ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

What is an ore deposits?

An Ore deposit refers to the rock body that contains one or more than one mineral or
useful metals or rocks which can be economically exploited. Ore deposits are also
called as mineral deposits as they contain minerals sufficiently above the crustal
abundance to have potential economic value. Ore deposits are distinguished into two
type of ore deposits. Such as

I. Metallic ore deposits: Metallic ore deposits are those from which one or more
metals can be extracted. Example: cupper, lead, zinc, iron, gold deposits etc.
II. Non-metallic ore deposits: Non-metallic ore deposits host useful minerals
having specific physical and chemical properties. Example: clay, mica, fluorite,
garnet, asbestos etc.

What is an ore?

Ore is a naturally occurring substance from which one or more minerals or metals
are extracted at economic profit. Generally ore minerals intermixed with other minerals
(gangue) from which they must be separated through milling, to break down ore into
constituent minerals, followed typically by flotation to separate the minerals of economic
interest from the gangue (Fig. 1). The ore can be broadly classified as:

i. Metallic: Native-Pt, -Au, -Ag, -Cu, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, hematite,

magnetite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, bauxite.
ii. Noble: Gold, silver, platinum, palladium.
iii. Industrial: Quartz, garnet, phosphate, asbestos, barite.
iv. Gemstones: Amethyst, aquamarine, diamond, emerald, garnet, opal, ruby,
sapphire, topaz, zircon.
v. Rock: Granite, marble, limestone, rock salt.
vi. Bulk/aggregate: Sand, gravel.
vii. Mineral fuel: Coal, crude oil, gas.
viii. Strategic: Uraninite, pitchblende, thorianite, wolframite.

Figure 1 The steps and processes involved in extracting a metal from an ore deposit.

Gangue mineral:

Gangue minerals are unused or waste minerals commonly associated with the
ore minerals or ore deposit comprises of some associated minerals or rocks having no
significant or least commercial value are called gangue minerals.

Example: Pure chalcopyrite having 34.5% Cu metal in copper deposit and sphalerite
with 67% Zn metal in zinc deposit are hosted by quartzite/mica-schist and dolomite
respectively. The constituent minerals of quartzite, mica-schist and dolomite are called
the gangue minerals.

A list of common gangue minerals are:

 Gangue minerals associated Chemical composition
with ore deposits

Quartz SiO2

Barite BaSO4

Calcite CaCO3

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

Feldspar All types

Garnet All types

Mica All types

Tonnage: Tonnage It to the quantity of ore contained within an ore body or the rate at
which ore is extracted from the earth. Mathematically it is expressed as

Tonnage = Volume × Specific gravity

Problem 1: Strike Length = The length in which the mineralization is found in the ore
body (horizontally):500 meters Depth = The depth in which the mineralization is found
in the ore body (vertically): 200 meters. Width = The width in which the mineralization is
found in a drill hole: 100 meters; Specific Gravity = The density of the ore body (i.e. the
rock): 2.5.

Tonnage = strike length × depth × width × specific gravity

= 500 × 200 × 100 × 2.5 = 25,000,000 tonnes

Grade: the amount of valuable mineral in each ton of ore, expressed as troy ounces per
ton or grams per tonne for precious metals and as a percentage for other metals.

Cut-off grade: the minimum metal grade at which an orebody can be economically
mined.
Crustal abundance: The earth crust contains some important elements having
concentration less than that of an ore deposit. Crustal abundance is the relative
measure the availability of a given resource. The ratio between the content of a valued
element in an ore deposit and its crustal average (Clarke) is called the “concentration
factor”. This leads to the concentration of elements and minerals, including the
formation of mineral deposits.

Example: Formation of iron ore, with today’s typical grade of 60% Fe relative to an
average crustal iron concentration of 5%, requires 12-fold concentration. Copper ore
that has 1% Cu compared to the crustal average of 0.007% Cu in the crust exhibits a
140-fold enrichment

Figure 2 Relationship between crustal abundance and the metal production from earth
crust.
Syngenetic: It to ore deposits that form at the same time as their host rocks. This
includes deposits that form during the early stages of sediment diagenesis.

Epigenetic: It to ore deposits that form after their host rocks.

Hypogene: It to mineralization caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions.

Supergene: It to mineralization caused by descending solutions. Generally It to the

enrichment processes accompanying the weathering and oxidation of sulfide and oxide
ores at or near the surface.

