams, foams; readied kail, (dish
of) cooked greens; by, beside; _hauds... het_, keeps... hot; riggin, roof over the open hearth; whilk, which.

Grien, yearn, long; hafflins steeks, half shuts; cruizy, oil−lamp; bleer, bedim (the sight); restit ingle, made up
fire; dow, can; tackman, lease−holder, farmer; cod, pillow; drumly pow, confused head.

NORTHERN (ENGLAND); Group 2: WESTMORELAND.

The following extract is from a remarkable tract entitled _A Bran New Wark, by William De Worfat_;
Kendal, 1785. The author was the Rev. William Hutton, Rector of Beetham in Westmoreland, 1762−1811,
and head of a family seated at Overthwaite (here called Worfat) in that parish. It was edited by me for the
E.D.S. in 1879.

Last Saturday sennet, abaut seun in the evening (twas lownd and fraaze hard) the stars twinkled, and the
setting moon cast gigantic shadows. I was stalking hameward across Blackwater−mosses, and whistling as I
tramp'd for want of thought, when a noise struck my ear, like the crumpling of frosty murgeon; it made me
stop short, and I thought I saw a strange form before me: it vanished behint a windraw; and again thare was
nought in view but dreary dykes, and dusky ling. An awful silence reigned araund; this was sean brokken by a
skirling hullet; sure nivver did hullet, herrensue, or miredrum, mak sic a noise before. Your minister
[_himself_] was freetned, the hairs of his head stood an end, his blead storkened, and the haggard creature
moving slawly nearer, the mirkiness of the neet shew'd her as big again as she was... She stoup'd and drop'd a
poak, and thus began with a whining tone. "Deary me! deary me! forgive me, good Sir, but this yance, I'll
steal naa maar. This seek is elding to keep us fra starving!"... [_The author visits the poor woman's cottage_.]
She sat on a three−legg'd steal, and a dim coal smook'd within the rim of a brandreth, oor which a seety
rattencreak hung dangling fra a black randletree. The walls were plaister'd with dirt, and a stee, with hardly a
rung, was rear'd into a loft. Araund the woman her lile ans sprawl'd on the hearth, some whiting speals, some
snottering and crying, and ya ruddy−cheek'd lad threw on a bullen to make a loww, for its mother to find her
loup. By this sweal I beheld this family's poverty.

Notes.−−Sennet, seven nights, week; seun, seven; lownd, still, calm; murgeon, rubbish earth cut up and
thrown aside in order to get peat; windraw, heap of dug earth; ling, kind of heather; skirling hullet, shrieking
owlet; herrensue, young heron; miredrum, bittern; blead storkened, blood congealed; neet, night; poak, bag;
yance, once; seck, sack, i.e. contents of this sack; elding, fuel; steal, stool; brandreth, iron frame over the fire;
seaty, sooty; rattencreak, potcrook, pothook; randletree, a beam from which the pothook hangs; stee, ladder;
loft, upper room; lile ans, little ones; whiting speals, whittling small sticks; snottering, sobbing; ya, one;
bullen, hempstalk; loww, flame; loup, loop, stitch in knitting; sweal, blaze.

MIDLAND (Group I): LINCOLN.

I here give a few quotations from the Glossary of Words used in the Wapentakes of Manley and Corringham,
Lincolnshire, by E. Peacock, F.S.A.; 2nd ed., E.D.S., 1889. The illustrative sentences are very characteristic.

Beal, to bellow.−−Th' bairn beäled oot that bad, I was clëan scar'd, but it was at noht bud a battle−twig 'at hed
CHAPTER XII 42

crohlëd up'n hisairm. (_Battle−twig_, earwig; airm, arm.)

_Cart, to get into_, to get into a bad temper.−−Na, noo, thoo neädn't get into th' cart, for I weän't draw thee.

Cauf, a calf, silly fellow.−−A gentleman was enlarging to a Winterton lad on the virtues of Spanish juice
[liquorice water]. "Ah,then, ye'll ha' been to th' mines, wheäre thaay gets it," the boy exclaimed; whereupon
the mother broke in with−−"A greät cauf! Duz he think 'at thaay dig it oot o' th' grund, saäme as thaay do
sugar?"

Chess, a tier.−−I've been tell'd that e' plaaces wheäre thaay graw silk−worms, thaay keäps 'em on traays, chess
aboon chess, like cheney i' a cupboard. (_E'_ in; cheney, china.)

Clammer, to climb.−−Oor Uriah's clammered into th' parson's cherry−tree, muther, an' he is swalla'in on 'em
aboon a bit. I shouldn't ha tell'd ye nobbut he weänt chuck me ony doon. (Nobbut, only.)

Cottoner, something very striking.−−Th' bairn hed been e' mischief all daay thrif; at last, when I was sidin'
awaay th' teä−things, what duz he do but tum'le i'to th' well. So, says I, Well, this is a cottoner; we shall hev to
send for Mr Iveson (the coroner) noo, I reckon. (Thrif, through; _sidin' awaay_, putting away.)

