1. What is the importance of preliminary investigation before undertaking the actual work ?

Preliminary site investigation

A preliminary investigation consists of a field study and a review of available literature and maps relating
to regional geology and physiography. The general physical feasibility of the site is assessed and specific
questions to be answered during the design process posed. Field studies should include a thorough
inspection of outcrops, cut banks, and other surface exposures and an examination of erosion
conditions, landslides, seeps, springs, and other conditions on and adjacent to the project site.

The geologist and the designer should discuss geologic conditions that may influence the design,
construction, cost, and functioning of the proposed structure. If these conditions appear adverse, a
more intensive investigation may be required to assess site feasibility.

In areas where the soils and geologic conditions are well known, a detailed investigation may not be
necessary for small, low-hazard structures. For such structures, the preliminary investigation needs to be
sufficiently detailed to provide relevant information on site materials, conditions, and engineering
characteristics for planning, design, and cost estimates.

(a) Purpose

The purpose of a preliminary site investigation is to establish the geologic feasibility of the site and to
determine the extent and precision of detailed subsurface investigations required to obtain the
information needed for design and construction.

For some sites, the preliminary investigation, together with experience in the area, may be adequate to
determine the geologic conditions and engineering characteristics of materials. At other sites, enough
information on subsurface materials may be readily obtained during preliminary examination from test
pits, handauger borings, trenching, or other methods, so that a detailed subsurface investigation may
not be required. However, a detailed subsurface investigation needs to be scheduled where information
needed for design cannot be obtained with the tools available during the preliminary examination.

([Link]

2. What is direct subsurface investigation ?

Subsurface exploration or subsurface investigation is the use of specific techniques to determine the
nature and engineering characteristics of materials below the ground’s surface. Techniques may be
invasive or non-invasive, destructive or non-destructive; and they include an array of procedures
common to highway work such as soil sampling and testing, coring, ground penetrating radar, seismic
testing, penetrometer testing, vane shear testing, etc.

(​[Link]

3. What are the different methods of subsurface investigation ?

A. Trial Pits and Trenches

● The excavation of trial pits isa simple and reliable method.

● The depth is limited to 4-5m only.
● The in-site conditions are examined visually
● It is easy to obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples
● Block samples can be cut by hand tools and tube samples can be
taken from the bottom of the pit.
● Walls of the test pit indicate four layers (1) Clayey silt (2) Sandy silt
(3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 Trenches can be defined as long shallow pits. It is continuous over a considerable length and
provides exposure along a line. On slopes trenches are more suitable than pits.

B. Probing

● This method is suitable for soft soils such as clay

, gravel and sand. In this method , a steel bar of 25 to
40mm diameter having a pointed end is driven in
the ground until a hard strata is met . The bar is allowed
to fall vertically under its own weight or it is driven by
drop hammer .
● The bar is drawn out at some interval , so that
the rough idea of the nature of strata is obtained from
the soil sticking to the sides of the bar. The
experienced persons can be engaged in the execution
of the driving operation

C. Subsurface Soundings

● This method consists of measuring the variation in the resistance offered by the soil with
the depth by means of a tool known as penetrometer.
● The penetrometer may consist of a 50 mm diameter mild steel cone fitted loosely to a steel rod
or it may be a tool known as standard split spoon sampler.
● The resistance offered by the soil to penetration is co-related with the engineering
properties of soil , such as – density, consistency , permeability and bearing capacity.

D. Geophysical Method

Geo-physical methods are used when soil exploration is to be carried out over large area and
where speed is of prime importance. These soil exploration methods are based on principle that physical
properties like electrical conductivity, elasticity or seismicity, magnetic susceptibility, density etc. vary
for different types of soils. There are two soil exploration methods of geophysical survey, namely, (1)
Seismic refraction method (2) Electrical resistivity method

