Physical properties are properties that can be measured or observed
without changing the chemical nature of the substance. Some examples of
physical properties are: The Classification of Matter
- Matter is classified into two broad categories, namely, pure substances and
mixtures. Mixtures can be separated into pure substances by physical
A chemical change (chemical reaction) is a change of materials into methods. Pure substances are further divided into categories as elements
other, new materials with different properties, and one or more new and compounds. Similarly, mixtures are also classified into types;
substances are formed. homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures:
Evidence of a chemical change Classification of Matter:
- Change of odor.
- Change of color (for example, silver to reddish-brown when iron rusts). -All matter is either a pure substance or a mixture.
- Change in temperature or energy, such as the production - (exothermic) or
loss (endothermic) of heat. -A pure substance has a fixed composition and distinct properties
- Change of composition - paper turning to ash when burned. -A mixture consists of two or more pure substances which retain their
- Light and/or heat given off. chemical identities.
- Formation of gases, often appearing as bubbles in liquids. Pure Substances
- Formation of a precipitate (insoluble particles). -Pure substances are either elements or compounds.
- The decomposition of organic matter (for example, rotting food) -An element cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by physical or
- The change is difficult or impossible to reverse chemical means.
-A compound is composed of two or more elements always in the same
proportion
Elements
-There are about 100 elements. Their names and symbols are shown in the
Periodic Table.
Compounds
- Compounds can be decomposed into their elements ONLY by a chemical
means.
Example: the electrolysis of H2O
- Compounds always give the same proportion of each element by mass.
Compound Formulas
- A chemical formula expresses the number of atoms of each type of
element in the compound. The number of atoms is indicated with a
subscript.
Mixtures
A mixture has a variable composition
If the properties of a mixture are not uniform throughout, the
mixture is heterogeneous.
If the properties are uniform, the mixture is homogeneous, or a
solution.
No ice in the Kool-Aid
The pure substances in a mixture can be separated through physical
means.
Separation of salt from seawater.
Distillation of brandy, rum, etc.
Separation of fresh brewed coffee from coffee grounds
(filtration)
A Microscopic View
Pure substances are composed of atoms or molecules with fixed
numbers of atoms bonded together.
Mixtures consist of variable numbers of atoms or molecules.
PROPERTY BASE UNIT SYMBOL
Length Meter m
m milli 10-3
Mass Kilogram kg µ micro 10-6
Time Second S n nano 10-9
• Multiples or fractions of these units are used for really large or
Electric current Ampere A really small values and are indicated by the use of prefixes based
on the powers of ten. For example in describing rather long
distances unit kilometre is preferably used which is a multiple of a
Temperature Kelvin K thousand, thus
1000 m = 1 x 103 km
In cases such as this scientific notation is being used where N x 10 n where
Chemical Amount Mole mol N is any continuous number between 1 and 10 and n is either positive or
negative integer
In the conversion to a scientific notation, n is determined by counting the
number of places must be moved in order to make the value between 1 to
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
10.If the decimal point is moved to the left the n is negative and if its to the
right the n is positive
PREFIX Name Meaning • RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• 1. All non-zero numbers are significant. The number 33.2 has
THREE significant figures because all of the digits present are
non-zero.
• 2. Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE significant. 2051 has
G giga 109 FOUR significant figures. The zero is between a 2 and a 5.
• 3. Leading zeros are NOT significant. They're nothing more than
"place holders." The number 0.54 has only TWO significant
M mega 106 figures. 0.0032 also has TWO significant figures. All of the zeros
are leading.
k kilo 103 • 4. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal are
significant. There are FOUR significant figures in 92.00.
• 92.00 is different from 92: a scientist who measures 92.00
c centi 10-2 milliliters knows his value to the nearest 1/100th milliliter;
meanwhile his colleague who measured 92 milliliters only knows
his value to the nearest 1 milliliter. It's important to understand that
"zero" does not mean "nothing." Zero denotes actual information,
just like any other number. You cannot tag on zeros that aren't Example 3.4 2 SF
certain to belong there.