Ducks.−−A girl said to the author, of a woman with whom she had been living for a short time as servant, "I'd
raather be nibbled to deäd wi' ducks then live with Miss P. She's alus a natterin'." (_Deäd_, death; alus,
always; _natterin'_, nagging.)

Good mind, strong intention.−−She said she'd a good mind to hing her−sen, soä I ax'd if I mud send for Mr
Holgate (the coroner), to be ready like. (Hing, hang; mud, might.)

Jaup, senseless talk.−−Ho'd the jaup wi' th{(e}; dos't ta want ivery body to knaw how soft thoo is? (_Ho'd_,
hold; soft, foolish.)

MIDLAND (Group 2): S.E. LANCASHIRE.

The following poem is from Poems and Songs by Edwin Waugh; 3rd ed., London, 1870.

Owd Pinder.

Owd Pinder were a rackless foo, An' spent his days i' spreein'; At th' end ov every drinkin−do, He're sure to
crack o' deein'; "Go, sell my rags, an' sell my shoon, Aw's never live to trail 'em; My ballis−pipes are eawt o'
tune, An' th' wynt begins to fail 'em!

Eawr Matty's very fresh an' yung;−− 'T would any mon bewilder;−− Hoo'll wed again afore it's lung, For th'
lass is fond o' childer; My bit o' brass'll fly−−yo'n see−− When th' coffin−lid has screen'd me−− It gwos again
my pluck to dee, An' lev her wick beheend me.

Come, Matty, come, an' cool my yed; Aw'm finish'd, to my thinkin';" Hoo happed him nicely up, an' said,
"Thae'st brought it on wi' drinkin'."−− "Nay, nay," said he, "my fuddle's done, We're partin' tone fro tother; So
promise me that, when aw'm gwon, Thea'll never wed another!"

"Th' owd tale," said hoo, an' laft her stoo; "It's rayly past believin'; Thee think o' th' world thea'rt goin' to, An'
lev this world to th' livin'; What use to me can deeod folk be? Thae's kilt thisel' wi' spreein"; An' iv that's o'
thae wants wi' me, Get forrud wi' thi deein'!"

Notes.−−Owd, old; rackless foo, reckless fool; _spreein'_, merry−making, drinking; _−do_, bout; _He're_, he
CHAPTER XII 43

would be; _crack o' deein'_ , hint at dying; _Aw's_, I shall; trail, walk in; _ballis−pipes_, bellows−pipes,
lungs; eawt, out; wynt, wind.

Eawr, our, my; Hoo, she; brass, money; _yo'n_, you will; lev, leave; wick, quick, i.e. alive.

Yed, head; happed, covered; fuddle, drinking−bout; tone fro tother, the one from the other.

Stoo, stool; Thee think, do thou think; deeod, dead; _o'_, all; get forrud, get on, go on.

MIDLAND (Group 5): SHEFFIELD.

The following extract is from A. Bywater's Sheffield Dialect, 3rd ed, 1877; as quoted in S.O. Addy's Sheffield
Glossary, E.D.S., 1888, p. xv.

_Jerra Flatback._ Hah, they'n better toimes on't nah, booath e heitin and clooas; we'n had menni a mess a
nettle porridge an brawls on a Sunda mo'nin, for us brekfast... Samma, dusta remember hah menni names we
had for sahwer wotcake?

_Oud Samma Squarejoint._ O kno'n't, lad; bur o think we'd foive or six. Let's see: Slammak wer won, an'
Flat−dick wer anuther; an't tuther wor−−a dear, mo memra fails ma−−Flannel an' Jonta; an−an−an−an−−bless
me, wot a thing it is tubbe oud, mo memra gers war for ware, bur o kno heah's anuther; o'st think on enah.−−
A, Jerra, heah's menni a thahsand dogs nah days, at's better dun too nor we wor then; an them were t'golden
days a Hallamshoir, they sen. An they happen wor, for't mesters. Hofe at prentis lads e them days wor lether'd
whoile ther skin wor skoi−blue, and clam'd whoile ther booans wer bare, an work'd whoile they wor as
knock−kneed as oud Nobbletistocks. Thah nivver sees nooa knock−kneed cutlers nah: nou, not sooa; they'n
better mesters nah, an they'n better sooat a wark anole. They dooant mezher em we a stick, as oud Natta Hall
did. But for all that, we'd none a yer wirligig polishin; nor Tom Dockin scales, wit bousters comin off; nor yer
sham stag, nor sham revvits, an sich loik. T' noives wor better made then, Jerra.

_Jerra_: Hah, they wor better made; they made t' noives for yuse then, but they mayn em to sell nah.

Notes.−−Observe _'n_ for han (plural), have; _on't nah_, of it now; e heitin, in eating; mess a, dish of, meal
of; brawis, brose, porridge; hah, how; sahwer wotcake, leavened oatcake; bur o, but I; mo, my; ma, me; tubbe
oud, to be old; gers, gets; war for ware, worse for wear; _o'st_, I shall; think on, remember; enah, presently;
nah days, nowadays; _at's_, that are; dun too, treated; nor we, than we; Hallamshoir, Hallamshire, the district
including Sheffield and the neighbourhood; sen, say; happen, perhaps; _for't_, for the; hofe at, half of the; e
them, in those; _lether'd_, beaten; whoile, till; _clam'd_ (for _clamm'd_), starved; sooat a, sort of; anole, and
all; we, with; wirligig, machine; Tom Dockin scales, scales cut out of thin rolled iron instead of being forged;
bousters, bolsters (a bolster is a lump of metal between the tang and the blade of a knife); stag, stag−horn
handle (?); mayn, pl. make.