● Seismic Refraction Method

○ This soil exploration method is based on the principle that sound waves travel faster in
rock than in soil. This is on account of the fact that velocity of sound waves is different in
different media.
○ In this method shock waves are
created into the soil at ground level
or at a certain depth below it,
either by striking a plate on the soil
with the hammer or by exploding
small charge in the soil. The shock
waves so produced travel down in
the sub-soil strata and get
refracted after striking a hard rock
surface below.
○ The refracted or radiated shock
waves are picked up by the
vibration detector (also known as
geophone) where the time of travel of the shock waves gets recorded. Knowing the time
of travel of the primary and refracted waves at various geophones, tune and distance
graphs are drawn based on which it is possible to evaluate the depth of various strata in
the sub-soil.
○ Different materials such as clay, gravel, silt rock, hard rock etc. have characteristics
seismic velocities and hence it is possible to establish their identity in the sub-soil based
on time distance graph.

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 ● Electrical Resistivity Method
○ The resistivity of a material depends upon the type of material, its water content,
density, concentration of dissolved ions, etc. Rocks and dry soils have a greater
resistivity than saturated clays. This fact issued in this method
○ This soil exploration method is based on the principle that each soil has different
electrical resistivity, depending
upon the type of soil, its water
content, compaction and
composition. Thus saturated soil has
lower electrical resistivity as
compared to loose dry gravel or
solid rock. In this method 4
electrodes are driven in the ground
at equal distance apart and in a
straight line. The distance between
two electrodes being the depth of
exploration or depth up to which
the ground resistance is to be
measured. A current is passed between the two outer electrodes and the potential drop
between the inner electrodes is measured by use of potentiometer.
○ The electrical resistivity P is given by P = 2πD.V/I Where, P=mean resistivity(ohm/m)
D=distance between electrodes(m) V=potential drop between two inner
electrodes(volts) I=current applied between two outer electrodes(Amperes)
● Magnetic Method
● Gravitational Method

E. Boring

Exploratory boreholes are excavated in relatively soft soil close to ground. The location, spacing
and depth depends on type , size and weight of the structure. Bore holes are generally located at:

● The building corners

● The center of the site
● The place at which heavily loaded columns are proposed
● At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum When the depth of excavation is large,
vertical boring methods are adopted.

The various boring methods adopted for soil exploration are as follows:

● Auger Boring
○ This type of augers are commonly used for clayey
or sandy soils or soft soils . It can be operated
manually or mechanically. The hand operated
augers are used up to 6 m depth and the
mechanically operated augers are used for greater
depth up to 15 m .
○ The auger is vertically driven into the ground by
rotating its handle and is pressed down during the
process of rotation .

○ At every 30 cm depth of penetration

, the auger is drawn out and the samples of soils are
collected separately for testing .
● Auger and Shell Boring
○ In this method ,different types of
tools are used for boring.

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 ○ In case of soft clay , cylindrical auger having 75 to 200 mm diameter hollow tube with a
cutting edge at its bottom is used .
○ In case of hard clay , the shells with cutting edge or teeth at its lower end are used ;
while in case of sandy soil or sand , the pumps are used for boring .
○ The hand operated rigs are used 25 m depth up to 200 mm diameter and the
mechanical rigs are used for 50m depth.
○ The samples of soil are collected at regular interval for testing
● Wash Boring
○ A casing is driven with a drop hammer. A hollow
drill rod with chopping bit is inserted inside the
casing.
○ Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole
using water or a drilling mud jetted under
pressure.
○ The water is jetted in the hole through the
bottom of a wash pipe and leaves the hole along
with the loose soil, from the annual space
between the hole and wash pipe.
○ The water reaches the ground level where the
soil in suspension is allowed to settle and mud is
re-circulated.
● Percussion Boring
○ This method is used for rocks and soils having boulders
; which are broken up by repeated blows from a bit or chisel.
○ Thus , the pulverised material is converted into slurry
by pouring water in the bore and this slurry is bailed out at regular
interval and dried for testing
● Rotary Boring
○ Primarily intended for investigation in rock, but also
used in soils.
○ The drilling tool, (cutting bit or a coring bit) is attached
to the lower end of hollow drilling
rods. The coring bit is fixed to the
lower end of acore.
○ There are two
forms of rotary drilling, open-hole
drilling and core drilling.
○ Open- hole
drilling, which is generally used in
soils and weak rock, just for
advancing the hole.
○ The drilling rods
can then be removed to allow
tube samples to betaken.
○ In core drilling, which is used in rocks and hard clays, the diamond or tungsten carbide
bit cuts an annular hole in the material and an intact core enters the barrel, to be
removed as a sample. Typical core diameters are 41, 54 and 76mm, but can rangeup to
165 mm.

