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C++ Interactive Course

CHAPTER 1--A FIRST LOOL AT OOP AND C++ Session 1: Why do We Need OOP? Session 2: Features of Object-Oriented Languages Real-World Objects States and Abilities Classes Inheritance Reusability Creating New Data Types Polymorphism and Overloading C++ and C OOP in a Nutshell Quiz Session 3: Hot Dog Stands as Objects Interaction with the Hot Dog Stand Program Inputting

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

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C++ Interactive Course

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C++ Interactive Course - Table of Contents

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C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
Keyword
Brief Full
Advanced
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INTRODUCTION

----------- ABOUT THE AUTHOR

CHAPTER 1—A FIRST LOOL AT OOP AND C++

Session 1: Why Do We Need OOP?
Procedural Languages
Division into Functions
Problems with Structured Programming
Data Is Undervalued
Relationship to the Real World
New Data Types
The Object-Oriented Approach
The Corporate Analogy
The Dinner Table Analogy
OOP: An Approach to Organization, Not
Details
Quiz 1
Session 2: Features of Object-Oriented Languages
Real-World Objects
States and Abilities
Classes
Inheritance
Reusability
Creating New Data Types
Polymorphism and Overloading
C++ and C
OOP in a Nutshell
Quiz
Session 3: Hot Dog Stands as Objects
Interaction with the Hot Dog Stand Program
Inputting the Data
Recording a Sale
Displaying the Data
Designing the Hot Dog Stand Program
What Are the Objects?
What’s in a Hot Dog Stand Object?
Specifying the Class of Hot Dog Stand Objects
Syntax of the Class Specification
Variable Declarations
Functions
Public and Private
Quiz 3
Session 4: Basic C++ Data Types
Characters
Assignment Operator
Escape Sequences
Integers
Unsigned Integers
Floating Point
Whitespace
Comments
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Introduction to Input/Output
Output to the Screen
String Constants
Formatting Output
New Lines Not Automatic
Escape Sequences
The endl Manipulator
Input from the Keyboard
Stream I/O
Old-Style C I/O
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Session 6: Member Functions
Initializing the Data
Recording a Sale
Displaying Data
Arithmetic Operators
Increment and Decrement Operators
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Specifying a Class
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Creating and Interacting with Objects
Creating Objects from a Class Specification
Sending Messages to Objects
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 1
End-Of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 2—WRITING COMPLETE OOP

PROGRAMS
Session 1: The Complete Hot Dog Stand Program
Listing for the Hot Dog Stand Program
The IOSTREAM.H Header File
Preprocessor Directives
Other Header Files
The main() Function
Interaction with the Hot Dog Stand Program
Program Organization
Quiz 1
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 2: Loops
True and False Values
Relational Operators
while Loops
do Loops
for Loops
Nested Loops
Logical Operators
Precedence
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Simple Decisions
The if Statement
The if…else Statement
Test Expression
Nested if…else Statements
Improving the Hot Dog Program with if
A Glimpse of Reusability
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Advanced Decisions
The else if Construction
Fine-Tuning Loops
The break Statement
The continue Statement
The switch Statement
Improving the Hot Dog Program with switch
The Conditional Operator
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: A class to Represent Time Values
New Data Types
A Simple Version of the airtime Class
Assignment Statements with Objects
What’s Really in an Object?
More Manipulators: Formatting Leading Zeros
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Function Arguments
Adding Hours to an airtime Value
Sending a Message with an Argument
Writing the Member Function
Listing for houradd.cpp
The set() Member Function with Arguments
Arguments of Any Type
Other Uses for Functions
Passing by Value
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Arithmetic For User-defined Types
Adding airtime Values
Arithmetic Is Not for All Classes
Access to Private Data
Converting Minutes to airtime
Nonautomatic Conversions
Multiplying an airtime Value
Calling Each Other
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Function Return Values
Converting airtime to Minutes
The return Statement
Creating Automatic Variables
The Stack
Nameless Automatic Variables
Returning a Value from add()
Returning by Value
Library Functions
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 2
End-Of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 3—ARRAYS AND STRINGS

Session 1: Array Fundamentals
Defining an Array
Array Elements
Accessing Array Elements
Initializing Array Elements
Multidimensional Arrays
Danger: Index Out of Range
Quiz 1
Session 2: Arrays as Instance Data
The employee Class
Library Function getche()

The Key
Postfix Increment Operators
The Stack Class
Pushing and Popping
An Array Disguised as a Stack
Not a Constructor
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Arrays of Objects
Defining an Array of Objects
New Syntax for Access
Array of airtime Objects
Array of employee Objects
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Strings
String Variables
String Constants
Improved String I/O
Using const Variables
Eating Extra Characters
Real Strings for the employee Class
String I/O
External Variables
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: String Library Functions
Library Functions for Strings
Finding String Lengths
Copying Strings
Appending Strings
Comparing Strings
A Homemade String Class
Library Functions
Clean Format
Data Conversions
Appending
Assignment
Overflow Protection
Wrapping
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Arrays of Strings
Syntax of Arrays of Strings
Arrays of Empty Strings
Arrays of Initialized Strings
The weekday Class
The stricmp() Function
Arithmetic Assignment Operators
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercuse 2
Session 7: Structures
Specifying a Structure
Defining Structure Variables
Accessing Structure Members
Initializing Structure Variables
Structure Usage
Structures versus Classes
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: enum and bool
Enumerated Data Types
Specifying an Enumerated Type
Creating and Using Enumerated Variables
They’re Really Integers
A Card Game Program
The bool Keyword
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 3
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 4—FUNCTIONS
Session 1: Function Review and Function Declaration
Review
Function Calls
Function Definitions
Arguments
Return Values
Function Declarations
Arguments
Functions Called from main()
Functions Called from Member Functions
Library Functions
The Rule
Quiz 1
Session 2: Standalone Member Functions
Inline Functions
Specifying an Inline Function
When Should You Inline a Function?
Member Functions Defined Within a Class
Member Functions Defined Outside a Class
The Scope Resolution Operator
The Compiler Has Its Own Ideas
Revised weekdays Program
Move ’em Out?
Macros
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Overloaded Functions
Need for Function Overloading
How Does It Know?
A Member Function Example
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Default Arguments
A Power Example
A Member Function Example
The cin.getline() Function
Limitations
When to Do What
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Storage Classes
Declarations and Definitions
Two Kinds of Declarations
Lifetime and Visibility
Automatic Variables
Register Variables
Blocks
External Variables
External Variables and Multiple Files
External Variables in the Doghouse
Local Static Variables
The Storage Class Table
Objects
Visiblity of Instance Data
Lifetime of Instance Data
Quiz 5
Session 6: Static Members
Static Member Data
Creating Static Data
Accessing Static Data
Static Functions
Count-the-Objects Example
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Reference Arguments
Swapping Integers
Passing by Value
Passing by Reference
A Reference Is a Different Name
Swapping Objects
Standalone References
Behind the Scenes
Advantages of Passing by Reference
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Returning by Reference
Setting an Object to a Value
Cautions
What’s It For?
Quiz 8
Summary: Chapter 4
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 5—CONSTRUCTORS
Session 1: Introducing Constructors
Initialization
Creation
Destructors
Constructors and Destructors in Action
Same Name as the Class
No Return Value
What They Do
Initializing Variables
Initialization List
Default Constructor
Quiz 1
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 2: Constructor Arguments
A Two-Argument Constructor
The Wrong Way
The Right Way
“Calling” the Constructor
A No-Argument Constructor
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: The One-Argument Constructor
Conversions
Converting Strings to xStrings
Converting Meters to English Distances
Meters to English Objects
Escape Characters
Not Always Appropriate
More Conversions to Come
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Arrays as Instance Data
Array Sized with Constant
Array Sized with External const
Initializing Member Variables
Instance Data Initialization
Initialization Is Not Assignment
Arrays Sized at Compile Time
The enum Hack
Static Constant Variables
The Improved STACK Program
Initializing a Member Array
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Copy Constructors
Copying Variables
Equivalent Syntax
Copying Objects
Not the Normal Constructor
The Default Copy Constructor
const for Function Arguments
Passing by Reference
Passing by Value
A Simple Example of a Copy Constructor
Just Another Constructor
Argument Must Be Passed by Reference
Argument Should Be const
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Copy Constructors at Work
Numbering the Objects
An Intelligent Copy Constructor
Initialization List
A Variation on strcpy()
Other Reasons for Using Copy Constructors
Copy Constructor Invoked in Pass by Value
Passing by Value Creates a Copy
Why the Copy Constructor Must Use a
Reference Argument
Copy Constructor Invoked in Return by Value
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: const Objects
The Wandering Noon
const Functions
The Fixed Noon
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Visualizing Construction and Destruction
Two Kinds of Total
Program Features
External Variables
Variables in main()
Passing by Value
Local Variables
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 5
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 6—OPERATOR OVERLOADING

Session 1: Overloading Binary Arithmetic Operators
Why Overload Operators?
You Could Do It with Functions
Not for All Classes
You Can’t Overload Everything
The operatorX() Function
Adding airtime Objects
Arguments
Return Value
Adding xString Objects
Other Binary Arithmetic Operators
Quiz 1
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 2: Overloading Other Binary Operators
Relational Operators
How It Works
Passing the Argument by const Reference
Assignment Operators
Avoiding Temporary Objects
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Overloading Unary Operators
Prefix Version of Operator ++
Postfix Version of Operator ++
The Unary Minus Operator
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Conversion from Objects to Basic Types
Type Casting: Conversion for Basic Types
Conversion from English to float
Conversion Function Invoked Automatically
Casting for Clarity
A Static Constant
Conversion from xString to String
The static_cast Approach
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Conversions Between Classes
A Short Example
The FracFeet Class
The FracFeet Program
The English() Operator
The One-Argument Constructor
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Overloading the Assignment Operator (=)
Syntax of the Overloaded Assignment Operator
A Simple Assignment Operator Example
An Assignment Operator That Allows Chaining
Future Improvement
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Overloading the [ ] Operator
Access with access() Function
One Size Fits All
Errors Are Reported
Access with Overloaded [ ] Operator
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Fine-Tuning Overloaded Operators
Constant Arguments
Constant Functions
Constant Overloaded Operators
Adding Constant airtime Objects
Return Values
Returns from Assignment Operators
The Amazing *this Object
The += Operator Revisited
The Increment Operator Revisited
Summary of Fine-Tuning for Overloaded Operators
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 6
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 7—INHERITANCE
Session 1: Introduction to Inheritance
Reusability
Rewriting Code
Function Libraries
Class Libraries
Inheritance and Program Design
Composition: A “Has a” Relationship
Inheritance: A “Kind of” Relationship
Not Exactly a Family Tree
Inheritance Syntax
Inheriting Attributes
Accessing Base Class Data
Calling a Base Class Function
Function Overloading in Base and Derived Classes
Quiz 1
Program Design: The employee Class
Class Hierarchy
The EMPINH Program
Abstract Classes
Interaction with EMPINH
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Reusability: An Improved Stack Class
Reusability
The STACKINH Program
A Smarter Object
The Base Class Constructor
The protected Access Specifier
Functions That Aren’t Inherited
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Constructors and Inheritance
The Great Chain of Constructors
When Are Derived Class Constructors Necessary?
No Arguments
Arguments
The Initializer List
Adding Functionality to the Derived Class
Constructor
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Access Control
Access Review
Keeping Data Private
A Stack Example
A Graphics Example
A Hierarchy of Shapes
The Classes
Public and Private Inheritance
The Compiler and Public Inheritance
Private Inheritance
The Compiler and Private Inheritance
Protected Inheritance
Access Summary
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Grandparents
Deriving foreman from laborer
Constructors
Summary
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Composition
A safearay Object in a Stack Class
Should a scientist “Have an” employee?
Summary
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Multiple Inheritance
Two Base Classes: employee and student
Repeated Base Classes
It’s Controversial

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C++ Interactive Course - Table of Contents