MIDLAND (Group 6): CHESHIRE.

The following extract is from "Betty Bresskittle's Pattens, or Sanshum Fair," by J.C. Clough; printed with
Holland's Cheshire Glossary, E.D.S. (1886), p. 466. Sanshum or Sanjem Fair is a fair held at Altrincham on St
James's Day.

Jud sprung upo' th' stage leet as a buck an' bowd as a dandycock, an' th' mon what were playingk th' drum
(only it wer'nt a gradely drum) gen him a pair o' gloves. Jud began a−sparringk, an' th' foaks shaouted,
"Hooray! Go it, owd Jud! Tha'rt a gradely Cheshire mon!"

Th' black felly next gen Jud a wee bit o' a bang i' th' reet ee, an Jud git as weild as weild, an hit reet aht, but
CHAPTER XII 44

some hah he couldna git a gradely bang at th' black mon. At−aftur two or three minutes th' black felly
knocked Jud dahn, an t'other chap coom and picked him up, an' touch'd Jud's faace wi' th' spunge everywheer
wheer he'd getten a bang, but th' spunge had getten a gurt lot o' red ruddle on it, so that it made gurt red
blotches upo' Jud's faace wheer it touched it; an th' foaks shaouted and shaouted, "Hooray, Jud! Owd mon! at
em agen!" An Jud let floy a good un, an th' mon wi' th' spunge had to pick th' blackeymoor up this toime an
put th' ruddle upo' his faace just at−under th'ee.

"Hooray, Jud! hooray, owd mon!" shaouted Jock Carter o' Runjer; "tha'rt game, if tha'rt owd!"

Just at that vary minit Jud's weife, bad as hoo were wi' th' rheumatic, pushed her rooäd through th' foaks, and
stood i' th' frunt o' th' show.

"Go it agen, Jud! here's th' weife coom t'see hah gam tha art!" shaouted Jonas.

Jud turn'd rahnd an gurned at th' frunt o' th' show wi' his faace aw ruddle.

"Tha girt soo! I'll baste thi when aw get thi hwom, that aw will!" shaouted Betty Bresskittle; "aw wunder tha
artna ashamed o' thisen, to stond theer a−feightingk th' deevil hissel!"

Notes.−−Jud, for George; leet, light; bowd, bold; dandycock, Bantam cock; gradely, proper; gen, gave; owd,
old; reet ee, right eye; git, got; as weild as weild, as wild as could be; aht, out; _at−aftur_, after; gurt, great;
em, him; floy, fly; Runjer, Ringway; game (also _gam_), full of pluck; hoo, she; rooad, road, way; gurned,
grinned; soo, sow (term of abuse); hwom, home; thisen, thyself.

EASTERN (Group 2): N. ESSEX.

The following extract is from John Noakes and Mary Styles, by Charles Clark, of Great Totham; London,
1839. Reprinted for the E.D.S., 1895. As Great Totham is to the North of Maldon, I take this specimen to
belong to Prof. Wright's "Division 2" rather than to the S.W. Essex of "Division 5." The use of w for initial v
occurs frequently, as in werry, very, etc.

At Tottum's Cock−a−Bevis Hill, A sput surpass'd by few, Where toddlers ollis haut to eye The proper pritty
wiew,

Where people crake so ov the place, Leas−ways, so I've hard say; An' frum its top yow, sarteny, Can see a
monsus way.

But no sense ov a place, some think, Is this here hill so high,−− 'Cos there, full oft, 'tis nation coad, But that
don't argufy.

As sum'dy, 'haps, when nigh the sput, May ha' a wish to see 't,−− From Mauldon toun to Keldon 'tis, An' 'gin a
four−releet.

At Cock−a Bevis Hill, too, the Wiseacres show a tree Which if you clamber up, besure, A precious way yow
see.

I dorn't think I cud clime it now, Aldoe I uster cud; I shudn't warsley loike to troy, For gulch cum down I
shud.

My head 'ood swim,−−I 'oodn't do't Nut even fur a guinea; A naarbour ax'd me, t'other day; "Naa, naa," says I,
"nut quinny."
CHAPTER XII 45

Notes.−−Sput, spot; toddlers, walkers; ollis, always; haut, halt; wiew, view. Crake, boast; _leas(t)ways_, at
least; sarteny, certainly; monsus, monstrous, very long.

No sense ov a, poor, bad; coad, cold; argufy, prove (anything).

_Sum'dy_, somebody; _from M._, between Maldon and Kelvedon; _'gin_, against, near; _four−releet_
(originally _four−e leet_, lit. "ways of four," _four−e_ being the genitive plural, hence) meeting of four roads.