(​[Link]

(​[Link]

4. What are the scopes of preliminary work ?

The primary objective of a site investigation is to determine as accurately as may be required-

● The nature and sequence of strata;

● The ground water conditions at the site;
● The physical properties of soil and rock underlying the site;

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 ● The mechanical properties, such as strength and compressibility of different soil or rock strata,
and
● Other specific information, when needed, such as the chemical composition of the groundwater,
and the characteristics of foundations of the adjacent structure.

Site investigation should be organized to obtain all possible information toward a thorough
understanding of the subsurface condition and probably foundation behavior.

(​[Link]

5. What are the percentage costs of preliminary site investigations for every type of work ?

The extent and cost of site investigations vary enormously depending on the nature of the projects and
the local complexity and/or difficulties of the ground conditions.
Expressed as percentages of project costs, the tabulated guideline figures illustrate the contrast
between project types but cannot show the contrasts die to differing ground conditions.

Project % Total Costs % Foundation Costs

Buildings 0.05-0.2 0.5-2

Roads 0.2-1.5 1-5

Dams 1-3 1-5

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ost+of+site+investigations+vary+enormously+depending+on+the+nature+of+the+projects+and+the+loc
al+complexity+and/or+difficulties+of+the+ground+conditions.+Expressed+as+percentages+of+project+c
osts,+the+tabulated+guideline+figures+illustrate+the+contrast+between+project+types+but+cannot+sh
ow+the+contrasts+die+to+differing+ground+co&source=bl&ots=4AztD8zVh_&sig=ACfU3U0QIlzbz7druN
49Q6QiyCKt_wp88Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXmK7ekYvhAhWIFogKHfCjAu4Q6AEwAHoECAoQAQ)

6. Summarize the geologic methods.

Geologists use a number of field, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history
and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations,
geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of
sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation).
In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and
current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface.
Sub-specialities of geology may distinguish endogenous and exogenous geology.

A. Field methods
a. Geological mapping[22]
i. Structural mapping: identifying the locations of major rock units and the faults
and folds that led to their placement there.
ii. Stratigraphic mapping: pinpointing the locations of sedimentary facies
(lithofacies and biofacies) or the mapping of isopachs of equal thickness of
sedimentary rock
iii. Surficial mapping: recording the locations of soils and surficial deposits
b. Surveying of topographic features
i. compilation of topographic maps[23]
ii. Work to understand change across landscapes, including:

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 1. Patterns of erosion and deposition
2. River-channel change through migration and avulsion
3. Hillslope processes
c. Subsurface mapping through geophysical methods[24]
i. These methods include:
1. Shallow seismic surveys
2. Ground-penetrating radar
3. Aeromagnetic surveys
4. Electrical resistivity tomography
ii. They aid in:
1. Hydrocarbon exploration
2. Finding groundwater
3. Locating buried archaeological artifacts
d. High-resolution stratigraphy
i. Measuring and describing stratigraphic sections on the surface
ii. Well drilling and logging
e. Biogeochemistry and geomicrobiology[25]
i. Collecting samples to:
1. determine biochemical pathways
2. identify new species of organisms
3. identify new chemical compounds
ii. and to use these discoveries to:
1. understand early life on Earth and how it functioned and metabolized
2. find important compounds for use in pharmaceuticals
f. Paleontology: excavation of fossil material
i. For research into past life and evolution
ii. For museums and education
g. Collection of samples for geochronology and thermochronology
h. Glaciology: measurement of characteristics of glaciers and their motion
B. Petrology
In addition to identifying rocks in the field (lithology), petrologists identify rock samples
in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are
through optical microscopy and by using an electron microprobe.
C. Structural geology
Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geologic
samples to observe the fabric within the rocks, which gives information about strain
within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements
of geological structures to better understand the orientations of faults and folds to
reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog
and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.
D. Stratigraphy
In the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be
returned from the field, such as those from drill cores. Stratigraphers also analyze data from
geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical
data and well logs can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and
stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can
then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth,
interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction.
In the laboratory, biostratigraphers analyze rock samples from outcrop and drill cores
for the fossils found in them. These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the
depositional environment in which the rock units formed. Geochronologists precisely date rocks
within the stratigraphic section to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of
deposition. Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 within the drill cores. Other scientists perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain
information about past climate.