Ambiguous Subobjects
Virtual Base Classes
Composition to the Rescue
Chapter
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 7
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 8—POINTERS
Session 1: Addresses and Pointers
Addresses (Pointer Constants)
The Address of Operator &
Pointer Variables
Pointers to Basic Types
Syntax Quibbles
Pointers Must Have a Value
Pointers to Objects
Accessing the Variable Pointed To
Pointer to void
Quiz 1
Session 2: Pointers, Arrays, and Functions
Pointers and Arrays
Array Elements and Pointer Notation
Pointer Constants and Pointer Variables
Pointers and Functions
Passing Simple Variables
Passing Arrays as Arguments
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Pointers and Strings
Pointers to String Constants
Strings as Function Arguments
Copying a String Using Pointers
Library String Functions
Arrays of Pointers to Strings
Membership Access Operator (->)
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Memory Management with new and delete
The new Operator
The delete Operator
A String Class That Uses new
Constructor in NEWSTR
Destructor in NEWSTR
Glitch in xString Class
Creating Objects with new
An Array of Pointers to Objects
Program Operation
Accessing Member Functions
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: this and const
The this Pointer
Accessing Member Data with this
Using this for Returning Values
Pointers and the const Modifier
const Variables
Two Places for const
Function Arguments and const
Returning const Values
Quiz 5
Session 6: A Memory-Efficient String Class
To Copy or Not to Copy?
A String Counter Class
The strCount Class
The xString Class
Returning *this by Reference
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: A Linked List Class
A Chain of Pointers
Adding an Item to the List
Displaying the List Contents
Self-Containing Classes
Augmenting the linklist Program
Containers
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: A Sorted Array Class
Inserting Objects in Sorted Order
The employee Class
The SortedArray Class
In main()
Searching for a Specific Element
The Binary Search
Constructors Used to Initialize Array
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 8
End-Of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 9—VIRTUAL FUNCTIONS AND

FRIEND FUNCTIONS
Session 1: Introduction to Virtual Functions
Polymorphism
Normal Member Functions Accessed with
Pointers
Virtual Member Functions Accessed with
Pointers
Late Binding
How It Works
Arrays of Pointers to Objects
Don’t Try This with Objects
Quiz 1
Session 2: Examples of Virtual Functions
A Personnel Example
The main() Program
The Classes
Virtual Functions
The isOutstanding() Function
Virtual Functions in Other Classes
A Graphics Example
No shape Objects, Please
Initializing the Array
Virtual Functions and Constructors
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Decoupling with Polymorphism
Passing References
Passing Pointers
A person Class Example
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Abstract Classes and Virtual Destructors
Abstract Classes
Pure Virtual Functions
A Short Example
The shape Example
The Compiler on Watch
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual Functions
Pure Virtual Functions with Bodies
Virtual Destructors
Is the Derived Class Destructor Executed?
Not Unless It’s Virtual
A More Realistic Example
When Do You Use Virtual Functions?
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Runtime Type Identification
A Simple Example
A More Realistic Example
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Session 6: Friend Functions
The “Left-Side” Problem
No Problem on the Right
Not So Easy on the Left
Friends to the Rescue
Breaching the Walls
Friends for Functional Notation
Friends as Bridges
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Friend Classes
Interclass Communication
Accessing Private Members in a Previously
Defined Class
Accessing Private Members in a Not Yet
Defined Class
Pointers in Interclass Communication
A Horse Race Example
Operation of FRIHORSE
Designing the Horse Race
Creating the Horses
Keeping Time
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Nested Classes and Static Member Data
Nested Classes
Communication Between Nested Classes
Horse Racing and Nested Classes
Horse Racing and Static Data
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 9
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 10—STERAMS AND FILES

SESSION 1: Stream Classes
Advantages of Streams
The Stream Class Hierarchy
The ios Class
Formatting Flags
Manipulators
Functions
The istream Class
The ostream Class
The iostream and the _withassign Classes
Predefined Stream Objects
Stream Errors
Error-Status Bits
Inputting Numbers
Too Many Characters
No-Input Input
Inputting Strings and Characters
Error-Free Distances
All-Character Input
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Disk File I/O with Streams
Formatted File I/O
Writing Data
Reading Data
Strings with Embedded Blanks
Detecting End-of-File
Character I/O
Direct Access to the streambuf Object
Binary I/O
Object I/O
Writing an Object to Disk
Reading an Object from Disk
Compatible Data Structures
I/O with Multiple Objects
The fstream Class
The open() Function
The Mode Bits
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: File Errors and File Pointers
Error Handling in File I/O
Reacting to Errors
Analyzing Errors
File Pointers
Specifying the Position
Specifying the Offset
The tellg() Function
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
MidChapter Discussion
Session 5: File I/O Using Member Functions
Objects That Read and Write Themselves
Classes That Read and Write Themselves
Static Functions
Size of Derived Objects
Using the typeid() Function
Code Number for Object Type
No Homemade Objects, Please
Interaction with empl_io
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Overloading the << and >> Operators
Overloading for cout and cin
Overloading for Files
Overloading for Binary I/O
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Memory as a Stream Object
Fixed Buffer Size
The ostrstream Object
Input Memory Streams
Universality
File Pointers
Dynamic Buffer Size
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Printer Output and Other Refinements
Command-Line Arguments
Printer Output
Redirection
Using the redir Program
Redirecting Output
Redirecting Input
Redirecting Input and Output
Redirection and the _withassign Classes
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 10
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 11—TEMPLATES, EXCEPTIONS,

AND MORE
Session 1: Function Templates
A Simple Function Template
Function Template Syntax
What the Compiler Does
Function Templates with Multiple Arguments
Template Arguments Must Match
More Than One Template Argument
Why Not Macros?
What Works?
Start with a Normal Function
Quiz 1
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 2: Class Templates
Class Name Depends on Context
A Linked List Class Using Templates
Storing User-Defined Data Types
Employees in a Linked List
What Can You Store?
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 3: Exceptions
Why Do We Need Exceptions?
Exception Syntax
A Simple Exception Example
Specifying the Exception Class
Throwing an Exception
The try Block
The Exception Handler (catch Block)
The Sequence of Events
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Exceptions Continued
Multiple Exceptions
Exceptions with the Distance Class
Exceptions with Arguments
Specifying Data in an Exception Class
Initializing an Exception Object
Extracting Data from the Exception Object
The xalloc Class
Exception Notes
Destructors Called Automatically
Termination Oriented
Function Nesting
Can’t Return to Throw Point
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Explicit Casts, typedef, and the Operator
Explicit Casts
Static Casts
Dynamic Casts
Const Casts
Reinterpret Casts
The typedef Specifier
Pointers and typedef
Classes and typedef
More Portable Code
Templates and typedef
Overloading the Function Operator
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: The Standard string Class
Header Files
Constructors and Operators
Member Functions
The insert(), remove(), and replace() Member
Functions
The find() Member Function
The find_first_of() Member Function
The substr() Member Function
Passing string Objects as Arguments
The copy() Member Function
The c_str() Member Function
Arrays of string Objects
The compare() Member Function
Get Ready for the STL
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Multifile Programs
Reasons for Multifile Programs
Class Libraries
Public Components
Private Components
Organization and Conceptualization
How to Create a Multifile Program
Header Files
Directory
Multiple Files
Namespaces
Declaring Namespaces
Accessing Elements from Another Namespace
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: A Very-Long-Numbers Example
Numbers as Strings
The Class Specifier
The Member Functions
The Application Program
Subtraction and Division
Exercise 1
Summary: Chapter 11
End-of-Chapter Discussion

CHAPTER 12—THE STANDARD TEMPLATE

LIBRARY
Session 1: Introduction to the STL
Containers
Sequence Containers
Associative Containers
Member Functions
Abstract Data Types
Algorithms
Iterators
Potential Problems with the STL
Quiz 1
Session 2: Algorithms
The find() Algorithm
Header Files
Ranges
The count() Algorithm
The sort() Algorithm
The search() Algorithm
The merge() Algorithm
Function Objects
User-Written Functions in Place of Function
Objects
Boolean Type
Adding _if to Algorithms
The for_each() Algorithm
The transform() Algorithm
Quiz 2
Exercise 1
Session 3: Sequential Containers
Vectors
Member Functions push_back(), size(), and
Operator [ ]
Member Functions swap(), empty() back(), and
pop_back()
Member Functions insert() and erase()
Lists
Member Functions push_front(), front(), and
pop_front
Member Functions reverse(), merge(), and
unique()
Deques
Quiz 3
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 4: Iterators
Iterators as Smart Pointers
Ordinary Pointers Underpowered
Whose Responsibility?
Iterators as an Interface
Matching Algorithms with Containers
Plugging the Cable into a Container
Plugging the Cables into the Algorithm
The Tables Tell the Story
Overlapping Member Functions and
Algorithms
Iterators at Work
Data Access
Data Insertion
Algorithms and Iterators
Quiz 4
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Midchapter Discussion
Session 5: Specialized Iterators
Iterator Adapters
Reverse Iterators
Insert Iterators
Stream Iterators
The ostream_iterator Class
The istream_iterator Class
Quiz 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 6: Associative Containers
Sets and Multisets
Maps and Multimaps
Iterating Through Maps
Pairs
The [ ] Operator
Hash Table Versions
Quiz 6
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 7: Storing User-Defined Objects
A Set of person Objects
Necessary Member Functions
Ordering
Just Like Basic Types
A List of person Objects
Finding All persons with a Specified Name
Finding All persons with a Specified Phone
Number
A List of airtime Objects
Quiz 7
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Session 8: Function Objects
Predefined Function Objects
Writing Your Own Function Objects
Different Criteria for Sorting
Binding: Providing Values to Function Objects
Quiz 8
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Summary: Chapter 12
End-of-Chapter Discussion

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX E

APPEBDIX F

INDEX

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C++ Interactive Course:Introduction

To access the contents, click the chapter and section titles.

C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
Keyword
Brief Full
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Table of Contents

-----------

Introduction
If you want to know whether you should buy this book, read this
introduction!
First question: Why learn C++ at all? That's easy: It’s today’s dominant
computer language. When the going gets tough, the professionals turn to
C++. There are many other languages, of course, but they lack the
universality and power of C++. For example, Visual Basic is useful for
quickly putting together applications that aren’t too large or demanding,
assembly language is good if you’re writing a device driver, and Java is
great for the World Wide Web. (Java is derived from C++ anyway.) But for
a major standalone application, C++ is the most popular language that has
the power and flexibility to produce the fastest, best-performing code. For
these reasons, C++ is a major part of the Computer Science curriculum at
almost every school and university. If you’re a programmer, chances are
that sooner or later you’ll need to know it.

What’s Different About This Book?

This book is a C++ tutorial. But there are a lot of C++ tutorials on the
market. How is this one different? Three ways: It’s easy to understand, it’s
organized in a better and unique way, and it comes with a free backup
system if there’s anything that’s giving you trouble. Let’s look at these
features in detail.

Easy to Understand
This book starts off with very easy examples; we don’t assume you’re a
rocket scientist. We try to explain everything with no assumptions about
what you may already know. We use plenty of figures and analogies to
clarify the text. The program examples are heavily commented to make
everything as clear as possible.
As you progress further into the book, the examples become more
challenging, but we try to keep the increase in difficulty gradual, so you’re
always ready for what comes next. Ultimately we cover all the main
features of C++.

Unique Organization
Unlike most other C++ books, this one uses, from the very first example,
real object-oriented programs. Most books, in an attempt to stick with the
familiar, start with old-fashioned procedural examples and work up to full
object-based examples half-way through. This may seem easier, but in the
long run it’s counter-productive, because it encourages bad thinking habits.
The whole point of C++ is to write object-oriented programs. If they don’t
do that from the beginning, they’re missing the point. And, as it turns out,
object-oriented programs aren’t that hard anyway.

The Waite Group Interactive Series

The third way this book differs from other C++ books is that it’s a Waite
Group Interactive book. This isn't just publisher’s hype: By connecting you
to the Waite Group via the World Wide Web, this new approach can
actually play a significant role in helping you to learn C++. There are many
aspects to the Interactive Series. We won’t dwell on them here, since the
details are presented elsewhere. We should note, however, that this book
was written from the ground up to work as part of the Interactive Series.
First, each chapter is divided into short, easily digestible lessons. Each
lesson is devoted to a specific topic and requires only an hour
(approximately) to read and understand. This makes it easy to sit down with
the book and learn something, even if your time is limited.
Each lesson is followed by a quiz to ensure that you’ve understood the
material. You can answer the quizzes by yourself, or you can do them on
the Web, which will grade them automatically. There are almost 500 quiz
questions in the book, so you'll really find out how well you understand the
subject.
The Waite Group Web site offers many other advantages. A principle one is
mentoring, which is the ability to ask questions and get answers back, just
as you would if you were taking a class at a university and could talk to the
professor.
As a final plus, this book includes a full chapter on the Standard Template
Library (STL), which is fast becoming an essential part of every C++
programmer’s bag of tricks, but which has not yet made its way into many
C++ books.

What Do You Need to Know?

This book is intended for anyone who wants to learn C++ from the ground
up. That is, it does not assume any previous knowledge of C (or any other
specific programming language). It’s nice if you’ve had some exposure to
another language, but even that is not essential. In fact, it may be better not
to have bad old (procedural) habits to unlearn.
If you already know the C language, you’ll find that perhaps a third of the
material in this book is familiar to you. You’ll know the basic syntax of
for loops, switch statements, and pointers, for example. However,
you’ll be surprised by how much of the material is new. Almost all the
examples, including those that explain basic syntax, use the object-oriented
approach, so you’ll find you’re learning OOP even when you’re reading
about syntax you already know.