_Dorn't_, don't; aldoe, although; uster cud (for _us'd to could_), used to be able; warsley, vastly, much; loike,
like; gulch, heavily, with a bang.

_'Ood_, would; nut, not; _ax'd_, asked; naa, no; nut quinny, not quite, not at all.

EASTERN (Group 3): NORFOLK.

The following extract from "A Norfolk Dialogue" is from a work entitled Erratics by a Sailor, printed
anonymously at London in 1800, and written by the Rev. Joshua Larwood, rector of Swanton Morley, near
East Dereham. Most of the words are quite familiar to me, as I was curate of East Dereham in 1861−2, and
heard the dialect daily. The whole dialogue was reprinted in _Nine Specimens of English Dialects_; E.D.S.,
1895.

The Dialogue was accompanied by "a translation," as here reprinted. It renders a glossary needless.

Original Vulgar Norfolk. _Narbor Rabbin and Narbor Tibby._

Translation. _Neighbour Robin and Neighbour Stephen._

_R._ Tibby, d'ye know how the knacker's mawther Nutty du?

_R._ Stephen, do you know how the collar−maker's daughter Ursula is?

_T._ Why, i' facks, Rabbin, she's nation cothy; by Goms, she is so snasty that I think she is will−led.

_S._ Why, in fact, Robin, she is extremely sick; by (_obsolete_), she is so snarlish, that I think she's out of her
mind.

_R._ She's a fate mawther, but ollas in dibles wi' the knacker and thackster; she is ollas a−ating o' thapes and
dodmans. The fogger sa, she ha the black sap; but the grosher sa, she have an ill dent.

_R._ She's a clever girl, but always in troubles with the collar−maker and thatcher; she is always eating
gooseberries and snails. The man at the chandler's shop says she has a consumption: but the grocer says she's
out of her senses.

_T._ Why, ah! tother da she fared stounded: she pluck'd the pur from the back−stock, and copped it agin the
balk of the douw−pollar, and barnt it; and then she hulled [it] at the thackster, and hart his weeson, and
huckle−bone. There was northing but cadders in the douw−pollar, and no douws: and so, arter she had barnt
the balk, and the door−stall, and the plancher, she run into the par−yard, thru the pytle, and then swounded
behinn'd a sight o' gotches o' beergood.

_S._ Why, aye! the other day she appeared struck mad: she snatched the poker from the back of the stove, and
flung it against the beam of the pigeon−house, and burnt it; and then she throwed it at the thatcher, and hurt
his throat and hip−bone. There were no pigeons in the pigeon−house, and nothing but jack−daws; and so, after
CHAPTER XII 46

she had burned the beam, and the door−frame and the floor, she ran into the cowyard, through the small field,
and fainted behind several pitchers of yeast.

_R._ Ah, the shummaker told me o' that rum rig; and his nevvey sa, that the beer−good was fystey; and that
Nutty was so swelter'd, that she ha got a pain in spade−bones. The bladethacker wou'd ha gin har some
doctor's gear in a beaker; but he sa she'll niver moize agin.

_R._ Aye, the shoemaker told me of that comical trick; and his nephew says, that the yeast was musty; and
that Ursula [was so] smothered, that she has got a pain in her bones. The thatcher would have given her some
doctor's medicine in a tumbler; but he says, she will never recover.

Notes.−−Pronounce du like E. dew. Snasty, pron. snaisty, cross. _Fate, fait_ (cf. E. _feat_), suitable, clever.
Mawther, a young girl; Norw. moder. _Dibles_: the i is long. Sa, says; ha, have, has; note the absence of final
s in the third person singular. Cadder, for _caddow_; from _caa−daw_, cawing daw. Douw, for dow, a dove.
_Par_: for parrock, a paddock. _Fystey_: with long y, from foist, a fusty smell. Sweltered, over−heated, in
profuse perspiration. Moize, thrive, mend.

WESTERN (Group 1): S.W. SHROPSHIRE.

The following specimen is given in Miss Jackson's _Shropshire Word− book_, London, 1879, p. xciv. It
describes how Betty Andrews, of Pulverbatch, rescued her little son, who had fallen into the brook.

I 'eärd a scrike, ma'am, an' I run, an' theer I sid Frank 'ad pecked i' the bruck an' douked under an' wuz
drowndin', an' I jumped after 'im an' got 'out on 'im an' lugged 'im on to the bonk all sludge, an' I got 'im wham
afore our Sam comen in−−a good job it wuz for Sam as 'e wunna theer an' as Frank wunna drownded, for if 'e
'ad bin I should 'a' tore our Sam all to winder−rags, an' then 'e 'd a bin djed an' Frank drownded an' I should a
bin 'anged. I toud Sam wen 'e t{)o}{)o}k the 'ouse as I didna like it.−−"Bless the wench," 'e sed, "what'n'ee
want? Theer's a tidy 'ouse an' a good garden an' a run for the pig." "Aye," I sed, "an' a good bruck for the
childern to peck in;" so if Frank 'ad bin drownded I should a bin the djeth uv our Sam. I wuz that frittened,
ma'am, that I didna spake for a nour after I got wham, an' Sam sed as 'e 'adna sid me quiet so lung sence we
wun married, an' that wuz eighteen 'ear.