(​[Link]

7. Present uses of Tunnels

A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed
except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent
tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring
methods.

A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a
rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for
consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Utility tunnels are used for routing steam,
chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for
convenient passage of people and equipment.

Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or
people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made
barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks.

([Link]

8. Various methods used to compute the strength of the host rock.

Following are common laboratory tests for determining strength of rocks:
1. Unconfined compression tests for rocks
2. Triaxial compression test for rocks
3. Splitting tension test for rocks
4. Beam bending test for rocks
5. Ring shear test for rocks

Unconfined Compression Test on Rocks

● It is more commonly used test for rocks to determine its strength but it should be done
carefully for accurate results.
● The samples obtained during exploration are trimmed as
per requirements.
● The specimen should in the cylindrical form and length to
width ratio of specimen should be varying from 2 to 2.5
● The ends of specimen should be exactly perpendicular to
the axis of cylinder and ends should be flat, smooth and
parallel.
● The dia of specimen should not be less than 35mm.
generally 45 mm dia is preferable.
● The specimen is placed in compression testing machine and subjected to compression
with a stress rate of 0.5 to 1.0MPa per second.
● Note down the peak load value (P) where it fails and find out the strength of rock using
below formula. Where A = initial c/s area of specimen.
q u = P/A

Triaxial Compression Test on Rocks

● This test is similar to that used for soils. Here also cylindrical specimen is required and is
first subjected to lateral pressure and then deviator stress.
● As the stresses are quite large, a special type of equipment is required.

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 ● In the usual procedure, the specimen is
subjected to confining pressure (p) and then deviatoric
stress is applied when P is kept constant.
● The confining pressure P increases the
strength of rock. However, the increase in strength is
realized only when the specimen is immersed in
impervious jacket.
● Generally hydraulic oil is used as
confining fluid. The jacket is made of polyurethane which
is oil resistant.

Splitting Tension Test on Rocks

● This is also called as Brazilian test. In this test, the specimen is split along the diametric
plane by applying load.
● The specimen having length to diameter ratio of unity when loaded on its side it splits
along the diameter and parallel to the cylindrical axis. The horizontal stresses
perpendicular to the loaded diameter are uniform and tensile. The tensile stress is given
by

where d = diameter, t = thickness or length of cylinder, p = applied load.

● IS: 10082-1981 recommends that the diameter of specimen

should be at least 45mm and thickness of the disc shall be
approximately equal to half the diameter. The load should
applied at the rate of 0.2KN/sec. and the load should be
measured at least to an accuracy of 1%.

Beam Bending Test on Rocks

● In this test beam is subjected to bending till failure occurs.
This is also called as flexural test.
● Generally 4 –point flexural loading system is used in
this test. The bottom surface of the beam is supported at two
points, one near each end.
● The top portion of the beam is loaded at the third
points. This system produces pure bending in the middle third of
the beam.
● The flexural strength (modulus of rupture) is given by

where P = load , L = length of specimen, d = dia of specimen

Ring Shear Test on Rocks

● This test generally used to test Insitu rocks. It gives the shear strength of rock as a
function of confining pressure.
● In this test the specimen doesn’t require perfect square or smooth ends.
● Load is applied parallel to the axis of core. As the load is applied to the plunger, 2 sets of
complex fractures surfaces form along the two planes of imposed shear.
● The shear strength is calculated by Tp = P/2A where p = load , A = area of cross section
of specimen.