What Hardware and Software Do You Need?

You should have some kind of C++ compiler at your disposal. The example
programs in this book are—for the most part—generic: That is, they will
work with most compilers. Thus, you aren’t constrained to use any
particular system.
In a few instances we wrote compiler-specific code so we could use more
sophisticated screen displays. This applies to only a half-dozen examples
out of more than 200 programs in the book. For these, the code in the book
is specific to Borland C++ (and Turbo C++, which is similar). These are
probably the most popular compilers and among the easiest to use.
However, if you're using Microsoft Visual C++, Appendix C shows you
how, by inserting a special header file (provided on the CD-ROM) into the
example’s source code, you can easily convert these few programs to work
with your compiler.

Go For It!
Learning C++ has never been easier. With its short lessons,
easy-to-understand writing style, and the support of Waite Group Press via
their Web site, you should be on your way to C++ mastery in less time than
you thought possible.

Installation
The companion CD-ROM contains all of the source code and the
executables from the lessons in the book, as well as the NetManage
Chameleon installer. Since all of the code for the lessons in this book are on
the companion CD-ROM, there is no need to type the code if you want to
use it for your own projects. We will illustrate how to copy the files from
the companion CD-ROM to your hard drive.
This section will walk you through the steps necessary to install the source
code from the CD-ROM to your hard drive for DOS/Windows 3.x and
Windows 95. To install the NetManage Chameleon, please see the section
The Chameleon Sampler.

Note: For the following examples, we are going to assume that the
CD-ROM drive you want to copy files from is the D: drive and the hard
drive you want to copy files to is the C: drive. If your system is set up
differently, please substitute the appropriate drive letters for your system.

DOS
These instructions for DOS assume you have no familiarity with DOS
commands. If you feel uncomfortable with DOS and are using these
instructions from the Windows DOS Prompt, please exit and follow the
instructions for your version of Windows.
1. Move to the drive that you want to copy the files to. If you want to
copy the files onto the C: drive, type

and press ENTER. Ensure you are at the root directory by typing

CD \

and pressing ENTER.

2. Create the directory you would like to store your files into. If you
want to store the files into the CPPIC directory, type

MD CPPIC

and press ENTER.

3. Move to that directory. If you created a directory called CPPIC,
move to that directory by typing

CD CPPIC

and press ENTER.

4. To copy all of the files to your hard drive, simply type

XCOPY D:\*.* /V /S

and press ENTER. To copy individual subdirectories from the

CD-ROM to the CPPIC directory on your hard drive, you must create
the chapter directories before you copy the contents. For example, if
you wanted to copy the code for Chapters 2, 5, and 7, you would type

MD CHAP_02
MD CHAP_05
MD CHAP_07

and press ENTER after each line. Then you would type

CD \CPPIC\CHAP_02
XCOPY D:\CHAP_02 /V /S

CD \CPPIC\CHAP_05
XCOPY D:\CHAP_05 /V /S

CD \CPPIC\CHAP_07
XCOPY D:\CHAP_07 /V /S

and press ENTER after each line. The /V is a DOS switch to verify
files while copying and /S is a DOS switch to copy the
subdirectories. Depending on the configuration and performance of
your system, these steps may take from a few moments to a few
minutes.

Windows 3.x
The following steps are for the use of Windows 3.x with short file names.
1. Open the File Manager.
2. In File Manager, locate the drive you want to copy to and click on
it.
3. If you have a directory to copy the files to, skip to Step 4.
Otherwise, create a new directory by selecting File, Create Directory.
Type

CPPIC

or a directory name of your choice and press ENTER or click on the

OK button.
4. Click on CPPIC or the directory you created.
5. Select the drive letter of your CD-ROM drive.
6. Double-click on the D: drive icon. You should see the following
directory structure:

APP_C
CHAP_02
CHAP_03
CHAP_04
CHAP_05
CHAP_06
CHAP_07
CHAP_08
CHAP_09
CHAP_10
CHAP_11
CHAP_12
NTMANAGE

Control-click on the directories that you want to copy and drag the
selection to the destination drive. Depending on how fast your
computer is and also depending on the options set for your computer,
the copying process may take a few moments to a few minutes.

Note: When Windows copies a CD-ROM, it does not change the

Read-only attribute for the files it copies. You can view the files, but you
cannot edit them until you remove this attribute. To change it on all of the
files, select the top-most directory with the files in it. In File Manager,
select File, Properties and click on the Read-only checkbox to deselect it
and click on OK.

Windows 95
The easiest way to copy files using Windows 95 is by using the Desktop.
1. Double-click on the My Computer icon. Your drives will appear
in a window on the desktop.
2. Double-click on your hard drive and create a new folder, such as
C++ Interactive Course, by selecting File, New, Folder from the
window menu. A folder called New Folder will be created on your
hard drive with the name highlighted. Type in the name you want and
press the ENTER key.
3. Go back to your drive window and double-click on the icon that
represents your CD-ROM. You will see a window that has 11 chapter
folders, one appendix folder, and one Program folder.
4. Select the directories you want to copy (control-click on the
folders if you’re not copying all of them) and drag your selection to
the directory you created on your hard drive. You might need to
reposition your windows to make the window for your hard drive
visible. Depending on your system’s performance, this may take a
few moments to a few minutes

Note: When Windows (any version) copies a CD-ROM, it does not

change the Read-only attribute for the files it copies. You can view the
files, but you cannot edit them until you remove this attribute. To change
it on all of the files, select the top-most directory with the files in it. In
Explorer, select File, Properties and click on the Read-only checkbox to
deselect it and click on OK.

The Chameleon Sampler

The NetManage Internet Chameleon is one of the most versatile and
easy-to-use set of Internet tools in the world. Chameleon helps you sign up
with an Internet provider, connect cleanly to the Internet, and access a
variety of resources—including a pretty cool Web browser. The Chameleon
package includes
• Custom, for connecting to the Internet
• WebSurfer, a full-featured World Wide Web browser
• Gopher, which lets you access any gopher menu worldwide
• NEWTNews, a Usenet newsreader
• Mail, a convenient way to send and receive e-mail
• Archie, which lets you search for a file over the Internet
• Telnet, for connecting to a remote computer
• FTP, for transferring files over the Internet
• FTP Server, which lets you allow others to download or upload
files to your PC
• Mail Utilities, programs that help you compact or organize your
mailbox files to save space
• Ping, to test if you’re connected to a remote computer
• Finger, to check if a friend is connected to the Internet
• Whois, to get information about people registered in the NIC
(Network Information Center) database
You can sample the Chameleon tools for 30 days at no charge. If you like
what you see, you can register everything for 50 bucks.

Installing the Chameleon

Note: In the installation directions here, we assume that your hard disk is
the C: drive and your CD-ROM is the D: drive. If this doesn’t match your
computer, substitute C: or D: with the correct drive designation.

To copy the sampler software onto your hard disk, run the Setup program.
While under Windows, select File, Run in the Program Manager. In the
Run dialog box, type

d:\windows\browsers\ntmanage\disk_1\setup.exe
and then press the OK button.
The Setup program will ask you where to install the NetManage program.
The default suggested is fine for most people. If you want it installed
elsewhere, type in the drive and directory of your choosing and select
Continue.
After a few moments, the Setup program will ask you to type in the path of
the second batch of files. Select the 1 in DISK_1 and change it to 2, and
select Continue.
After another few moments, the Setup program will ask you to type in the
path of the third batch of files. Select the 2 in DISK_2 and change it to 3,
and select Continue.
Click OK when Setup tells you that installation is complete. You are now
ready to setup your Internet account!

Signing Up for an Internet Provider Account

If you don’t already have one, the Chameleon package makes it easy to sign
up with one of several popular Internet providers. Read Chapter 1 for more
information about what services are offered by Internet providers.
If you’d like to sign up using the Chameleon software, run the Automatic
Internet-Click to Start icon.
To learn about a particular Internet provider, click one of the tabs (other
than NetManage) in the Select Internet Provider window. Most providers
give you several hours (or even a month) of free trial time. To read about
the locations an Internet provider can cover, the monthly price, and other
important information, click the More Info button at the bottom of the
screen. If you have specific questions, contact the provider directly.
When you’re ready to begin the sign-up procedure, click the Signup button.
You’ll see a registration screen similar to the one in Figure I-1. Fill in your
name (as it appears on your credit card), address, phone number, and credit
card information.

Figure I-1 The easiest way to sign up for an Internet provider

Note: You will not actually be charged any provider fees until you
officially register with the service. You can cancel the registration
transaction at any time during the sign-on process. If you do decide to
register, your credit card number will be sent over a secure phone line.

As you work through the sign-up process, there may be other tabs asking
for additional information. If so, click these tabs and fill in the forms.
Select the Phone List button at the bottom of the screen. The Phone List
dialog appears, listing possible phone numbers you can use to register. If
one of the numbers is in your area code, select it. Otherwise, select the
toll-free 800 number.

Note: If necessary, you can edit the registration phone number. Some
systems, for example, require you to dial a 9 to reach an outside line. Just
type in this 9.

When you’ve typed in all your vital stats, return to the first registration tab.
Click Send to dial the toll-free number and begin the registration process.
The icons to the right will light up as each stage of the dialing process is
completed. The set of traffic lights tell you if each stage—initializing the
modem, dialing, connecting, and communicating—has worked.

Note: You may need to click the Advanced button to specify special
modem ports or commands.

Follow the instructions that appear as the registration proceeds. You will be
given the option to select from various service and pricing plans. Your
account information (username, e-mail address, password, dial-up number,
and IP address) will automatically be configured into the Chameleon
package. An interface will be created for the Custom program, which
quickly and flawlessly connects you to the Internet.
That’s it! You can now reboot your system to kick-start everything.

Registering the Chameleon Software

If you already have an Internet account, you can set up the Internet
Chameleon software (shown in Figure I-2) and start using it within minutes.
Run the Automatic Internet-Click to Start program.

Figure I-2 The full Chameleon package in the Internet Chameleon

program group
Make sure the NetManage tab is selected, and then click the Signup button.
You can now activate the software for a free 30-day demonstration period.
After this period, the Chameleon software will no longer work. If you
decide to register the Chameleon package (for $50), your credit card will be
charged and your software will be activated permanently.
Fill in all the information on both forms, as shown in Figure I-1, including
your credit card number (it won’t be charged unless you complete the
registration). You may need to contact your Internet provider for the
Internet information on the second form.
Select the Phone button, and choose a local or toll-free phone number. Then
click the Send button to dial in to NetManage and get your software
activated.
Once you connect, you are given the following choices:
• Activate your software for a free 30-day demonstration.
• Purchase your software to activate it permanently.
• Configure your connection (if your Chameleon software has
already been activated).

Connecting to the Internet

Now that you have selected a provider and registered your software, you
can actually get hooked in to the Internet. To do this, you need to run the
Custom program (Figure I-3) from Windows File Manager.

Figure I-3 Your customized on-ramp onto the Information Superhighway

If you used the Chameleon package to sign up with your Internet provider,
an automatic configuration file should have already been written for you.
Otherwise, Chameleon comes with the configurations for most popular
Internet providers. Select File, Open and look for the configuration file for
your provider. If your provider is not listed, you’ll need to contact them and
ask what the proper settings are. They may even be able to send you a
prewritten Chameleon configuration file.
If you do need to enter the connection settings yourself, use the appropriate
values you have obtained from your Internet provider. You can verify or
edit the following information under the Setup menu:
• IP Address
• Subnet Mask
• Host Name
• Domain Name
• Port
• Modem
• Dial
• Login
• Interface Name
• BOOTP
You may also need to fill in the following under the Services menu:
• Default Gateway
• Domain Servers
Read Chapter 1 for more information about these terms.

Logging In
Once your configuration settings are in place, simply click the Connect
menu to dial up your Internet provider and get connected. If all goes well,
you should hear a small beep, and a program known as Newt will run. This
program lets Windows communicate with the Internet. You can then
minimize the Custom program and run the Internet application of your
choice.

Logging Out
When you’re done using the Internet, call up the Custom program and click
the Disconnect menu.

Web Browsing with Websurfer

WebSurfer is a full-featured World Wide Web browser similar to Mosaic.
You can read all about browsers in Chapter 2 and about Mosaic in Chapter
5. To start exploring the Web, first use the Chameleon Custom program to
connect to the Internet. Then run the WebSurfer program.
Like Mosaic, WebSurfer has a toolbar (see the top of Figure I-4) that acts as
a shortcut for most commands. The toolbar contains

Figure I-4 The WebSurfer browser in all its glory

• Show Connection Status: Shows you which links are currently
being loaded.
• Go to URL: Opens a specific Web URL (defined in Chapter 1).
• Get URL: Reloads the current document.
• Hotlist: Shows the list of your favorite Web pages for you to
choose from. To go to a page, just double-click on it. You can also
delete pages from the list by selecting the page and clicking Remove.
• Make Hot: Adds the current Web page to your hotlist.
• Back: Revisits the Web page you just came from.
• Forward: Goes to the next Web page in the series, if applicable.
• Home: Returns to the Web page you started from.
• Cancel All: Stops the loading of the current Web page.