Different types of Ore-forming process

MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS

Magmatic ore deposits, also known as orthomagmatic ore deposits, are
deposits within igneous rocks or along their contacts in which ore minerals
crystallized from a melt or were transported in a melt. As the magma approaches
the earth's surface its temperature and the external pressure drop, with the result
of crystallization and differentiation of minerals in a definite sequence. The
formation temperature of different magmatic deposits varies from 1500 0 C to 3000
C.
Magmas evolve in magmatic systems. A magmatic system is the site of
melting, the pathway of magma migration and the site of crystallisation within a
specific geological and tectonic environment. A magmatic system will extend
from the mantle to the upper crust in most cases (Figure 3).

The processes that control magma compositions and compositions of

igneous rock that crystallize from the magmas include: partial melting at the
source and interaction between the melt and unmelted, restite minerals;
interaction with wall-rocks the magma comes in contact with; assimilation of
partial melts of wall rocks; mixing of magmas from different sources;
separation of a magma into two or more immiscible melts; fractional
crystallization of minerals; and mineral accumulation
 Figure 3 The steps and processes involved in extracting a metal from an ore
[Link] and mechanisms of compositional evolution of magmas and the
development of magmatic chemical variability within a schematic of magmatic
systems extending from mantle lithosphere or asthenosphere into the upper crust

The magmatic ore deposits can be classified as follows.

II Early magmatic deposits:

Early magmatic deposits are formed during the early stages of the magmatic
period. In this case the ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock silicates. The
minerals of nickel, chromium and platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. It is basically divided into three divisions
(A) Dissemination deposits: When magma crystallizes under deep seated
conditions, a granular igneous rock formed. In such rock early formed crystals
of ore minerals may occur in dissemination. Hence grains of ore are found
scattered more or less evenly throughout the rock mass. Example: Diamond
deposits in kimberlite pipes in South Africa. Primary diamond ores occur in
unique, rare and small-volume ultramafic rocks, which as a class are known as

kimberlitic rocks. They occur as diatremes, dykes and small pipe shaped
intrusive bodies and rarely in extrusive bodies (tuffs etc.). Kimberlitic rocks form
from alkaline, volatile-rich, potassic ultramafic magmas that are formed as
small-degree partial melts of carbonate-bearing and hydrous-mineral-bearing
mantle peridotite. Diamond is the high pressure polymorph of elemental carbon,
and is stable relative to graphite at pressure of greater than about 40 Kbar in
the Earth, and hence at depths of greater than about 150 km – the exact
minimum septh limit of stability being dependent on the geothermal gradient.
The three dimension network of covalent bond between C and C is main reason
behind its extreme hardness.
(B) Segregation deposits: Early magmatic segregation deposits are formed as a
result of gravitation crystallization differentiation. In such cases, the ore
minerals which crystallize early get concentrated in a particular part of the
igneous mass. The ore deposits, thus formed are called “Segregation deposits”.
Example: Bushveld chromite deposits (South Africa), chromite deposits of
Keonjhar (Orissa). Five steps are given to show the gradual development of
chromite layers see the figure

1. Input of a primitive mafic magma into a large, hence slowly cooling, magma
chamber
2. Formation of cumulate dunite and harzburgite and fractionation of the melt by
crystallization along the cotectic line of olivine and chromite to a more silicic
composition to a degree at which orthopyroxene is crystalizing
3. Input of new primitive mafic magma into the magma chamber above the early
cumulates. This may involve lateral expansion of the magma chamber such that
higher cumulate layers onlap onto the contact with underlying country rock
4. Mixing along the interface between the new magma and the evolved magma to
give compositions along tie lines. Where the mixture lies within the chromite field of
the liquidus diagram, a small mass of chromitite will crystallize along the interface
between the two magmas, or where they have been effectively mixed.
5. The accumulation of thin chromitite layers may be due to settling through the
magma column or more likely due to deposition during convection in the magma
chamber (dynamic settling). The crystallization of chromite drives the mixed liquid
composition back to either the olivine–chromite or the orthopyroxene–chromite
cotectic, at which time olivine or orthopyroxene would crystallize, for instance as the
intercumulus phase in the chromitite layers
(C) Injection: When magma carried minerals inject into the host rocks or the
surrounding wall rocks, such type of deposits are formed. It occurs as veins and
lenses within the ultrabasic. The early formed ore mineral, magnetite injects into
the ultrabasic rocks instead of accumulating at the original location. Example:
Vanadiferous magnetite deposit of Dublabera, Singhbhum.