(​[Link]

Maria Arlene A. Flores

9. Considerations to be account for the design of tunnel lining​.
1. Water
2. Constructability
3. Tunnel Usage

(​[Link]

10. Two (2) classifications of tunnel linings.

Tunnel linings are grouped into three main forms some or all of which may be used in the
construction of a tunnel:

1. Temporary ground support

2. Primary lining
3. Secondary lining

Temporary ground support. In rock tunnels where the ground has insufficient stand-up time to
allow the construction of the primary lining some distance behind the face, then some form of
temporary ground support applied at the- tunnel face is required eg rock bolts, shotcrete and steel
sets.
Such support is not required in soft ground in conjunction with a shield driven tunnel as
temporary ground support is provided by the body of the shield itself.

Primary lining. A primary lining is the main structural component of the tunnel support system
which is required to sustain the loads and deformations that the ground may induce during the
tunnel's intended working life. A further function performed by the primary lining is the control
of water egress (exit) and ingress (entrance).

Secondary lining. Various tunnels require smooth bore profiles for their intended use, eg sewer
and water tunnels or aesthetic finishes for public usage, eg highway and pedestrian tunnels.
Erosion and corrosion protection for the primary lining and further waterproofing may also be
required, all of which are provided by secondary linings.
The terms temporary, primary and secondary linings are not always defined on a consistent basis
in various texts.

(​[Link]

[Link] of cost of site investigations as % of total cost of the different types of work

The extent and cost of site investigations vary enormously depending on the nature of the projects and
the local complexity and/or difficulties of the ground conditions.
Expressed as percentages of project costs, the tabulated guideline figures illustrate the contrast
between project types but cannot show the contrasts die to differing ground conditions.

Project % Total Costs % Foundation Costs

Buildings 0.05-0.2 0.5-2

Roads 0.2-1.5 1-5

Dams 1-3 1-5

(​[Link]
ost+of+site+investigations+vary+enormously+depending+on+the+nature+of+the+projects+and+the+loc
al+complexity+and/or+difficulties+of+the+ground+conditions.+Expressed+as+percentages+of+project+c

Maria Arlene A. Flores

osts,+the+tabulated+guideline+figures+illustrate+the+contrast+between+project+types+but+cannot+sh
ow+the+contrasts+die+to+differing+ground+co&source=bl&ots=4AztD8zVh_&sig=ACfU3U0QIlzbz7druN
49Q6QiyCKt_wp88Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXmK7ekYvhAhWIFogKHfCjAu4Q6AEwAHoECAoQAQ​)

12. Foundations on Bedrock

Every house has a foundation, and every foundation must be constructed efficiently, safely and correctly
so it will last. The materials that make up the building block and the process of building it are equally
important; however, one thing that’s often overlooked is the soilsupporting them because even
foundations need a solid foundation.

a. Foundation on Soil
Type of soil has different properties that affect foundations differently. Generally, soil
will be more stable the more rock and compacted sand/gravel it contains.