Loading a Web Page from the Internet

Like Mosaic, WebSurfer combines text and graphics on the same page. Any
text in blue or graphics with a blue border are hypertext links to other Web
pages, multimedia files, or Internet areas. To load a link, just click on it.
You can also load up a document directly. Just select Retrieve, Go To URL
and type in the document’s exact URL. Alternatively, you can type a
document’s URL in the Dialog bar’s URL box and press to load
it.
If the document is a Web page, it will be displayed. If the document is a
graphic, sound, or movie, the WebSurfer program will attempt to call up a
viewer program to display/play it. If the document is any other type of
multimedia file, WebSurfer allows you to save the document directly to
your hard disk.
To find out more about the current Web document, select Retrieve,
Properties.

Loading a Web Page from Your Hard Disk

If you have any Web pages on your hard disk (perhaps ones that you’ve
created yourself), you can easily use WebSurfer to view them. Select
Retrieve, Open Local File. Choose the file you want to view and click OK.
You can even edit the current Web document—a very handy capability for
Web developers. Select Retrieve, Edit HTML. Then access the Retrieve,
Refresh From Disk menu item to reload the page in a flash and see what
your edits look like.

Other Internet Tools

The Chameleon package contains software for every Internet resource you
could possibly want. To use FTP, e-mail, telnet, gopher, or any other
Internet program, first connect to the Internet using the Custom application.
Then you can communicate with friends across the world using Mail, read
or post messages to thousands of newsgroups using NEWTNews, browse
menus of data using gopher, download tons of cool software using FTP, and
much more

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C++ Interactive Course:About the Author

To access the contents, click the chapter and section titles.

C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
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Publication Date: 08/01/96
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-----------

About the Author

Robert Lafore has been writing books about computer programming since
1982. His bestselling titles include Assembly Language Programming for
the IBM PC and XT, C Programming Using Turbo C++, Microsoft C
Programming for the PC, and Object-Oriented Programming in C++. Mr.
Lafore holds degrees in mathematics and electrical engineering, and has
been active in programming since the days of the PDP-5, when 4K of main
memory was considered luxurious. His interests include hiking,
windsurfing, and recreational mathematics.

Dedication
This book is dedicated to the memory of my father, who got me started with
superheterodyne circuits and the 6SJ7. And everything else, for that matter.

Acknowledgments
This book has taken so long to write that it's gone through a whole series of
Waite Group managing editors. My thanks to Andrea Rosenberg, John
Crudo, and–in the distant past—Scott Calamar.
Special thanks also to Mitch Waite, who—once again—is dragging me
kicking and screaming into today's technology.
Lyn Cordell, in her dual role as a content editor plus copy editor, is the best.
If she says change it, I change it; I know she's right. Mike Radtke, technical
editor, pulled the fat out of the fire on more occasions than I care to think
about. (Any remaining problems are, of course, entirely my fault.)

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C++ Interactive Course:A First Look at OOP and C++

To access the contents, click the chapter and section titles.

C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
Keyword
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-----------

CHAPTER 1
A FIRST LOOL AT OOP AND C++
Welcome to the exciting world of object-oriented programming! In this
first chapter, I’ll start by discussing why object-oriented programming
(OOP) was invented and why it offers advantages to the programmer. I’ll
also provide a quick overview of the main features of object-oriented
languages. You’ll learn about the two most fundamental aspects of OOP,
objects and classes. Then I’ll focus on a particular kind of object—hot dog
stand—and show how real hot dog stands on the street relate to hot dog
stand objects in a program. You’ll see how to use C++ to describe a class of
hot dog stand objects and how to make these objects carry out tasks.
This approach goes to the very heart of OOP. Most books begin by
skittering around the edges of C++, talking about old-fashioned procedural
details. This one attacks objects and classes head-on. If you think of OOP
as a fierce fire-breathing dragon, then you’re going to walk right up to it,
look it squarely in the eye, and tell it you want answers, now!

Session 1: Why Do We Need OOP?

In this session, I’ll discuss, in a general way, how object-oriented
programming arrived on the scene. OOP was developed because limitations
were discovered in earlier approaches to programming. To appreciate what
OOP does, you need to understand what these limitations are and how they
arose from traditional programming languages.

Procedural Languages

Pascal, C, BASIC, Fortran, and similar traditional programming languages

are procedural languages. That is, each statement in the language tells the
computer to do something: Get some input, add these numbers, divide by 6,
display that output. A program in a procedural language is a list of
instructions.
For very small programs, no other organizing principle (often called a
paradigm) is needed. The programmer creates the list of instructions and
the computer carries them out.

Division into Functions

When programs become larger, a single list of instructions becomes

unwieldy. Few programmers can comprehend a program of more than a few
hundred statements unless it is broken down into smaller units. For this
reason, the function was adopted as a way to make programs more
comprehensible to their human creators. (The term function is used in C++
and C. In other languages, the same concept may be called a subroutine, a
subprogram, or a procedure.) A program is divided into functions
and—ideally, at least—each function has a clearly defined purpose and a
clearly defined interface to the other functions in the program.
The idea of breaking a program into functions can be extended by grouping
a number of functions together into a larger entity called a module, but the
principle is similar: a grouping of instructions that carry out specific tasks.
Dividing a program into functions and modules is one of the cornerstones
of structured programming, the somewhat loosely defined discipline that
has influenced programming design for several decades.

Problems with Structured Programming

As programs grow ever larger and more complex, even the structured
programming approach begins to show signs of strain. You may have heard
about, or been involved in, horror stories of program development. The
project is too complex, the schedule slips, more programmers are added,
complexity increases, costs skyrocket, the schedule slips further, and
disaster ensues (see The Mythical Man-Month, by Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.,
Addison-Wesley, 1982, for a vivid description of this scenario).
Analyzing the reasons for these failures reveals weaknesses in the
procedural paradigm itself. No matter how well the structured programming
approach is implemented, large programs become excessively complex.
What are the reasons for this failure of procedural languages? One of the
most crucial is the role played by data.

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C++ Interactive Course:A First Look at OOP and C++

To access the contents, click the chapter and section titles.

C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
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-----------
Data Is Undervalued

In a procedural language, the emphasis is on doing things—read the

keyboard, invert the vector, check for errors, and so on. The subdivision of
a program into functions continues this emphasis. Functions do things, just
as single program statements do. What they do may be more complex or
abstract, but the emphasis is still on the action.
What happens to the data in this paradigm? Data is, after all, the reason for
a program’s existence. The important part of an inventory program isn’t a
function that displays the data or a function that checks for correct input;
it’s the inventory data itself. Yet data is given second-class status in the
organization of procedural languages.
For example, in an inventory program, the data that makes up the inventory
is probably read from a disk file into memory, where it is treated as a global
variable. By global, I mean that the variables that constitute the data are
declared outside of any function so they are accessible to all functions.
These functions perform various operations on the data. They read it,
analyze it, update it, rearrange it, display it, write it back to the disk, and so
on.
I should note that most languages, such as Pascal and C, also support local
variables, which are hidden within a single function. But local variables are
not useful for important data that must be accessed by many different
functions. Figure 1-1 shows the relationship between global and local
variables.

Figure 1-1 Global and local variables

Suppose a new programmer is hired to write a function to analyze this

inventory data in a certain way. Unfamiliar with the subtleties of the
program, the programmer creates a function that accidentally corrupts the
data. This is easy to do, because every function has complete access to the
data. It’s like leaving your personal papers in the lobby of your apartment
building: Anyone can change or destroy them. In the same way, global data
can be corrupted by functions that have no business changing it.
Another problem is that, because many functions access the same data, the
way the data is stored becomes critical. The arrangement of the data can’t
be changed without modifying all the functions that access it. If you add
new data items, for example, you’ll need to modify all the functions that
access the data so that they can also access these new items. It will be hard
to find all such functions and even harder to modify all of them correctly.
It’s similar to what happens when your local supermarket moves the bread
from aisle 4 to aisle 12. Everyone who patronizes the supermarket must
figure out where the bread has gone and adjust their shopping habits
accordingly. The relationship of functions and data in procedural programs
is shown in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2 The procedural paradigm

What is needed is a way to restrict access to the data, to hide it from all but
a few critical functions. This will protect the data, simplify maintenance,
and offer other benefits, as you’ll see.

Relationship to the Real World

Procedural programs are often difficult to design. The problem is that their
chief components—functions and data structures—don’t model the real
world very well. For example, suppose you are writing code to create the
elements of a graphics user interface: menus, windows, and so on. Quick
now, what functions will you need? What data structures? The answers are
not obvious, to say the least. It would be better if windows and menus
corresponded more closely to actual program elements.

New Data Types

There are other problems with traditional languages. One is the difficulty of
creating new data types. Computer languages typically have several built-in
data types: integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and so on. What if
you want to invent your own data type? Perhaps you want to work with
complex numbers, or two-dimensional coordinates, or dates—quantities the
built-in data types don’t handle easily. Being able to create your own types
is called extensibility because you can extend the capabilities of the
language. Traditional languages are not usually extensible. Without
unnatural convolutions, you can’t bundle both x and y coordinates into a
single variable called Point and then add and subtract values of this type.
Traditional programs are more complex to write and maintain.

The Object-Oriented Approach

The fundamental idea behind object-oriented languages is to combine into a

single program entity both data and the functions that operate on that data.
Such an entity is called an object.
An object’s functions, called member functions in C++ (because they
belong to a particular class of objects), typically provide the only way to
access its data. If you want to read a data item in an object, you call a
member function in the object. It will read the item and return the value to
you. You can’t access the data directly. The data is hidden, so it is safe from
accidental alteration. Data and its functions are said to be encapsulated into
a single entity. Encapsulation and data hiding are key terms in the
description of object-oriented languages.
If you want to modify the data in an object, you know exactly what
functions interact with it: the member functions in the object. No other
functions can access the data. This simplifies writing, debugging, and
maintaining the program.
A C++ program typically consists of a number of objects that communicate
with each other by calling one another’s member functions. Figure 1-3
shows the organization of a C++ program.

Figure 1-3 The object-oriented paradigm

I should mention that what are called member functions in C++ are called
methods in some other object-oriented (OO) languages such as Smalltalk,
one of the first OO languages. Also, data items may be called instance
variables. Calling an object’s member function is often referred to as
sending a message to the object. These terms are often used by C++ writers.

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The Corporate Analogy

You might want to think of objects as departments—such as sales,

accounting, personnel, and so on—in a company. Departments provide an
important approach to corporate organization. In most companies (except
very small ones), people don’t work on personnel problems one day,
payroll the next, and then go out in the field as salespeople the following
week. Each department has its own personnel, with clearly assigned duties.
It also has its own data: payroll, sales figures, personnel records, inventory,
or whatever, depending on the department.
The people in each department control and operate on that department’s
data. Dividing the company into departments makes it easier to comprehend
and control the company’s activities and helps maintain the integrity of the
information used by the company. The payroll department, for instance, is
responsible for payroll data. If you work in the sales department and you
need to know the total of all the salaries paid in the southern region in July,
you don’t just walk into the payroll department and start rummaging
through file cabinets. You send a memo to the appropriate person in the
department and then wait for that person to access the data and send you a
reply with the information you want. This ensures that the data is accessed
accurately and it is not corrupted by inept outsiders. This view of corporate
organization is shown in Figure 1-4. In the same way, objects provide an
approach to program organization while helping to maintain the integrity of
the program’s data.

Figure 1-4 The corporate paradigm

The Dinner Table Analogy

Here’s another analogy. Let’s compare an old-fashioned procedural

program with a table set for—let’s say—Thanksgiving dinner. The guests
seated around the table—Uncle Harry, Aunt Beatrice, and so on—represent
functions and the dishes of food on the table—turkey, cranberry sauce,
sweet potatoes—are the data. Let’s further assume that the guests never ask
their neighbors to pass any of the dishes; they just reach across the table for
the food. This corresponds to a procedural program, in which functions
access global data directly.
This approach works all right as long as there aren’t too many guests at the
table. Six or eight guests is probably the maximum. In a larger party—20
guests, say—people must reach too far, their sleeves dip into the gravy,
dishes collide midtable, several guests reach for the same dish at the same
time, things are spilled, fights break out—you get the picture. This sort of
chaos is what happens in large procedural programs where the only form of
organization is data and functions. The organizational paradigm can’t
support the complexity.
What’s needed is a more powerful organizational unit. For the dinner party,
several smaller tables might be used rather than one large one. Each table
has its own supply of food and guests; it’s the new organization unit. The
guests at these small tables can easily reach the food on their own table. If
someone wants something from another table—the pepper, perhaps—she
asks a guest at that table to bring it to her.
Each of the small tables corresponds to an object. Each object has its own
functions and data. Most of the interaction between functions and data takes
place within the objects, but it’s also possible for one object to exchange
data with another. By using a larger organizational unit, the object, which
combines functions and data, we’ve restored order to a chaotic situation.