Notes.−−Miss Jackson adds the pronunciation, in glossic notation. There is no sound of initial h. Scrike,
shriek; sid, seed, i.e. saw; pecked, pitched, fallen headlong; bruck, brook; douked, ducked; _'out_, hold; bonk,
bank; wham, home; wunna, was not; _winder−rags_, shreds; djed, dead; toud, told; _what'n'ee_, what do you;
a nour, an hour; sid, seen; lung, long; wun, were.

SOUTHERN (Group 2): WILTSHIRE.

The following well−known Wiltshire fable is from Wiltshire Tales, by J. Yonge Akerman (1853). I give it as
it stands in the Preface to Halliwell's Dictionary; omitting the "Moral."

The Harnet and the Bittle.

A harnet zet in a hollur tree−− A proper spiteful twoad was he; And a merrily zung while he did zet His stinge
as shearp as a bagganet; Oh, who so vine and bowld as I? I vears not bee, nor wapse, nor vly!

A bittle up thuck tree did clim, And scarnvully did look at him; Zays he, "Zur harnet, who giv thee A right to
zet in thuck there tree? Vor ael you zengs so nation vine, I tell 'e 'tis a house o' mine!"

The harnet's conscience velt a twinge, But grawin' bowld wi' his long stinge, Zays he, "Possession's the best
laaw; Zo here th' sha'sn't put a claaw! Be off, and leave the tree to me, The mixen's good enough for thee!"
CHAPTER XII 47

Just then a yuckel, passin' by, Was axed by them the cause to try; "Ha! ha! I zee how 'tis!" zays he, "They'll
make a vamous munch vor me!" His bill was shearp, his stomach lear, Zo up a snapped the caddlin' pair!

Notes.−−Observe z and v for initial s and _f_; harnet, hornet; bittle, beetle; zet, sat; proper, very; twoad, toad,
wretch; a, he; stinge, sting; bagganet, bayonet.

Thuck, that; clim, climb; giv, gave; zet, sit; ael, all.

_Th' sha'sn't_, thou shalt not; mixen, dung−heap.

Yuckel, woodpecker; axed, asked; vamous munch, excellent meal; lear, empty; _caddlin'_, quarrelsome.

SOUTHERN (Group 3): ISLE OF WIGHT.

The following colloquy is quoted in the Glossary of Isle of Wight Words, E.D.S., 1881, at p. 50.

I recollect perfectly the late Mr James Phillips of Merston relating a dialogue that occurred between two of his
labourers relative to the word _straddle−bob_, a beetle.... At the time of luncheon, one of them, on taking his
_bren−cheese_ (bread and cheese) out of a little bag, saw something that had found its way there; which led to
the following discourse.

_Jan._ What's got there, you?

_Will._ A straddlebob craalun about in the nammut−bag.

_J._ Straddlebob? Where ded'st leyarn to caal 'n by that neyam?

_W._ Why, what shoud e caal 'n? 'Tes the right neyam, esn ut?

_J._ Right neyam? No! Why, ye gurt zote vool, casn't zee 'tes a dumbledore?

_W._ I know 'tes; but vur aal that, straddlebob's zo right a neyam vor 'n as dumbledore ez.

_J._ Come, I'll be blamed if I doant laay thee a quart o' that.

_W._ Done! and I'll ax Meyastur to−night when I goos whoam, bee't how't wool.

Accordingly, Meyastur was applied to by Will, who made his decision known to Jan the next morning.

_W._ I zay, Jan! I axed Meyastur about that are last night.

_J._ Well, what ded ur zay?

_W._ Why, a zed one neyam ez jest zo vittun vor'n as tother; and he lowz a ben caal'd straddlebob ever zunce
the Island was vust meyad.

_J._ Well, if that's the keeas, I spooas I lost the quart.

_W._ That thee hast, lucky; and we'll goo down to Arreton to the Rid Lion and drink un ater we done work.

Notes.−−Observe z for s, and v for f initially. _What's_, What hast thou; nammut (lit. noon−meat), luncheon,
usually eaten at 9 A.M. (_n{−o}na h{−o}ra_); leyarn, learn; esn, is not; gurt, great; zote, soft, silly; _casn't_,
CHAPTER XII 48

canst not; laay, lay, wager; _how't wool_, how it will; that are, that there; lowz (lit. allows), opines; zunce,
since; vust meyad, first made; keeas, case; lucky, look ye!

SOUTHERN (Group 7): EAST SUSSEX.

The following quotations are from the Dictionary of the Sussex Dialect, by the Rev. W.D. Parish, Vicar of
Selmeston; E.D.S. 1875. The Glossary refers rather to E. than to W. Sussex, Selmeston being between Lewes
and Eastbourne.

Call over, to abuse. "He come along here a−cadging, and fancy he just did call me over, because I told him as
I hadn't got naun to give him." (Naun, nothing.)

Clocksmith, a watchmaker. "I be quite lost about time, I be; for I've been forced to send my watch to the
clocksmith. I couldn't make no sense of mending it myself; for I'd iled it and I'd biled it, and then I couldn't do
more with it."