The Types of Soils​

1. Peat – Peaty soil is usually dark brown or black and is easily compressible
because of how much water it can hold. However, during the summer it
becomes extremely dry and can even be a fire hazard. It is very poor subsoil and
not ideal for support, as foundations are most stable on soil that does not shift
or change structure.
2. Clay – Clay is made up of tiny particles so it stores water well, but because of its
tight grasp on water it expands greatly when moist and shrinks significantly
when dry. When clay is moist, it is very pliable, and can easily be moved and
manipulated. These extreme changes put a great deal of pressure on
foundations, causing them to move up and down, and eventually crack, making
clay a poor soil for support.
3. Silt – Silty soil can be smooth to the touch and retains water longer because of
its smaller particles. However, because of its tendency to retain moisture it is
cold and drains poorly. This causes the silty soil to expand, pushing against a
foundation and weakening it, making it not ideal for support.
4. Sand/Gravel – Sand/gravel has the largest particles of the different soil types. It
is dry and gritty to the touch and does not hold moisture because of the large
openings, but drains easily. When compacted and moist it holds together fairly
well, and if compacted these make for good soils to support a foundation
because of their non-water-retaining properties. However, when moist, the
particles will lose their friction and can be washed away, which can leave gaps
beneath the foundation.
5. Loam – Loam is the ideal soil type: typically it’s a combination of sand, silt and
clay. It is dark in color and soft, dry and crumbly to the touch. Loam is great for
supporting foundations because of its evenly balanced properties, especially
how it maintains water at a balanced rate. Loam is a good soil for supporting a
foundation, as long as no miscellaneous soils find their way onto the surface.
6. Rock – Types such as bedrock, limestone, sandstone, shale and hard chalk have
high bearing capacities. These are very strong and good for supporting
foundations because of their stability and depth. As long as the rock is level the
foundation will be well supported.
([Link]

b. Piled Foundations

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 For expansive soils or soils that are compressive with heavy loads where deep soils can
not take the building load and where soil of better capacity if found deep below.
There are two types of piles
1. Friction piles – used where there is no reasonable bearing stratum and they rely
on resistance from skin of pile against the soil.
2. End bearing – which transfer directly to soil of good bearing capacity.
The bearing capacity of the piles depends on the structural strength of the pile itself or
the strength of the soil, whichever is less.
Piles can be wood, steel, reinforced concrete, or cast in place concrete piles.
Cast in place piles are composed of hole drilled in earth and then filled with concrete, it
is used for light loads on soft ground and where drilling will not cause collapse. Friction
type, obtained from shaft perimeter and surrounding earth.
([Link]

c. Floating Foundations

A Floating Foundation, also known as Balancing Raft is a type of foundation where the
weight of the building is approximately equal to the full weight of the soil and water
removed from the site of the building prior to construction. In such cases, the total
vertical pressure on the soil at the depth of the building remains same before and after
the excavation. Therefore, there is no additional load on the soil, and hence no
settlement due to the construction process.
Floating foundations are needed mainly in two cases:
1. When the strength of the soil is sufficient to safeguard against shear failure, but
the chances of differential settlement and subsequent cracking of building due
to superstructure load are high, or
2. There is absence of a strong layer at a reasonable depth and shear strength of
the soil is so low that failure in shear would occur if the building were to be
founded at ground level.
(​[Link]

d. Caisson Foundation
A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining structure
used as a bridge pier, in the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair of ships. It

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 is a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder sunk into the ground to some desired depth
and then filled with concrete thus forming a foundation.
Caisson foundation is Most often used in the construction of bridge piers & other
structures that require
foundation beneath rivers &
other bodies of water. This is
because caissons can be
floated to the job site and sunk
into place.
Caisson foundations are similar
in form to pile foundations,
but are installed using a
different method. It is used
when soil of adequate bearing
strength is found below
surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat. It is a form of deep foundation
which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level by
excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.
Caissons (also sometimes called “piers”) are created by auguring a deep hole into the
ground, and then filling it with concrete. Steel reinforcement is sometimes utilized for a
portion of the length of the caisson.
Caissons are drilled either to bedrock (called “rock caissons”) or deep into the
underlying soil strata if a geotechnical engineer finds the soil suitable to carry the
building load. When caissons rest on soil, they are generally “belled” at the bottom to
spread the load over a wider area. Special drilling bits are used to remove the soil for
these “belled caissons”.
The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their lower ends, which are often
bell-shaped.

Types of Caisson Foundations

A. Box Caissons
B. Excavated Caissons
C. Floating Caissons
D. Open Caissons
E. Pneumatic Caissons
F. Sheeted Caissons

Box caissons are watertight boxes that are constructed of heavy timbers and open at the
top. They are generally floated to the appropriate location and then sunk into place with
a masonry pier within it.

Excavated caissons are just as the name suggests, caissons that are placed within an
excavated site. These are usually cylindrical in shape and then back filled with concrete.