OOP: An Approach to Organization, Not Details

Keep in mind that object-oriented programming is not primarily concerned

with the details of program operation. Instead, it deals with the overall
organization of the program. Most individual program statements in C++
are similar to statements in procedural languages and many are identical to
statements in C. Indeed, an entire member function in a C++ program may
be very similar to a procedural function in C. It is only when you look at the
larger context that you can determine whether a statement or a function is
part of a procedural C program or an object-oriented C++ program.

Quiz 1

(Note: In this—and all quizzes in this book—a question may have more
than one correct answer.)
1. Pascal, BASIC, and C are __________ languages, whereas C++ is
___________.
a. object-oriented, traditional
b. interpreted, compiled
c. traditional, procedural
d. procedural, compiled
e. procedural, object-oriented
2. Which of the following are weaknesses of traditional languages
such as C?
a. Important data is vulnerable to accidental modification.
b. Such languages are hard to use for small programs.
c. Functions don’t correspond neatly to real-world entities.
d. It is difficult to extend such languages by adding new data
types.
e. The syntax is excessively complex.
3. In C++, you will typically access an object’s data using
a. member functions of other objects in that class.
b. member functions of any class.
c. any function with that object’s password.
d. member functions associated with that particular object.
e. any function outside of the object’s class.
4. The two major components of an object are __________ and
____________.
a. a class, its data
b. data, functions that may act on that data
c. messages, member functions
d. encapsulation, polymorphism
e. hidden data, ordinary data
5. Asking the sales manager of a company to get you data from the
sales department is like
a. calling the member function of an object to access the
object’s data.
b. creating a class of objects with data hidden inside.
c. programming a member function that can insert data in an
object.
d. creating an object with a member function that can access
its own data.
e. sending a message to a class.

Session 2: Features of Object-Oriented

Languages
Now that you have some idea why OOP languages were invented, let’s
briefly examine a few of the major elements of object-oriented languages in
general and C++ in particular. This lesson serves as a quick overview of
things to come. Don’t worry if everything I say here isn’t crystal clear; I’ll
be discussing these topics in more detail later.

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Real-World Objects

When you approach a programming problem in an object-oriented

language, you no longer ask how the problem will be divided into
functions, but how it will be divided into objects. Thinking in terms of
objects rather than functions has a surprisingly helpful effect on how easily
you can design programs. This results from the close match between objects
in the programming sense and objects in the real world.
What kinds of things become objects in object-oriented programs? The
answer is limited only by your imagination, but here are some typical
categories to start you thinking:
• Physical objects
Elevators in an elevator control program
Automobiles in a traffic flow simulation
Countries in an economics model
Aircraft in an air traffic control system
• Elements of the computer user environment
Windows
Menus
Graphics objects (lines, rectangles, circles)
The mouse, keyboard, disk drives, printer
• Data-storage constructs
Customized arrays
Stacks
Linked lists
Binary trees
• Human entities
Employees
Students
Customers
Salespeople
• Collections of data
An inventory
A personnel file
A dictionary
A table of the latitudes and longitudes of world cities
• User-defined data types
Time
Angles
Complex numbers
Points on the plane
• Components in computer games
Ghosts in a maze game
Positions in a board game (chess, checkers)
Animals in an ecological simulation
Opponents and friends in adventure games

States and Abilities

The match between programming objects and real-world objects is the

happy result of combining data and member functions. This is an important
concept, so let’s look at it another way. Many real-world objects, at least
the interesting ones, have both a state (characteristics that can change) and
abilities (things they can do).
For example, an elevator could be in the following state: It’s on the 3rd
floor, it contains four passengers, and the passengers have pushed buttons
for the 7th, 11th, and 15th floors. The elevator might also have the
following abilities: It can go down, it can go up, it can open and close its
doors, it can query other elevators to see where they are, and it can calculate
where it should go next.
In C++, an object’s data records its state and its member functions
correspond to its abilities. For an elevator object, the data might be
• Current_floor_number
• Number_of_passengers_aboard
• List_of_buttons_pushed
The member functions might be
• GoDown()
• GoUp()
• OpenDoors()
• CloseDoors()
• GetInfo()
• CalculateWhereToGo()
The underscore character (_) is often used to separate words in C++ names,
as is the technique of running words together but capitalizing the first
letters. Parentheses (( )) after a name indicate a function. Incidentally,
most C++ compilers allow names (variable names, function names, and so
on) to be as long as you want, but only the first 32 characters are
meaningful to the compiler. Upper- and lowercase letters, the underscore,
and the digits from 0 to 9 are permissible characters, but a name cannot
start with a digit.
Object-oriented programming combines the programming equivalent of
states and abilities—which are represented in a program by data and
functions—into a single entity called an object. The result is a programming
entity that corresponds neatly with many real-world objects.
Making objects the central feature of program design constitutes a
revolution in programming. No such close match between programming
constructs and the items being modeled exists in procedural languages.

Classes

In OOP, objects are instances of classes. What does this mean? Let’s look
at an analogy. Almost all computer languages have built-in data types. For
instance, a data type int, meaning integer, is predefined in C++. You can
declare as many variables of type int as you need in your program:

int day;
int count;
int divisor;
int answer;
In a similar way, you can define many objects of the same class, as shown
in Figure 1-5. A class serves as a plan, or a template. It specifies what data
and what functions will be included in objects of that class. Defining the
class doesn’t create any objects, just as the mere existence of a type int
doesn’t create any variables of type int.

Figure 1-5 A class and its objects

A class is thus a description of a number of similar objects. This fits your

nontechnical understanding of the word class. Sting, Madonna, and the
artist formerly known as Prince, are members of the class of rock
musicians. There is no one person called “rock musician,” but specific
people with specific names are members of this class if they possess certain
characteristics.
An object can be called an instance or an instantiation of a class because
the object is a “real” example or an instance of the specifications provided
by the class. This leads to a name commonly used for an object’s data:
instance data. It is called this because there is separate data for each object;
that is, for each instance of the class.

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Inheritance

The idea of classes leads to the idea of inheritance. In our daily lives, we
use the concept of classes being divided into subclasses. You know that the
class of animals is divided into mammals, amphibians, insects, birds, and so
on. The class of vehicles is divided into cars, trucks, buses, and
motorcycles.
The principle in this sort of division is that each subclass shares common
characteristics with the class from which it’s derived. Cars, trucks, buses,
and motorcycles all have wheels and a motor and are used to transport
people or goods; these are the defining characteristics of vehicles. In
addition to the characteristics shared with other members of the class, each
subclass also has its own particular characteristics: Buses, for instance, have
seats for many people, whereas trucks have space for hauling heavy loads.
This idea is shown in Figure 1-6. Notice in the figure that features A and B,
which are part of the base class, are common to all the derived classes, but
that each derived class also has features of its own.

Figure 1-6 Inheritance

In a similar way, an OOP class can be used as the basis for one or more
different subclasses. In C++, the original class is called the base class; other
classes can be defined that share its characteristics, but add their own as
well. These are called derived classes.
Inheritance is somewhat analogous to using functions to simplify a
traditional procedural program. If you find that three different sections of a
procedural program do almost exactly the same thing, you can recognize an
opportunity to extract the common elements of these three sections and put
them into a single function. The three sections of the program can call the
function to execute the common actions and they can perform their own
individual processing as well. Similarly, a base class contains elements
common to a group of derived classes. As functions do in a procedural
program, inheritance shortens an object-oriented program and clarifies the
relationship among program elements.

Reusability

Once a class has been written, created, and debugged, it can be distributed
to other programmers for use in their own programs. This is called
reusability. It is similar to the way a library of functions in a procedural
language can be incorporated into different programs.
However, in OOP, the concept of inheritance provides an important
extension to the idea of reusability. A programmer can take an existing
class and, without modifying it, add features and capabilities to it. This is
done by deriving a new class from the existing one. The new class will
inherit all the capabilities of the old one, but may also include new features
of its own.
For example, you might have written (or purchased from someone else) a
class that creates a menu system, such as that used in the Turbo C++
Integrated Development System (IDE). This class works fine and you don’t
want to change it, but you want to add the capability to make some menu
entries flash on and off. To do this, simply create a new class that inherits
all the capabilities of the existing one but adds flashing menu entries.
The ease with which existing software can be reused is a major
benefit—possibly the major benefit—of OOP. Many companies find that
reusing classes on a second project provides a major return on their original
investment. I’ll have more to say about this as I go along.

Creating New Data Types

One of the benefits of objects is that they give the programmer a convenient
way to construct new data types. Suppose you work with two-dimensional
positions (such as x and y coordinates or latitude and longitude) in your
program. You would like to express operations on these positional values
with normal arithmetic operations, such as

position1 = position2 + origin;

where the variables position1, position2, and origin each
represent a pair of independent numerical quantities. By creating a class
that incorporates these two values and declaring position1,
position2, and origin to be objects of this class, you can, in effect,
create a new data type. Many features of C++ are intended to facilitate the
creation of new data types in this manner.

Polymorphism and Overloading

Note that the = (equal) and + (plus) operators, used in the position
arithmetic shown above, don’t act the same way they do in operations on
built-in types such as int. The objects position1 and so on are not
predefined in C++, but are programmer-defined objects of class
Position. How do the = and + operators know how to operate on
objects? We must define new operations for these operators. These
operators will be member functions of the Position class.
Using operators or functions in different ways, depending on what they are
operating on, is called polymorphism (one thing with several distinct
forms). When an existing operator, such as + or =, is given the capability to
operate on additional data types, it is said to be overloaded. Functions are
overloaded when multiple functions have the same name but different
arguments. Overloading can make programs easier to write and to
understand. It’s a kind of polymorphism; it is also an important feature of
OOP.

C++ and C

Although this book assumes no knowledge of the C language, you may be

curious about how C and C++ are related. C++ is derived from the C
language. Strictly speaking, it is a superset of C: Almost every correct
statement in C is also a correct statement in C++, although the reverse is not
true. The most important elements added to C to create C++ are concerned
with classes, objects, and object-oriented programming. (C++ was
originally called “C with classes.”) However, C++ has many other features
as well, including an improved approach to I/O and a new way to write
comments. Figure 1-7 shows the relationship between C and C++.

Figure 1-7 The relationship between C and C++

In fact, the practical differences between C and C++ are larger than you
might think. You can write a program in C++ that looks like a program in
C, but doing so misses the whole point of object-oriented programming.
If you already know C, you will have a head start in learning C++ (although
you may also have some habits to unlearn), but much of the material will be
new.

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OOP in a Nutshell

In summary, OOP is a way of organizing programs. Object orientation has to do with how
programs are designed, not the details of individual program statements. In particular, OOP
programs are organized around objects, which contain both data and functions. These
functions, which act on the data, are called member functions. A class is the specification for
a number of similar objects.
C++ is a superset of C. It adds to the C language the capability to implement OOP. It also
adds a variety of other features. In addition, the emphasis is changed in C++ so that some
features common to C, although still available in C++, are seldom used, whereas others are
used far more frequently. The result is a surprisingly different language.
The general concepts discussed in this chapter will become more concrete as you learn more
about the details of C++. You may want to refer back to this chapter as you progress further
into this book.

Quiz

1. When you design a program for an object-oriented language, you look first for
_________ in real life that will correspond to __________ in the program.
a. organizations, data types
b. information, data
c. things, objects
d. actions, functions
e. categories, classes
2. A widget is to the blueprint for a widget as an object is to
a. a member function.
b. a class.
c. an operator.
d. a data item.
e. a program.
3. Inheritance allows you to start with ___________ and derive ___________ from it,
which will share common characteristics with it.
a. a class, objects
b. an object, classes
c. a member function, other member functions
d. an object, other objects
e. a class, other classes
4. Which of the following would probably make reasonable objects in an OOP
program?
a. The 4:30 flight to Dallas.
b. The alphabet.
c. A document.
d. Happiness.
e. Bill Jones.
5. Overloading an operator in C++ involves
a. giving an operator different meanings depending on the context.
b. writing new member functions.
c. allowing an operator to work on a different data type.
d. causing the operator to carry out several operations at once.
e. making the operator carry out an operation on user-defined objects.