• 5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown x 8.32 3 SF
ARE significant. Placing a decimal at the end of a number is 28.288 28 round off to 2 SF
usually not done. By convention, however, this decimal indicates a 0.5991 4 SF
significant zero. For example, "540." indicates that the trailing zero ÷ 0.77 2SF
IS significant; there are THREE significant figures in this value. 0.07780519 0.078 round off to 2 SF
• 6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are
NOT significant. Writing just "540" indicates that the zero is NOT Sample Problem
significant, and there are only TWO significant figures in this • Edward measured three marbles using three different weighing
value. instruments. If the three marbles each weigh 3.72g, 5.2g and
• 7. Exact numbers have an INFINITE number of significant 4.910g. What is the total weight of the tree marbles? Use the
figures. This rule applies to numbers that are definitions. For correct number of significant figures.
example, 1 meter = 1.00 meters = 1.0000 meters = Required:
1.0000000000000000000 meters, etc. Total weight of the three marbles
Given:
Determine how many significant figures occur in each of the following Weight of Marble 1------ 3.72g
numbers: Marble 2------ 5.2g
Marble 3------ 4.910g
1. 926.9 Strategy
2. 707 Perform the calculation and express the final answer with the least number
3. 123.06 of decimal places.
4. 0.0402 Solve the problem
5. 0.82610 3.72g
6. 338.00 5.2g
4.910g
• 1. 926.9 has 4 Significant Figures (SF) 13.830 13.8 round off to one
• 2. 707 has 3 SF decimal place
• 3. 123.06 has 5 SF
• 4. 0.0402 has 3 SF
• 5. 0.82610 has 5 SF
• 6. 338.00 has 5 SF
Significant figures in Calculation
• Multiplying or dividing
Answers should be rounded off to the same number of significant
figures as that of the original value with the least number of significant
figures.
Sedimentation - is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the
fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due
to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these
forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism.
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- Filtration – it is the process of separating insoluble particles from a liquid.
- Paper chromatography is a technique used to separate a mixture in its
component molecules. The molecules migrate or moved up a paper because
of its solubility, molecular mass and hydrogen bonding with the paper.
- Distillation is a widely used method for separating mixtures based on
differences in the conditions required to change the phase of components of
the mixture. To separate a mixture of liquids, the liquid can be heated to
force components, which have different boiling points, into the gas phase.
The gas is then condensed back into liquid form and collected.
• Simple distillation may be used when the boiling points of two
liquids are significantly different from each other or to separate
liquids from solids or non volatile components. In simple
distillation, a mixture is heated to change the most volatile
component from a liquid into vapor.
• The vapor rises and passes into a condenser. Usually, the
condenser is cooled (e.g., by running cold water around it) to
promote condensation of the vapor, which is collected.
• Steam distillation is used to separate heat-sensitive components.
Steam is added to the mixture, causing some of it to vaporize. This
vapor is cooled and condensed into two liquid fractions.
Sometimes the fractions are collected separately, or they may have
different density values, so they separate on their own. An example
is steam distillation of flowers to yield essential oil and a water-
Hand Picking – simplest method of separating substance. This method is based distillate. Separating organic compounds from plant parts.
only when unwanted material is in small quantity. Example is lemon grass oil and eucalyptus oil
Threshing – is a method that generally used by the farmers to separate • Fractional distillation is used when the boiling points of the
grains from the stalks after harvesting. components of a mixture are close to each other, as
Winnowing – It is used to separate heavier and lighter components of a determined using Raoult's law. A fractionating column is used to
separate the components used a series of distillations called
mixture by wind or blowing air. rectification. In fractional distillation, a mixture is heated so vapor
Sifting or Sieving – Is used to separate a dry mixture which contains rises and enters the fractionating column. As the vapor cools, it
substance of different sizes by passing through. condenses on the packing material of the column. The heat of
rising vapor causes this liquid to vaporize again, moving it along
the column and eventually yielding a higher purity sample of the
more volatile component of the mixture. Example is fractionating
crude oil
Vacuum distillation is used to separate components that have high boiling
points. Lowering the pressure of the apparatus also lowers boiling points.
Otherwise, the process is similar to other forms of distillation. Vacuum
distillation is particularly useful when the normal boiling point exceeds
the decomposition temperature of a compound.
- Centrifugation - A centrifuge is a device that uses centrifugal
force to separate two or more substances of different density or
mass from each other. Centrifugal force is the tendency of an
object traveling around a central point to fly away from that point
in a straight line. A centrifuge is able to separate different
substances from each other because materials with heavier masses
move faster and farther away from the central point than materials
with lighter masses.