_Cocker−up_, to spoil; to gloss over with an air of truth. "You see this here chap of hers, he's cockered−up
some story about having to goo away somewheres up into the sheeres; and I tell her she's no call to be so
cluck over it; and for my part I dunno but what I be very glad an't, for he was a chap as was always a−cokeing
about the cupboards, and cogging her out of a Sunday." (The sheeres, any shire of England except Kent and
Sussex; call, reason; cluck, out of spirits; coke, to peep; cog, to entice.)

Joy, a jay. "Poor old Master Crockham, he's in terrible order, surelý! The meece have taken his peas, and the
joys have got at his beans, and the snags have spilt all his lettuce." (Order, bad temper; meece, mice; snags,
snails; spilt, spoilt.)

Kiddle, to tickle. "Those thunder−bugs did kiddle me so that I couldn't keep still no hows." (_Thunder−bug_,
a midge.)

Lawyer, a long bramble full of thorns, so called because, "when once they gets a holt an ye, ye doänt easy get
shut of 'em."

Leetle, a diminutive of little. "I never see one of these here gurt men there's s'much talk about in the peapers,
only once, and that was up at Smiffle Show adunnamany years agoo. Prime minister, they told me he was, up
at London; a leetle, lear, miserable, skinny−looking chap as ever I see. 'Why,' I says, 'we doänt count our
minister to be much, but he's a deal primer−looking than what yourn be.'" (Gurt, great; Smiffle, Smithfield;
adunnamany, I don't know how many; lear, thin, hungry; see, saw.)

Sarment, a sermon. "I likes a good long sarment, I doos; so as when you wakes up it ain't all over."

Tempory (temporary), slight, badly finished. "Who be I? Why, I be John Carbury, that's who I be! And who be
you? Why, you ain't a man at all, you ain't! You be naun but a poor tempory creetur run up by contract, that's
what you be!"

Tot, a bush; a tuft of grass. "There warn't any grass at all when we fust come here; naun but a passel o' gurt old
tots and tussicks. You see there was one of these here new−fashioned men had had the farm, and he'd properly
starved the land and the labourers, and the cattle and everything, without it was hisself." (Passel, parcel;
tussicks, tufts of rank grass.)

Twort (for _thwart_), pert and saucy. "She's terrible twort−−she wants a good setting down, she do; and she'll
get it too. Wait till my master comes in!"
CHAPTER XII 49

Winterpicks, blackthorn berries.

_Winter−proud_, cold. "When you sees so many of these here winterpicks about, you may be pretty sure 'twill
be middlin' winter−proud."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ancren Riwle; ed. Jas. Morton. Camden Soc., 1873. (About 1230.)

Anglo−Saxon and Early English Psalter. Surtees Society. London, 1843−7. 2 vols. (See p. 25.)

Beda.−−Venerabilis Bedae Historiae Ecclesiasticae Gentis Anglorum Libri III, IV; ed. J.E.B. Mayor, M.A.
and J.R. Lumby, B.D. Cambridge, 1878.

−−−− The Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History; also the Anglo−Saxon Chronicle (both in English). Ed.
J.A. Giles, D.C.L. London, 1859. (In Bohn's Library.)

Dictionaries containing dialect words. (See p. 100.)

Durham Ritual.−−Rituale Ecclesiæ Dunelmensis. Surtees Society. London, 1840.

Earle, Rev. J.; Anglo−Saxon Literature. London, S.P.C.K., 1884.

E.D.D.−−English Dialect Dictionary (to which is appended the English Dialect Grammar); ed. Dr Joseph
Wright. Oxford, 1898−1905.

E.D.S.−−English Dialect Society, publications of the. London, 1873−96.

E.E.T.S.−−Early English Text Society, publications of the. London, 1864−1910. (Contains Alliterative
Poems, Ayenbite of Inwyt, Barbour's Bruce, Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight, St Juliana, Kentish Sermons,
Lyndesay's Works, etc.)

Jackson, Miss.−−Shropshire Wordbook, by Georgina F. Jackson. London, 1879.

Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary. A new edition, ed. J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson. Paisley, 1879−87. 4to. 4
vols. and Supplement.

Layamon's Brut; ed. Sir F. Madden. London, 1847. 3 vols.

Minot's Poems; ed. J. Hall. Oxford, 1887.

Morris, Rev. R., LL.D.; The Blickling Homilies. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1880.

−−−− Old English Miscellany. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1872.

−−−− Old English Homilies, Series I and II. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1867 and 1873.

−−−− Specimens of Early English.

Part I. 1150−1300. Second Edition. 50

Part I. 1150−1300. Second Edition.

Oxford, 1885.

Morris, Rev. R. and Skeat, Rev. W.W.; Specimens of Early English.

Part II.
Third edition. Oxford, 1894.

Murray, Sir James A.H. The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland. (Phil. Soc.) London, 1873.

N.E.D.−−The New English Dictionary; by Sir James A.H. Murray, H. Bradley, and W.A. Craigie. Oxford,
1888−.

Ormulum; ed. R.M. White. Oxford, 1852. 2 vols.