Session 3: Hot Dog Stands as Objects

There’s no better way to get a feel for what objects and classes are all about than to look at
actual examples. For the next few sessions, you’ll look in detail at a particular class of
objects. This class models a hot dog stand. This is the kind of hot dog stand that one sees on
street corners or at ball games. It has only one item for sale: hot dogs. (I’m not talking here
about some kind of effete gourmet deli.) Figure 1-8 shows such a stand.

Figure 1-8 Hot dog stand

Actually, an object in this program is not going to model an entire hot dog stand. It will model
only the data necessary to run the stand. These objects don’t cook the hot dogs or make
change. Their job is to keep track of an important aspect of the stand’s operation: how many
hot dogs and buns are on hand at the stand. It would be more accurate to say that an object
will model the hot dog stand’s inventory.
Let’s say an entrepreneur named Sally owns six hot dog stands, located in different parts of
town. She has hired someone to operate each stand while she remains at the central office
with her computer. Each stand has a telephone, so she can stay in touch with the operators.
The stands are numbered from 1 to 6. Sally has hired you to write a program that she can use
to keep track of the supplies on hand at each stand.
At the beginning of the day, each stand’s operator calls Sally and tells her the number of buns
and hot dogs on hand. Also, each time a hot dog is sold, the operator calls to inform her of
this fact. (This may not sound too realistic but remember, these are not high-volume
locations.) With this input and the output of the hot dog stand program, Sally can keep track
of how many buns and hot dogs remain in each stand. This information enables her to call the
supplier to order more hot dogs and buns at appropriate times.

Interaction with the Hot Dog Stand Program

What do you want the hot dog stand program to do? Let’s say three kinds of interaction are
desirable. You want Sally to be able to
1. enter the number of hot dogs and buns on hand at the beginning of the day
2. record each hot dog sale (which decreases the number of buns and hot dogs by 1)
3. ask the program how many hot dogs and buns remain at any given time
Figure 1-9 shows how Sally interacts with some of her hot dog stands.

Figure 1-9 Data flow between Sally and her hot dog stands

For the moment, don’t worry about the part of the program that asks you which of these three
options you want to choose. Instead, concentrate on designing the class of hot dog stands. I’ll
present the overall program in the next chapter.

Inputting the Data

Here’s how the first step, inputting the data, might look as Sally interacts with the program:

Stand number: 3 <--user enters stand number

Number of hot dogs on hand: 347 <--user enters quantity
Number of buns on hand: 298 <--user enters quantity
The program prints the prompts and Sally fills in the data, starting with the stand number.
Incidentally, you might expect the number of buns and hot dogs always to be equal because
the operator always sells a bun and hot dog together, but reality doesn’t always conform to
logic. Some operators accidentally drop hot dogs through the grill into the fire; others burn the
buns. Hot dogs are stolen by cats and go bad if there’s a power failure; buns, stored in a
cardboard box, are likely to be nibbled by mice. Thus, over time the number of hot dogs and
the number of buns differ more and more.

Recording a Sale

When an operator calls Sally and tells her a hot dog has been sold, she simply enters the stand
number:

Enter stand number: 3 <--user enters stand number

The program then subtracts one hot dog and one bun from its data.

Displaying the Data

Sally can ask the program what the situation is at any given hot dog stand.

Enter stand number: 2 <--user enters stand number

Hot dogs on hand = 30 <--program displays data
Buns on hand = 52
Here Sally enters the stand number and the program reports the buns and hot dogs remaining
at that stand.

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Designing the Hot Dog Stand Program

You’ve seen the kind of desired interaction with the hot dog stand program. How do you go
about designing an object-oriented program that will allow this interaction?

What Are the Objects?

The first question an OOP programmer asks is, what are the program’s objects going to be?
Sometimes the answer isn’t easy. However, whenever you find a number of similar items in
the real world, they are candidates to be made into objects in the program.
But there are several categories of similar objects in the hot dog stand situation. There are hot
dogs, there are buns, there are hot dog stands, there are operators. Which should be the
objects?
The hot dogs and the buns are probably too simple. They don’t do much except get sold. The
hot dog stands, on the other hand, are more interesting. They contain a variable number of hot
dogs, a variable number of buns, and you can imagine asking them how many buns and hot
dogs they have on hand and telling them you’ve made a sale. The operators aren’t really
connected with the inventory of buns and hot dogs; if Sally fires Joe and hires Alphonse, that
doesn’t affect the inventory. (But if you were writing a program that dealt with employees, the
operators would be an obvious candidate for objects.)
In more complex situations, you sometimes need to experiment a bit in choosing what entities
to make into objects. You may guess wrong the first time and find your initial program too
awkward. However, with experience you will become increasingly able to select appropriate
objects on the first try.

What’s in a Hot Dog Stand Object?

What kinds of things should go in each hot dog stand object? You can deduce that its data
should include the number of buns and the number of hot dogs on hand:
• Hot dogs on hand
• Buns on hand
These two kinds of data will be the same for each object. That is, every stand must store the
number of buns and the number of hot dogs. Of course the actual quantities of these items
will vary from stand to stand. Stand 1 has 101 hot dogs and stand 2 has 30, but they both must
have a variable that stores this quantity, whatever it is.
To interact with the stand, you need some member functions as well. Member functions will
interact with the data in specific ways. Looking at the kinds of interaction you want with the
program, you see that you need functions to
• Initialize the number of buns and hot dogs in each stand at the beginning of the day
• Tell the stand that a sale has been made
• Ask the stand for the number of buns and hot dogs remaining
The two data items and the three member functions will be the same for each object.

Specifying the Class of Hot Dog Stand Objects

When many objects in a program are the same, it doesn’t make sense to describe each one
separately. It’s more efficient to develop a single specification for all such objects. You could
call this specification a plan or a blueprint. Once you’ve designed the specification, you can
use it to create however many objects you actually need.
In OOP, this specification for creating objects is called a class. Let’s see how such a class
specification would look in C++. Create a HotDogStand class that can be used to make
HotDogStand objects. Many aspects of this specification won’t be clear yet, but you should
see that it embodies two data items and three member functions. I’ll get to the details soon.

class HotDogStand <-- a class called HotDogStand

{ <-- beginning of class specification
private:
int HotDogsOnHand; <-- instance data
int BunsOnHand;
public:
void initData() <-- member function to set data
{
<-- (function body will go here)
}
void SoldOneDog() <-- member function to adjust data
{
<-- (function body will go here)
}
void displayData() <-- member function to display data
{
<-- (function body will go here)
}
}; <-- end of class specification
This class specification is divided into two parts, with data in one part and functions in the
other. This is a common approach, although you can mix up the data and functions if you
want.
This class specification embodies many of the essential elements of C++ syntax. Besides the
class specification itself, there are also variable declarations and member functions. Let’s
examine these program elements.

Syntax of the Class Specification

The class specification consists of the keyword class, the name of the class (here it’s
HotDogStand), an opening brace, a closing brace, and a semicolon:

class HotDogStand <-- keyword “class” and class name

{ <-- opening brace
<-- other program lines go here
}; <-- closing brace and semicolon
The braces (sometimes called curly brackets) are delimiters. They enclose the body of the
class specification so you (and your C++ compiler) can see where it begins and ends. They
serve the same purpose as the BEGIN and END keywords in Pascal and BASIC. Paired braces
are the standard delimiters in C++ and you’ll encounter them in many other situations as well.
Notice how the opening brace is aligned vertically over the closing brace. This makes it easier
to tell which brace goes where when you read a listing.
The semicolon ends the entire specification. Semicolons are used to end program statements,
data declarations, and class specifications (but not functions). In the case of classes, both a
closing brace and a semicolon are necessary.
Remember that the class specification does not create any hot dog stand objects; it merely
specifies how they will look when (and if) they are created. You’ll see later how to create the
objects themselves.

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Variable Declarations

Two variables, HotDogsOnHand and BunsOnHand, are declared and specified to be integers (type
int). This is one of several basic data types available in C++. I’ll discuss data types in detail in the next
session.

int HotDogsOnHand;
int BunsOnHand;
Notice that these declarations don’t give values (such as 47) to these variables, they merely give them
names and specify that they will require a certain space in memory (although memory space is not
actually set aside until an object is created).

Functions

There are three functions in the class specification: initData(), SoldOneDog(), and
displayData(). Tell the C++ compiler that these names apply to functions (and not variables or
something else) by appending parentheses to the name:

void initData() <--parentheses designate a function

{

}
The keyword preceding the function name indicates the type of data returned by the function. None of
the hot dog stand functions returns a value, so the void keyword is used. Later you’ll see that functions
may return a value of any data type. If a function returns an int, for example, you can write

int someFunc()
{
}
You could also add parameters to the function by placing values or variable names within the
parentheses. Arguments convey values to the function, like this:

void anotherFunc(float temperature, float humidity)

{
}
However, I’ll postpone a discussion of return types and parameters until later.
As with the class specification itself, the body of the function is delimited with braces:

void initData() <-- function named initData with no return type, no

arguments
{ <-- start of function body
<-- other statements would go here
} <-- end of function body (NO semicolon)
For simplicity, I haven’t inserted any statements into the function bodies. You’ll need to learn a little
more before we’re ready for that.
Remember that whereas a class specification is terminated by a semicolon, a function is not.

Public and Private

The idea behind public and private is to allow some parts of an object to be accessed by program
statements outside the object while other parts can be accessed only from within the object itself, as
shown in Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10 Public and private access

The public and private keywords, followed by colons, are used to designate these parts. Here all
the data is private and all the member functions are public. This is the usual situation: You want to hide
the data from the outside world so it is protected from accidental alteration. However, you want the
member functions to be public so other parts of the program can call them to tell the object to do
something. To work with the data, don’t access it directly; instead, ask a member function to access it
for you.

Quiz 3

1. An object in our hot dog stand program will correspond to what entity in the real world?
a. An entire hot dog stand, including the operator.
b. All relevant data for all the hot dog stands.
c. The inventory data for a particular hot dog stand.
d. The physical hot dogs and buns at a particular stand.
e. A hot dog.
2. What items will be part of a HotDogStand object?
a. A function to initialize the number of hot dogs and buns to zero.
b. The number of buns.
c. The number of hot dogs.
d. A function to increment the number of buns and hot dogs.
e. A function to display the number of hot dogs and buns on hand.
3. Data is often private and member functions are often public because
a. data is not accessed as often as functions.
b. an object’s data should be hidden for safety but its member functions should be
accessible so the rest of the program can interact with the object.
c. data must be accessed only by objects of the same class, whereas member functions can
be accessed by any object.
d. data must not be changed, whereas member functions may be.
e. data takes up less memory space than member functions do.
4. An object’s member functions usually operate on
a. data within the functions themselves.
b. global data.
c. data in another specified object.
d. data in that object.
e. data in any object of the same class.
5. Which item is not always part of a class specification?
a. Braces.
b. A semicolon.
c. The keyword class.
d. A class name.
e. The definition of an object.

Session 4: Basic C++ Data Types

As you’ve seen, objects are composed of two major elements: instance data and member functions. In
this lesson, I’ll talk about data. More specifically, I’ll show the basic data types that are built into C++.
Then I’ll show member functions in more detail.
As you’ll see later, you can use C++ to define any data type you want, but the built-in types save you
from going to this trouble in most common situations.
There are seven basic types built into C++. Of these basic types, one represents characters, three
represent whole numbers (integers), and three represent real (floating-point) numbers. Table 1-1
summarizes the C++ data types.
Table 1-1 C++ data types
Type Name Used to Store Examples of Values Stored

char Characters ‘a’, ‘B’, ‘$’, ‘3’, ‘?’

short Small whole numbers 7, 30,000, -222
int Normal-sized whole numbers (same as
short or same as long)
long Large whole numbers 1,000,000,000, -123,456,789
float Small real numbers 3.7, 199.99, -16.2, 0.000125
double Large real numbers 7,553.393.95,47,
-0.048512934
long double Extra-large real numbers 9,123,456,789,012,345.666

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-----------
Characters

Let’s look at each of these data types in turn. Characters are stored in
variables of type char. The statement

char ch3;
creates space in memory for a character and names it ch3. To store a
particular character in this variable, use a statement like

ch3 = ‘a’;
Character constants, such as ‘a’, ‘B’, ‘&’ or ‘4’, are surrounded by
single quotes.

Assignment Operator

The equal sign (=) causes the value on its right to be assigned to (placed in)
the variable on its left; that is, following this statement, the variable ch3
will have the value ‘a’. The equal sign is called the assignment operator
because it assigns the value on the right to the variable on the left.
All characters are actually stored as numbers (which, as you know, is all a
computer understands). The ASCII code is used to translate characters into
numbers. Thus ‘A’ is 65, ‘B’ is 66, and so on. The ASCII code is shown
in Appendix E.