II Late Magmatic deposits:

The ore deposits which are formed towards the close of the magmatic period are
called “late magmatic deposits”. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
 minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from a residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of the early formed rock
silicates, is called “residual magma”. This magma frequently contains many ore
minerals. The late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of
iron and titanium ores. These deposits are almost always associated with mafic
igneous rocks. The late magmatic deposit is classified into four divisions

(D) Residual liquid segregation: In certain mafic magmas, the residual liquid
becomes enriched in iron, titanium and volatiles. This liquid settles to the
bottom of the magma chamber, or crystallizes in the interstices of early formed
crystals. Example: Titaniferous magnetite layers of the Bushveld Igneous
Complex, S. Africa.

(E) Residual liquid injection: The residual liquid rich in iron when injected
crystallized to form magnetite deposits. This type of deposit occurs due to
Gentle tilting (causing lateral movement) and Pressure squirted out to places of
lesser pressure. Example: Titanomagnetite Deposits, Adirondack Region, New
York; Allard Lake Deposits; Magnetite Deposits of Kiruna, Sweden.

(F) Immiscible liquid segregation: Sulfide-rich magmas are immiscible in silicate

rich magmas. This gives rise to separation even before crystallization. The
accumulated sulfide may not necessarily be pure – in fact it quite often is an
enrichment of sulfides in the lower parts of the magma. Deposits formed in this
manner are pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-pentlandite nickel-copper ores confined to
rocks of the gabbro family. Examples: Ni-Cu Deposits of Insizwa, S. Africa;
Nickeliferous Sulfide Deposits of Bushveld, S. Africa & Norway; Nickel Sulfide
Deposits of Sudbury, Ontario.
Sulfur saturation and immiscibility of a sulfide fraction early in the magma
crystallization history is the fundamental process responsible for mineralization
in komatiitic lava flows. Chalcophile metals, in particular Ni and lesser Cu, were
scavenged from the turbulent, flowing komatiite magma by the immiscible
sulfide globules, which eventually accumulated as massive sulfide ore along the
bottom of the channel ways. The disseminated ore that overlies the massive
sulfide ore reflects the static buoyancy contrast that existed between komatiitic
crystal mush and massive sulfide. External derivation of sulfur has also been
suggested for the promotion of sulfide saturation in the very large Cu–Ni–PGE
deposits

Figure 4. The characteristics of komatiite-hosted Ni–Cu deposits in the

Kambalda region, Western Australia

Note: Separation of two immiscible melts in magma

This process is most important for the development of concentrations of sulfide

minerals in igneous rocks. Sulfide minerals are a minor component of most rocks,
including those of the mantle. On partial melting, sulfide minerals dissolve into the
silicate melt up to the limits of sulfide solubility, which in silicate magma is typically a
few hundred ppm. As the silicate magma migrates and evolves the limits of saturation
change, and some of the dissolved sulfide may become immiscible and separate out
as droplets. These droplets may segregate to form a separate sulfide melt phase that
will crystallize on cooling. Chalcophile and siderophile elements, particularly Cu, Ni,
Pt and related elements, are markedly more compatible in solution in sulfide melt than
in silicate melt, and will thus be strongly concentrated in an immiscible sulfide melt.
(G) Immiscible liquid injection: When the unmixed sulphide rich fraction
accumulated in the magma chamber is squirted out before consolidation
towards the places of less pressure such as shear zones, they are termed as
immiscible liquid injection deposit. They intrude the older rocks and enclose
brecciated fragments of host and foreign rocks. Example: Ni–Cu mineralization
associated with the Sudbury Complex in Ontario, Canada represents a
fascinating and unique ore occurrence.

HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS

A hydrothermal ore deposit is one in which the ore minerals were precipitated
from aqueous high temperature fluid solutions, where: Aqueous implies that the
solvent is water. The fluids are solutions, and can have salinities up to several
times that of seawater. They are in some cases concentrated brines in which
salts form more than half the solution by mass. Additionally the fluid may be a
solution of water and dissolved gases (e.g. CO2). High temperature can be from
normal rock temperatures at a few kilometres depth (approximately 1000C) to
magmatic temperatures (approximately 8000C). Fluid is a liquid or vapour or
gas. These four words are used somewhat interchangeably.