Pricke of Conscience, by Richard Rolle de Hampole; ed. R. Morris. (Phil. Soc.) London, 1863.

Psalter, by R. Rolle de Hampole; ed. Rev. H.R. Bramley. Oxford, 1884.

Robert of Gloucester; ed. W. Aldis Wright. (Record Series.) London, 1887. 2 vols.

Skeat, Rev. Walter W.; The Chaucer Canon. Oxford, 1900.

−−−− Etymological English Dictionary. New edition. Oxford, 1910.

−−−− The Holy Gospels, in Anglo−Saxon, Northumbrian, and Mercian Versions. Cambridge, 1871−87.

−−−− Primer of English Etymology. Fifth edition. Oxford, 1910.

−−−− Principles of English Etymology, Series I. Second edition. Oxford, 1892.

Sweet, H.; An Anglo−Saxon Reader. Seventh edition. Oxford, 1894.

−−−− A Second Anglo−Saxon Reader, Archaic and Dialectal. Oxford, 1887.

−−−− The Oldest English Texts. (E.E.T.S.) London, 1885.

Trevisa.−−Higden's Polychronicon; with Trevisa's English Version; ed. C. Babington, B.D., and the Rev. J.R.
Lumby, D.D. (Record Series.) 9 vols. London, 1865−86.

Wise, J.R.; Shakspere, his Birthplace and its Neighbourhood. London, 1861.

INDEX

Aberdeen dialect, 112, 113 Adam's body, materials of, 21, 22 Alfred, King, 47, 48 Allen, Grant,
_Anglo−Saxon Britain_, 85 Alliterative Poems, ed. Morris, 80 Altenglische Dichtungen, 52 Ambry, aumbry,
97 Ancren Riwle, 49 Anglian period, 14 Anglo−French words in dialects, 94−96 Anglo−Saxon, 10, 11, 12
_Anglo−Saxon Chronicle_, 12, 48 Laud MS., 73 Arain, arles, arris, asew, assith, 97 Assoilyie, astre, aunsel,
aunter, aver, averous, 97, 98 Atkinson's (Cleveland) Glossary, 44 Awfully, 4 Ayenbite of Inwyt, 59, 60
Part I. 1150−1300. Second Edition. 51

Ayrshire dialect, 113, 114

Baker, Miss, 5 Barnes, William, 55, 111 Beda, 15 his "death−song," 15 his History, 14, 15, 17, 56 Beowulf,
7−9 Bewcastle column, 20 Bladud, King, 50, 51 Blood−boltered, 5 Bolter, 5, 6 Boucher, Rev. J., Dialect
Dictionary, 101, 102 Boy or child, 5 Brockett's Glossary, 44 Bruce, by Barbour, 29−34 Brut, romance of, 49,
50, 51 Burns, Robert, 45, 113

Cædmon, 15, 16 his hymn, 17 Caxton, 40 Celtic words in dialects, 83−86 list of, 85, 86 Charters, Kentish, 56,
57 Mercian, 70 Chaucer, use of Kentish by, 63 use of yon, 7 use of asp, 68 Cheshire dialect, 122, 123 Child
(girl), 5, 6 Cole, King, 51 Corpus Glossary, 67 Cursor Mundi, 27, 28, 35 Cymbeline, 50

Dialect defined, 1 Dialect glossaries, 102−103 Dialect writers, 111 Dialects, foreign elements in the, 82−98
four old, 10,11 groups of, 107 modern, 106−109 specimens of, 110, etc. Dialectic regeneration, 3 Dictionaries
by Coles, Kersey, Bailey, Dr Johnson, and Ash, 101 old, Promptorium and Catholicon, 100 Douglas, Gawain,
34 Dunbar, 33, 35 quoted, 45 Dunstan, St, Life of, 51 Durham, _Liber Vitæ_, 20 Ritual, 21

Eagre, 97 Earle, Prof., 14 Edinburgh dialect, 115, 116 Eliot see George Ellis, A.J., Early English
Pronunciation, 103 Erne, 6 English, the old name for Lowland Scotch, 33−35 English Dialect Dictionary, 85,
90, 104 English Dialect Grammar, 104 English Dialect Society, 103 English Metrical Homilies, 28 Essex
dialect, 123, 124, 125

Fitzherbert, J., Boke of Husbandry, 99 Flittermouse, 4, 5 Flower and the Leaf, 38 French words in dialects, 93
list of, 96−98

Galt, John, 45 Gauntree, 95 Gawayne and the Grene Knight, 81 George Eliot, use of dialect by, 111 Gloss,
meaning of, 23 Glossaries of dialectal words, 102, 103 Old English, 66, 67 Golden Targe, by Dunbar, 45
Gower, use of Kentish by, 62, 63 Greek words in dialects, 87 Grose, F., Provincial Glossary, 101

Hampole, R. Rolle of, 28, 32, 35 Handlyng Synne, quoted, 78, 79 Harleian MS. 2253, 52 Hebrew words in
dialects, 88 Henry III., Proclamation of, 75−78 Henry the Minstrel, 33, 35 Higden, Ralph, 53 Hild, Abbess, 16
Hoccleve, 38 Hogg, James, 45 Homilies in Verse, 28 _Horn, romance of_, 50 Horstmann, Dr, 51 Hrinde
(A.S.), 8, 9