Escape Sequences

Various special characters are represented by letters preceded by a

backslash. This is called an escape sequence because the backslash causes
the interpretation of the next character to “escape” from the normal ASCII
code and indicate something different. Table 1-2 shows the most common
escape sequences.
Table 1-2 Common escape sequence
Escape Sequence Character Represented

‘\n’ New line. Causes the cursor to move to the start of

the next line. (Same as a carriage return plus a line
feed.)
‘\t’ Tab character.
‘\b’ Backspace.
‘\r’ Carriage return. Causes the cursor to move to the
start of this line. Also generated by the
key.

Variables of type char are occasionally used to store whole numbers

rather than characters. You can say

ch3 = 44;
However, the range of numerical values that can be stored in type char is
from -128 to 127, so this works only for very small numbers. Whole
numbers are usually stored in variables of type int, which is faster for the
computer to process than type char.
A variable of type char occupies 1 byte, or 8 bits, of memory.

Integers

Integers represent whole numbers, that is, values that can be counted, such
as the number of people living in Thomasville (12,348) or lines of text on a
page (33). Integers cannot represent numbers with decimal points or
fractional parts, such as 2.3 or 4/7. Integers can be negative: -7, -413.
There are three integer types in C++: short, int, and long. They are
similar but occupy different amounts of memory and can handle numbers in
different numerical ranges, as Table 1-3 shows. I also include type char in
this table, even though it is mostly used for characters, because it can be
used to store small whole numbers as well.
Table 1-3 Integer types in C++
Type
Size Range
Name

char 1 byte (8 bits) -128 to 127

short 2 bytes (16 bits) -32,768 to 32,767
Same as short on 16-bit systems, same as long on 32-bit
int
systems
long 4 bytes (32 bits) -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Type short always occupies 2 bytes. It can store numbers in the range of
-32,768 to 32,767. Type long always occupies 4 bytes and can store
numbers in the range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.
In 16-bit systems, type int occupies 2 bytes, the same as short. In 32-bit
systems, it occupies 4 bytes, the same as long, and can therefore handle a
larger range of values. Older operating systems, such as DOS and Windows
3.1, are 16-bit systems. Newer systems, such as Windows 95, OS/2, and
Windows NT, are 32-bit systems. Unix has always been a 32-bit system.
The int type is the most commonly used integer type and operates the
most efficiently whatever system you use. However, if you want to
guarantee a 2-byte variable even in a 32-bit system (to save space), you
must use short; if you want to guarantee a 4-byte variable on a 16-bit
system (to hold large values), you must use long.
Here’s an example of defining some integer variables and giving them
values:

int MilesDriven; <-- declare variables

long population;

MilesDriven = 1024; <-- give the values

population = 1405836L;
The L is used to designate a type long constant, one that won’t fit in an
integer (in a 16-bit system).

Unsigned Integers

All the integer types have unsigned versions. Unsigned variables can’t hold
negative numbers, but their range of positive values is twice as large as that
of their signed brothers. Table 1-4 shows how this looks.
Table 1-4 Unsigned integers
Type Name Size Range

unsigned char 1 byte (8 bits) 0 to 255

unsigned short 2 bytes (16 bits) 0 to 65,535
unsigned int or
Same as unsigned short on 16-bit systems
unsigned
Same as unsigned long on 32-bit systems
unsigned long 4 bytes (32 bits) 0 to 4,294,967,295

Ordinary integers, without the unsigned designation, are signed by

default. You can use the keyword signed, but it’s not necessary.

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-----------
Floating Point

Floating-point numbers are used to represent values that can be measured, such as the length of a room
(which might be 5.32 meters) or the weight of a rock (124.65 pounds). Floating-point values are normally
expressed with a whole number to the left of a decimal point and a fraction to the right.
Instead of a decimal point, you can use exponential notation for floating-point numbers. Thus, 124.65 in
normal notation is 1.2465e2 in exponential notation, where the number following the e indicates the number
of digits the decimal point must be moved to the right to restore the number to normal notation. Exponential
notation is commonly used to display numbers that are inconveniently long in decimal notation. Thus,
9,876,000,000,000,000,000 in normal notation is 9.876e18 in exponential notation.
There are three kinds of floating-point numbers in popular operating systems, as shown in Table 1-5. (Some
systems don’t have long double.)
Table 1-5 Floating-point numbers
Type Name Size Range Precision

float 4 bytes (32 bits) 10e-38 to 10e38 5 digits

double 8 bytes (64 bits) 10e-308 to 10e308 15 digits
long double 10 bytes (80 bits) 10e-4932 to 10e4932 19 digits

The most common floating-point type is probably type double, which is used for most C++ mathematical
library functions. Type float requires less memory than double and may speed up your calculations.
Type long double is used in the floating-point processor in Intel microprocessors and is useful for very
large numbers.
Here’s an example of defining and using variables of the various floating-point types:

float pi_float;
double pi_double;
long double pi_long_double;

pi_float = 3.1415;
pi_double = 3.14159265358979;
pi_long_double = 3.141592653589793238;
Here I’ve assigned constants representing the mathematical constant pi to variables of the three types, using
as many digits of precision as each type will allow.
Figure 1-11 shows the amounts of memory required for all the data types except long double. You can
initialize variables to specific values when they are first declared. Thus the six statements above could be
condensed into

float pi_float = 3.1415;

double pi_double = 3.14159265358979;
long double pi_long_double = 3.141592653589793238;

Figure 1-11 Variables of basic data types in memory initialization

Whitespace

C++ doesn’t mind if you put extra spaces into a program line. You can use them to align things so they’re
easier to read. You could say

float pi_float = 3.1415;

double pi_double = 3.14159265358979;
long double pi_long_double = 3.141592653589793238;
You can put as many spaces, tabs, and new lines as you want in your program. These characters constitute
whitespace, and the C++ compiler ignores whitespace in almost all situations. Programmers use whitespace
to make the program easier for humans to follow.

Comments

You can add comments to your program listing to help yourself—and anyone else who might need to look at
your listing—understand what it does. Comments are preceded with a double slash: //.
Here’s a code fragment, taken from the previous section, that uses a full-line comment and comments
following each of three statements:

// these variables are declared and initialized at the same time

float pi_float = 3.1415; // 5-digit precision
double pi_double = 3.14159265358979; // 15-digit precision
long double pi_long_double = 3.141592653589793238; // 19-digit precision
Any text following the // symbol until the end of the line is ignored by the compiler.
Another kind of comment allows you to write comments that span multiple lines. Here’s an example:

/*
if you have a really long multiline
comment it is easier to
use this arrangement than to write
the double-slash symbol before
every line
*/
The /* symbol starts the comment and the */ ends it. The end of a line does not automatically end a
comment that starts with /* (as it does with those starting with //), so you can write as many comment lines
as you want before terminating with the */ symbol. This comment style is harder to type and requires two
symbols per comment instead of one, so it is not usually used for single-line comments.
As you know, adding numerous comments to your code makes it far more comprehensible to anyone else
who must understand your program. And, difficult as it may be to believe, you yourself may find comments
helpful if you try to read a listing you haven’t seen for some time.

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-----------
Quiz 4

1. To represent a 4-digit employee serial number, you would most

likely use type
a. unsigned int.
b. long.
c. char.
d. float.
e. double.
2. Several different integer types (and also several different
floating-point types) are necessary because
a. there is a trade-off between operating speed and memory
storage space.
b. there is a trade-off between speed and memory space, on
the one hand, and the size of the numbers that can be stored, on
the other.
c. there is a trade-off between the number of significant digits
that can be used and the size of the exponent.
d. different computer systems have different storage
requirements.
e. different computer languages have different storage
requirements.
3. To represent the atomic weights of elements (e.g., iodine is
126.932) you would most likely use type
a. double.
b. long double.
c. unsigned long.
d. unsigned char.
e. int.
4. The assignment operator
a. asserts that one variable is equal to another.
b. places the value on the right into the variable on the left.
c. sets the constant on the right equal to the constant on the
left.
d. places the constant on the left into the variable on the right.
e. makes an equivalence between the names of two variables.
5. The term whitespace in a source file is related to
a. the margins of the paper.
b. the characters ‘’, ‘\t’, ‘\n’ and perhaps a few others.
c. formatting used in a program listing to make it easier for
humans to read.
d. program statements that don’t change any data.
e. symbols that are ignored by the compiler.
Now that you know enough about C++ to write actual program statements,
I’ll include exercises at the end of each lesson.

Exercise 1

Write statements to create variables called LetterCode, SalePrice,

and Quantity of types char double, and long.

Exercise 2

Write statements to set the three variables in Exercise 1 to ‘V’, 67.95, and
1,000,000, respectively.

Midchapter Discussion
Imagine that this book is being used in a programming class and that the
students get together from time to time to discuss how the course is going.
The following is an example of one such discussion. I’ll include two
discussions per chapter: one halfway through the chapter and one at the
end.
George: Oh, boy, I’m in trouble. The only thing I understood at all was
about data types, because they’re the same as C.
Estelle: You know C? Then this course should be a pushover for you.
George: Are you kidding? Everything but the data types was over my
head. Objects? Classes? I don’t have a clue.
Estelle: I know what you mean; it’s not totally clear to me either. I
think I have to take it on faith that all this will lead to
something useful.
Don: But you get the main idea, don’t you? About needing a better
way to design programs because the old procedural approach
just got too out of control?
Estelle: Well, I guess I understand it in theory. But I’ve never written
such a huge program. Just what I took in my Pascal class.
Don: I was involved in a big project in C at work, and it certainly got
complicated. If there’s some way to make working with huge
programs easier, I’m all for it.
George: Yeah, but how does this object stuff lead to anything practical?
I’m not learning how to write program statements that actually
do things, like adding two numbers or whatever.
Estelle: But C++ isn’t a procedural language. It’s based on objects, so
I’ve got to learn to make objects before I can do anything
useful.
Don: Right. In a procedural language, the programmer gives
instructions to the computer to do things but in an OOP
language, the programmer tells objects to do things. And you
can’t tell an object something if you don’t have any objects.
Estelle: And to create objects you need a class to tell you what the
objects will look like.
Don: But to specify the class you need to know how to declare data
variables, which I just learned about, and write functions,
which I bet I get to this afternoon.
George: Well, I want to display some numbers! Do some arithmetic! I
want a complete program!
Estelle: Patience, George, patience.

Session 5: Introduction to Input/Output

Before I talk about the second component of objects—member
functions—let’s examine one of the most important things that member
functions do: performing input and output. If you can’t put data into objects
and get it out again, they’re not going to be too useful. In this lesson, I’m
going to explore some basics of performing input/output (I/O) in C++.
In this lesson, I’ll show I/O statements by themselves; in the next lesson,
you’ll see how they look in member functions, where they would ordinarily
appear.

Output to the Screen

Here’s a statement that causes a line of text to be displayed on the screen:

cout << “This text will appear on the screen.”;

The name cout, pronounced “C out,” represents a C++ object that is
associated with the screen display. The << operator, called the put to
operator, causes whatever is on its right to be sent to whatever is on its left.
The cout object and the << operator are part of the C++ standard stream
library, so you don’t need to define them yourself or even worry too much
about how they work. (You will need to insert a header file into your
program to declare them, as you’ll see in the next chapter.) Figure 1-12
shows how cout works.

Figure 1-12 Output with cout

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String Constants

The text “This text will appear on the screen.” is called a string constant. A
string constant is surrounded by double quotes (unlike a character constant, which is surrounded
by single quotes). The entire statement, as with all C++ statements, is terminated with a
semicolon.
You can output numerical constants the same way. The statement

cout << 27;

causes a 27 to appear on the screen, whereas

cout << 123.45;

displays 123.45.
You can display the values of variables as well as numbers. For example, this code displays 2.7:

float fvar1 = 2.7;

cout << fvar1;
More than one value can be displayed with a single cout statement, using multiple put to
operators:

float height = 2.7;

cout << “It is ” << height << “ meters high.”;
This would produce the output

It is 2.7 meters high.

You can also reformat such a statement so that the put to operators line up vertically, thus making
the statement easier to read:

cout << “It is”

<< height
<< “meters high.”;
Or you could use three separate cout statements to produce the same output.

Formatting Output

It’s nice to have some control over the way output is formatted. In C++ stream I/O, a variety of
techniques are available for this purpose. I’ll show two examples here.

New Lines Not Automatic

Some languages, such as BASIC, automatically move to a new line at the end of every output
statement, but C++ does not. Nor are different variables in the same statement placed on separate
lines. New lines are not created automatically by the cout object or the put to operator. For
example, the statements

cout << 6.25;

cout << 30.9 << 2.5;
produce the output

6.2530.92.5
where all the output is run together. This is probably not what you want.