Most hydrothermal fluids at high temperature and pressure have a density

intermediate between that of liquid water and that of water vapour at surface
conditions. At temperatures greater than the critical temperature of pure water
(3760C), liquid-like pure water will not boil with either decreasing pressure or
increasing temperature, but will steadily become less dense. The term
supercritical fluid is used for these environments. Saline waters can boil at
higher temperatures to produce dense saline brine and a less-dense weakly
saline fluid or vapour, and this fact affects the evolution of the highest
temperature hydrothermal fluids that are associated with magmas.

Conditions necessary for the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits include:

a) Presence of hot water to dissolve and transport minerals

 b) Presence of interconnected openings in the rock to allow the solutions to
move

c) Availability of sites for the deposits

d) Chemical reaction that will result in deposition

Hydrothermal deposits are categorized as hypothermal, mesothermal and

epithermal according to the depth and temperature at which they formed.

Hypothermal: Hypothermal deposits are formed at great depths and high

pressures and temperatures. Temperatures may range from 300° to 500°C
during the formation of such deposits. The different type wall rock alterations
are Greisenization, Serpentinization.

Mesothermal: Mesothermal deposits are formed at intermediate depth,

temperature and pressure. Temperature ranges from 200° to 300°C during the
formation of such deposits. In this case different type wall rock alterations are
Sericitization, silioification. and argillic alteration.

Epithermal: Epithermal deposits are formed at shallow depths under relatively

low temperatures and pressures. Temperatures during formation may range
from 50° to 200°C. The different type wall rock alterations are Silicification,
argillic alteration and alunitization.

Cavity filling and Replacement are the two types of deposits formed due to
hydrothermal process.

II Cavity filling deposits: The precipitation of minerals from mineralizing solution

in the cavities or the open spaces in rock forms the cavity filling deposits. The
minerals usually grow inward with the development of crystal faces pointed
towards the supplying solution in the form of comb structure. The following types
of deposits may result due to cavity filling.
 Fissure vein: These may be defined as mineral bodies of elongated or tabular
shape deposited in pre-existing fissures. The original fissures may be parallel or
 intersecting, radial or fan-shaped in pattern and that is also the shape of the
resulting ore bodies.

 Ladder vein: These are commonly found in igneous rocks such as dikes and similar
bodies and consist of transverse, roughly regularly spaced fractures that are filled
with deposits of economic minerals. These veins give a ladder-like impression in
vertical section, hence the name.
 Saddle reef: It results when alternating competent and incompetent rocks are
closely folded. This gives rise to the openings in the crest part of the arch, which is
later filled with ore minerals.

 Stock work: The term is used for hydrothermal deposits that occur in veins or
fissures of exceptionally small size, but in good number, within a limited space,
traversing the body of rock profusely. It signifies a network of small ore bearing
vinlets and [Link] a mass of rock. Mining in such cases involves
removal of the entire rock body containing the stockwork.
 Solution cavity filling: certain solution forming rocks like limestone give rise to this
type of deposit. Barytes deposit in Krol limestone.

II Replacement or Metasomatic replacement deposit:

Replacement is the process of almost simultaneous solution and deposition
whereby one mineral replaces another. It is an important process in the formation
of epigenetic (those formed after the formation of the host rock) mineral deposits,
in the formation of high and intermediate temperature hydrothermal ore deposits,
and in supergene sulfide enrichment (enriched by generally downward moving
fluids). Replacement is the method whereby wood petrifies (silica replaces the
wood fibres), one mineral forms a pseudomorph of another, or an ore body takes
the place of an equal volume of rock. Hence replacement deposits are those in
which solutions have reacted with host rocks, leading to replacement of silicates
and carbonates by new gangue and ore minerals.

Replacement occurs when a mineralizing solution encounters minerals unstable

in its presence. The original mineral is dissolved and almost simultaneously
exchanged for another. The exchange does not occur molecule for molecule, but
volume for volume. This means that fewer molecules of a less dense mineral will
be replaced by more molecules of a denser mineral. Replacement takes place
first along major channels in a host rock through which the hydrothermal fluids
enter it. Replacement along smaller openings follows later. Eventually, rocks or at
least some of their constituent minerals are replaced even along capillary sized
 openings. Replacement occurs even in those parts of the rock where fluids
cannot flow. This happens by diffusion of ions at the replacement front.

PLACER DEPOSITS
When mineral grains of different density are moved by flowing water, the less dense
grains will be most rapidly moved, and a separation of high-density and low-density
grains can be effected. Mineral deposits formed as a result of gravity separation based
on density are called placer deposits. Placer deposits are formed as a result of the
concentration of valuable minerals in depositions of the detritus developing during the
disintegration and redeposition of the materials of rocks and minerals. Their
development is linked with the physical and chemical weathering of both rocks and
mineral.