Inglis, or Inglisch, 33−35 Isle of Wight dialect, 129, 130

Jamieson's Dictionary, 43, 44 Jonson, Ben, 5 Juliana, St, 49 Jutes, 56

Keats, 4 Kentish, 10, 11, 12 dialect, 56−64 glosses, 57 sermons, 58 Kentish e (A.S. _y_), 61−64 King Lear, 50

Lancashire dialect, 119, 120 Latin words in dialects, 87 Layamon's Brut, 49 Leyden Riddle, 18 _Liber Vitæ_,
20 Lincolnshire dialect, 118, 119 words, 100, 101 Locrine, 50 London dialect, 74−78 Lorica Prayer, 68, 69
Lydgate, 38 Lyndesay, Sir David, 34, 35

Madam, 'm, 3 Malory, Sir Thomas, 40 Manning, Robert, 78, 79 Mercian dialect, 10, 11, 36, 37, 65−81
glosses, 70−72 spellings, 71−72 Michel, Dan, 59, 60 Midland dialect, 65−81 rise of, 37, 42 Psalter, 80 East,
65−79 West, 79−81 Minot's Poems, 29 Moral Ode, 49 Morris, Dr, Blickling Homilies, 8 Old English
Miscellany, 49, 58 Old English Homilies, 49 Specimens of Early English, 58 Morris, Dr, on dialects, 81
Morris and Skeat, Specimens, etc., 27−29, 59, 60 Murray, Dr, on the Dialect of Scotland, 28, 32−5 Müller,
Prof. Max, Lectures, 3

New English Dictionary, 85 Norfolk dialect, 125−127 Northern dialect, great extent of, 32−35 Northumbrian,
10, 11, 12, 14−46 glosses, 22−24 riddle, 18 _Nut−brown Maid_, 38
Part I., 49, 50 52
Old English Homilies, 49 _Ormulum, The_, 73, 74 Owl and Nightingale, 49

Peacock's (Lincolnshire) Glossary, 44 _Pearl, The_, 80 Phonetic decay, 3 Plays, early, 41 Plurals, Southern,
61 Prick of Conscience, 28 Proverbs of Alfred, 49 Psalter, by Hampole, 32 Prose Treatises, by the same, 32
Psalter, Northumbrian, 25−27 West Midland, 80

Ramsay, Allan, 45 Ray, John, collection of dialectal words, 101 Rimy, 8, 9 rind, 9 Robert of Gloucester, 50
Rolle, of Hampole, 28, 32, 35 Romances, dialect of, 44 list of, 38−40 Ross, Alexander, 45 Rushworth MS.,
22, 23, 70−72 Ruthwell Cross, 18, 19, 20

Scandinavian words in dialects, 88−93 list of, 90−93 Scots, Middle, 44, 45 Scott, Sir Walter, 6, 45 Scottish
and English, 43, 44 Scottish Laws, early, 32 Shakespeare, 5, 6, 50 use of dialect, 100 Sheffield dialect, 121,
122 Shoreham, Wm. of, 58 quoted, 59 Shropshire dialect, 127−128 Skeat, Chaucer Canon, 73 Etymological
Dictionary, 84−85 _Gospels in Anglo−Saxon_, 71 Index to Icelandic Dictionary, 89 Primer of English
Etymology, 84 Principles of English Etymology, 70, 87, 89 Skinner, S., Etymologicon, 100 Smith, G. Gregory,
Specimens of Middle Scots, 44, 45 South English Legendary, 51 Southern dialect, 47−55 Southey, R., his use
of dialect, 111 Specimens of Early English

Part I., 49, 50

Part II., 51, 79.

See Morris Spenser's _Shepherd's Calendar_, 99 Stephens, Prof., 18 Sussex dialect, 130−132 Sweet, Dr, 15
_Anglo−Saxon Primer_, 48 _Anglo−Saxon Reader_, 18 _Anglo−Saxon Reader, Dialectal_, 56−57 Oldest
English Texts, 10, 15, 19, 66 Gregory's Pastoral Care, 7

Tannahill, Robert, 45 Tennyson, 4, 111 Testament of Love, 53, 54 Trevisa, John, 53, 55 Tusser, T., Pointes of
Husbandrie, 99 Twenty, 3

Usk, Thomas, 53, 54

Vernon MS., 52 Vespasian Psalter, 69, 70

Wessex see Anglo−Saxon Westmoreland dialect, 117, 118 William of Palerne, 80 Wiltshire dialect, 128−129
Wise, J.R., 5 Wright, Dr J., English Dialect Dictionary, 9, 85, 90, 104 Wright, T., Political Songs, 29
Wyntoun, 29, 33

Yon, 6, 7

**************

{Transcriber's Correction:

Chapter III
: courageous before all men; I (the cross) durst not bow down text reads ... bow dow }

End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day, by
Walter W. Skeat
Part I., 49, 50 53

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