Floating caissons are also known as floating docks and are prefabricated boxes that have
cylindrical cavities.

Open caissons are small cofferdams that are placed and then pumped dry and filled with
concrete. These are generally used in the formation of a pier.

Pneumatic caissons are large watertight boxes or cylinders that are mainly used for
under water construction.
([Link]

Maria Arlene A. Flores

e. Preloading of Foundation Beds
Precompression is a process in which a soil mass to be used as foundation bed is
preloaded to improve its properties and then design loads are applied. It is normally
used in improving properties of cohesive soils.
The preloading results settlement to soil before construction process starts. Preloading
is applied with a mass of earth fill which is left above area for a long period. The period
is determined by the adequate settlement or desired settlement.
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f. Building on Fill
Fill dirt (also called cleanfill, or just fill) is earthy material which is used to fill in a
depression or hole in the ground or create mounds or otherwise artificially change the
grade or elevation of real property.

Fill dirt is usually subsoil (soil from beneath topsoil) and underlying soil parent material
which has little soil organic matter or biological activity. Fill dirt is taken from a location
where soil is being removed as a part of leveling an area for construction; it may also
contain sand, rocks, and stones, as well as earth. Fill dirt should be as free of organic
matter as possible since organic matter will decompose creating pockets of empty space
within the fill which could result in settling. Uneven or excessive settling of the fill can
result in damage to any structures built on the fill.

A common use of fill dirt is in highway maintenance to build up the shoulders of

highways so that the ground on either side of the pavement is at the same level as the
pavement itself and that the highway shoulders are sufficiently wide as to allow vehicles
room to pull off of the highway if needed.

A second common use of fill dirt is to fill in a low-lying construction site to raise the level
of the building foundation in order to reduce the chances of flooding. Several massive
uses of fill dirt are with improvements to the Port of Seattle Sea-Tac Airport, the
addition of a new runway to the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport in
Atlanta, Georgia, and the Kansai International Airport off the coast of Osaka, Japan, a
project involving the creation of a new man-made island of some five square kilometers.
(​[Link]

g. Settlement of Buildings
Settlement is the downward movement of the ground caused by a load consolidating
the soil below it or causing displacement of the soil. Settlement often refers to the
downward movement of the ground around an excavated space, such as that for
tunnels, shafts, or basements.

It is usual for buildings to experience some degree of settlement within the first few
years after construction. Although the extent to which this ground movement impacts
upon buildings depends on several factors, which may include:

● Existing soil conditions.

● Methods of construction.
● Size and depth of the construction works.
● Type of structure, its condition, and its foundations.

The impact of settlement is opposite to the effect of heave which is the upward
movement of the ground, and is different from subsidence which occurs where soil is
unstable and sinks downward without any imposed load.

Maria Arlene A. Flores

 Causes of settlement
Typically, settlement occurs within the foundation soils that surround and support the
structure.

The more common causes of settlement include:

○ Weak bearing soils

Where soils are not capable of supporting the weight or bearing
pressure exerted by a building’s foundation. This can occur when
foundations are designed based upon general guidelines rather than
site-specific soil information, such as in the case of some residential
construction projects.

○ Poor compaction
The leveling of a site prior to foundations being constructed often relies
upon the placement of fill soils. Often these are imported from off-site
locations and unless they are properly placed and compacted, may
compress under loading and result in settlement of the structure.

○ Changes in moisture content

The soil’s ability to support the load of a foundation settlement may be
reduced by changes in moisture content within the soil. If soils are
saturated, clays and silts may be softened. If soils are dried-out they
have a tendency to shrink or contract.

○ Maturing trees and vegetation

Therefore, a common cause of settlement is root systems expanding
from maturing trees and vegetation and drawing soil moisture from
beneath a structure. A general rule is that the diameter of a tree’s root
system is at least as large as its canopy.

○ Soil consolidation
Applied loads force water out of clay soils which compress and result in
downward movement or settlement of overlying structures. Settlement
caused by consolidation may take a considerable amount of time to be
‘complete’.
(​[Link]

Maria Arlene A. Flores