Residual placer deposit: It forms near the point of release of source or parent rock. In
this type deposits the concentration is more.

Eluvial Palcers: These may be considered an intermediate or embryonic stage in the

formation of stream or beach placers. They are formed, without stream action, upon hill
slopes from materials released from weathered lodes that outcrop above them. The
heavier, resistant minerals collect below the outcrops; the lighter nonresistant products
of decay are dissolved or swept downhill by train wash or are blown away by wind. This
brings about a partial concentration by reduction in volume, a process that continues
with continued down slope creed. Important deposits formed in this manner are of gold
and tin, minor deposits include manganese, tungsten, kyanite, barite and gemstones.

Stream or Alluvial Placers: Flowing water is the most effective separator of heavy
from light material, and stream placers are the most important type of placid deposits.
They have even the greatest quantity of placid gold, in stone, Platinum, and precious
stones. Likely places of accumulation of heavy material along a stream channel are

 the middle reaches of streams

 where streams flow through polished canyon floors
 where they enter valleys of gentler gradient
 convex side of meanders
 where streams cross highly inclined or vertically layered hard and soft rocks
 at the confluence of two streams, at the mouth of the more sluggish one

Eolian Placers: Wind instead of water may act as the agent of concentration and give
rise to placer deposits. This can occur only in arid regions. These are the least
important of all placer deposits. It is reported that some eolian gold placers have been
formed in the Australian deserts from the disintegration of gold quartz lodes. The light
decomposed materials have been blown away; the heavy gold particles, freed from their
matrix, remained behind. Similar concentration has taken place El Arco, in Lower
California, Mexico.

OXIDATION AND SULPHIDE SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT DEPOSITS

The process of oxidation and supergene enrichment give rise to many large and rich ore
deposits.

Gossan: Gossan is defined as an Iron bearing capping over a Sulphide deposit or it can
be defined as It is a ferruginous and porous looking residue that forms a superficial
cover over an oxidized sulfide deposit. It is formed by the oxidation and leaching of
sulphide minerals, leaving hydrated Iron Oxides such as Limonite and Goethite, along
with Manganese Oxide. Hematite and Jasper may also form. The porous nature of
gossans is caused by the removal of the soluble materials. The residual limonite of
gossans usually shows a honeycomb structure called “boxwork“. Gossan is formed in
zone of Oxidation above the water table and is sometime referred to as an “Iron
hat“.Gossan is especially obvious at the surface in arid and semi arid regions, often
forming bold outcrops. Often, a gossan contain cavities left by sulfide minerals that have
been leached. Cubic and triangular cavities usually indicate the former presence of
Sulfide minerals. These cubic and triangular cavities in gossan could be a bad sign
because Gold bearing sulfide usually form as small crystals that would not create large
cavities. Gossan is commonly found in areas where there are Copper, Gold ore bodies.
There may be enough gold in gossan to form placer Gold deposits. Even the presence
of unaltered pyrite, Chalcopyrite or other Sulfites in gossan is a bad sign because it
indicates the leaching is incomplete.

Leached zone: The groundwater contains dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, and as
it travels downwards it leaches out the minerals in the rocks to form sulfuric acid.

Oxidized zone: Above the water table the environment is oxidizing, and below it is
reducing. Solutions travelling downward from the leached zone react with other primary
minerals in the oxidised zone to form secondary minerals such as sulfates and
carbonates, and limonite, which is a characteristic product in all oxidised zones

Water table: At the water table the environment changes from an oxidizing environment
to a reducing one.
Enriched zone

Copper ions that move down into this reducing environment form a zone of supergene

sulfide enrichment. Covellite CuS, chalcocite Cu2S and native copper Cu are stable in
these conditions and they are characteristic of the enriched zone.

Most metallic minerals contain pyrite, which rapidly yields sulfur to form iron sulfate and
sulfuric acid:

FeS2 + 7O + H2O →FeSO4 + H2SO4

2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + O → Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O

The ferrous sulfate readily oxidizes to ferric sulfate and ferric hydroxide:

6FeSO4 + 3O + 3H2O → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Fe(OH)3

The ferric sulfate hydrolyzes to ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid:

Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4

Ferric sulfate is also a strong oxidizing agent and attacks pyrite and other sulfides to
yield more ferrous sulfate:
Fe2(SO4)3 + FeS2 →3FeSO4 + 2S