Escape Sequences

One of the easiest ways to format data is to insert a character called an escape sequence into a
string constant. For example, you can use the ‘\n’ escape sequence to start a new line:

cout << “\nNow I'll ask you some questions about yourself.”;
cout << “\nFirst, enter your age: ”;
produces the display

Now I'll ask you some questions about yourself.

First, enter your age:
The ‘\n’ before “First” causes the second string constant to be displayed on a separate line from
the first. (The '\n’ before “Now” ensures that the first line begins on a new line as well, even if
something else has already been printed by a preceding statement.)
You can use the escape sequence '\t’ to generate tab characters. The code

cout << “\nJoe\tFred\tSally”;

cout << “\nGeorge\tBud\tSandy”;
lines up the names in columns.

Joe Fred Sally

George Bud Sandy

The endl Manipulator

There’s another approach to starting new lines in C++. An object called a manipulator can be
inserted into an output stream, just like a data item. Manipulators can be used to format output,
among other purposes. Probably the most common manipulator is endl (a contraction of “end
line”). Inserted into a cout statement, endl causes the cursor to move to the start of the next
line, just as '\n’ does. (Also, endl flushes any output that may be waiting in the output buffer
to the display.)
Earlier, I showed two lines that used the ‘\n’ escape sequence to start text on a new line. Here’s
how to achieve the same result using endl:

cout << endl;

cout << “Now I'll ask you some questions about yourself.” << endl;
cout << “First, enter your age: ”;
The first statement ensures you start on a new line and the endl at the end of the second
statement causes the text beginning with “First” to start on a new line.

Input from the Keyboard

Here’s how to input a number, entered by the user from the keyboard, and store it in a variable
intvar:

int intvar;
cin >> intvar;
The cin object (for “C in”) represents the keyboard, and the get from operator (>>) takes
whatever is on the left and puts it in the variable on the right. When this statement is executed, the
program waits for the user to type a number and press . Figure 1-13 shows how this
looks.

Figure 1-13 Input with cin

Usually, of course, you want to prompt the user before waiting for input:

int age;
cout << “Enter your age: ”;
cin >> age;
This produces the following interaction:

Enter your age: 34

where the user enters the 34.
You can use the get from operator multiple times in the same statement:

int age;
float height;
cout << “Enter your age and height:”;
cin >> age >> height;

Here the user presses , , or after each value before entering the next
one. However, it’s usually better to prompt the user for only one value at a time, to avoid any
possibility of confusion.

Stream I/O

The techniques for input and output I’ve shown here are called stream I/O. A stream is a general
term for a flow of data. As you’ll see when you write a complete program, to use stream I/O, you
need to include a file of declarations in your program. This file, IOSTREAM.H, is called a header or
include file.
There is much more to be said about stream I/O in C++. I’ll return to this topic in Chapter 10.

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Old-Style C I/O

If you are a C programmer, you are familiar with a completely different style of input and output
using printf(), scanf(), and similar library functions (declared in STDIO.H). You can use
these functions in C++ as well, but the preferred approach is to use stream I/O. Why? First, it’s
easier to avoid mistakes. Have you ever used the wrong format specifier in printf() (e.g., %d
instead of %f), so that data is displayed incorrectly? It’s easy to do, and in scanf(), the wrong
specifier can crash your program as well. Second, the stream I/O approach lets you use cout and
cin with classes you write yourself. This allows you to perform I/O on any programming object
the same way it’s performed on basic data types. This is a very powerful technique, which is
unavailable with standard C I/O. Some old-time C programmers can’t get the hang of stream I/O
and persist in using standard I/O, but they are missing out on some powerful and important
features of C++.

Quiz 5

1. Which of the following are true?

a. >> means “get in.”
b. << means “get out.”
c. cfile transfers data to files.
d. cout represents the screen.
e. cout represents the keyboard.
2. Which of the following will display “Nancy is 27” on the screen (assuming the variables
have appropriate values)?
a. cin >> “Nancy is ” >> 27;
b. cin >> “Nancy is ”
cin >> age;
c. cout << “Nancy is ”; cout << age;
d. cout << “Nancy is ” << 27;
e. cout >> “Nancy is ”;
cout >> age;
3. The statement cin >> name >> age >> height; will
a. potentially confuse the user.
b. display name, age, and height.
c. probably accept input of different types.
d. require the user to separate constants with spaces or similar characters.
e. display prompts.
4. Which statement or statements will create the display

1 2
3 4
a. cout << “1\t2\n3\t4\n”;
b. cout <<‘1’<<‘\t’<<‘2’<<‘\n’<<‘3’<<‘\t’<<‘4’<<‘\n’;
c. cout << “1\n2\t3\n4\t”;
d. cout <<1<<‘\t’<<2<<‘\n’<<3<<‘\t’<<4<<‘\n’;
e. cout << ‘1’ << ‘\n’ << ‘2’ ‘\t’; cout << ‘3’ ‘\n’ ‘4’
‘\t’;
5. In a comparison of C++ I/O (stream I/O) and old-fashioned C I/O (standard I/O), which
of the following is true?
a. Stream I/O is faster.
b. You can modify almost any object to use stream I/O but not standard I/O.
c. All objects know how to display themselves automatically in stream I/O.
d. Standard I/O is more intuitive.
e. Standard I/O allows you to avoid format specifiers.

Exercise 1

Thinking about the hot dog program, write a program fragment that displays the number of hot
dogs and buns on hand. The output might look like this:

Hot dogs on hand = 125

Buns on hand = 133

Exercise 2

Write a program fragment that asks the user for the initial values of hot dogs and buns on hand,
gets responses from the user, and then sets appropriately named variables to these values.

Exercise 3

Write a program fragment that does the following:

• Creates two variables, num and denom, that represent the numerator (top) and
denominator (bottom) of a fraction.
• Asks the user to supply values for the numerator and denominator.
• Puts the values supplied into the variables.
• Displays the fraction in the format 2/3, with a slash between the two numbers.
Some sample interaction with this program fragment might look like this:

Enter the numerator: 4

Enter the denominator: 7
Fraction = 4/7

Session 6: Member Functions

Earlier in this chapter, I talked about basic data types. Data is one of the two parts of objects. Now
I’ll discuss the second part: member functions. Typically a program calls an object’s member
functions to tell the object to do something. This is why calling an object’s member function is
also called sending a message to the object.
In the hot dog stand example, there are three member functions: initData(),
SoldOneDog(), and displayData(). Earlier, for simplicity, I showed these functions with
empty function bodies. Now it’s time to fill in these functions and see what they can actually do.

Initializing the Data

At the start of each day, you want to initialize the number of hot dogs and buns at a stand. Use the
initData() function for this. This requires both cout (for the prompts) and cin statements.
Here’s how it looks:

void initData()
{
cout << “Enter dogs on hand:”;
cin >> HotDogsOnHand;
cout << “Enter buns on hand:”;
cin >> BunsOnHand;
}
An example of interaction with this function would be

Enter dogs on hand: 30

Enter buns on hand: 52
where the program displays the prompts and the user enters 30 and 52.

Recording a Sale

When a hot dog is sold, the stand operator calls Sally to tell her this fact. When she receives such a
call, she wants the program to decrease both the number of hot dogs and the number of buns by
one. Here’s a member function that does the job:

void SoldOneDog()
{
HotDogsOnHand = HotDogsOnHand - 1; // subtract 1 from variable
BunsOnHand = BunsOnHand - 1; // subtract 1 from variable
}
Here there’s no interaction with the user, only a little arithmetic.
Figure 1-14 shows how Sally interacts with an object of class HotDogStand, using its member
functions.

Figure 1-14 Interaction with HotDogStand object member functions

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Displaying Data

Remember that a HotDogStand object records the numbers of hot dogs and
buns on hand, in the variables HotDogsOnHand and BunsOnHand. You can
use cout statements to display these values. The resulting displayData()
function looks like this:

void displayData()
{
cout << “Hot dogs on hand = ”
<< HotDogsOnHand << endl;
cout << “Buns on hand = ”
<< BunsOnHand << endl;
}
The output from this function will be something like this:

Hot dogs on hand = 347

Buns on hand = 298
You’ve simply inserted two statements into the function. These statements make
up the function body. (As you’ve seen, you could produce the same output with
four cout statements or with only one.)

Arithmetic Operators

In the SoldOneDog() function, shown above, you used the subtraction

operator (-) to subtract one from two values. C++ includes the usual four
arithmetic operators plus a fifth, less common one, as shown in Table 1-6.
Table 1-6 Arithmetic operators
Operator Purpose

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Remainder

The first four operators perform familiar operations. The remainder operator, %
(also called the modulus operator), is used to calculate the remainder when one
integer is divided by another. Thus the expression

20 % 3
evaluates to 2, because 20 divided by 3 is 6, with a remainder of 2.
You can use any of the arithmetic operators just as you would in normal
arithmetic or algebra or most other programming languages. They are called
binary operators because they operate on two quantities. That is, expressions
involving them have the form alpha+beta, where the + operates on alpha
and beta.
Of course, you can make arithmetic expressions as complicated as you want. For
example,

c = (f-32) * 5 / 9;
converts a temperature in Celsius to one in Fahrenheit. Note that I use
parentheses so the subtraction will be carried out first, despite its lower
precedence. (The term precedence refers to the order in which operations are
carried out. The * and / operators have higher precedence than the + and -
operators.)
In C++, it’s perfectly all right to mix different arithmetic types in the same
expression. For example, in the above statements, f might be type int and c
might be type float. The compiler would not complain. Instead, it would
automatically convert the types appropriately before carrying out the arithmetic.

Increment and Decrement Operators

In programming, there always seems to be a need either to add 1 to something or

to subtract 1 from something, just as there was in the example above. These
situations are so common that C++ includes two special operators that perform
the task in a much more compact form than using the normal addition and
subtraction operators. The decrement operator subtracts 1 from a variable and
the increment operator adds 1 to it.
Here’s the SoldOneDog() function, rewritten to use the decrement operator:

void SoldOneDog()
{
--HotDogsOnHand; // subtract 1 from HotDogsOnHand
--BunsOnHand; // subtract 1 from BunsOnHand
}
The decrement operator consists of two minus signs together: —. If
HotDogsOnHand were 30 and BunsOnHand were 52, then after executing
this function, these two variables would be 29 and 51.
Similarly, the increment operator, ++, increases the variable it’s applied to by 1.
The increment and decrement operators are called unary operators because they
operate on only one variable. Their priority is higher than that of arithmetic
operators, so in the expression ++x + 3, the value of x will be incremented
before the addition is carried out.
Now that I’ve defined some member functions, you may be wondering how I get
them to do something; that is, how I call them or cause them to be executed. Be
patient. You’ll learn all about that in the next chapter.

Quiz 6

1. The proper role of member functions is limited to

a. performing stream I/O.
b. allowing a class to alter its data.
c. allowing a class to interact with the outside world.
d. allowing objects to carry out any appropriate activity.
e. performing arithmetic operations on instance data.
2. The member functions of the HotDogStand class can
a. report to the user the number of buns and the number of hot
dogs at a stand.
b. calculate the profit made at each stand.
c. record the sale of any number of hot dogs with a single function
call.
d. make change.
e. carry out an arithmetic operation on a stand’s inventory.
3. To what entities can the five basic C++ arithmetic operators be
applied, assuming you don’t overload these operators?
a. objects
b. integer variables
c. floating-point constants
d. characters
e. classes
4. The expression 41 % 7 evaluates to
a. 7
b. 6
c. 5
d. 4
e. 1
5. If the value of age is 21, what statement (or statements) will change it
to 23?
a. ++age;
b. age = ++age + 1;
c. age = 2 + --age;
d. ++age; ++age;
e. --age; --age;

Exercise 1

Start with the code fragment of Exercise 3 in Session 5, which sets values for the
numerator and denominator of a fraction and displays them. Create two
functions: one, setFrac(), to get values for num and denom from the user;
the other, showFrac(), to display the fraction in the form 7/12.

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-----------
Exercise 2

Imagine a class called Employee with two data items, employee_number and
employee_salary, which record an employee’s ID number and salary. Write statements to
create these variables, the first type int and the second type double. Write a function,
get_emp(), to get values for these variables from the user and another function, put_emp(),
to display the values.

Session 7: Specifying a Class

You now have all the pieces to write a complete class specification. You know how to declare
variables of basic types, how to create member functions that interact with this data, and how to
perform I/O so you can do something useful with these functions.
Here’s a complete specification for the HotDogStand class:

class HotDogStand
{
private:
int HotDogsOnHand; // dogs remaining
int BunsOnHand; // buns remaining
public:
void displayData() // display data
{
cout << “Hot dogs on hand = ”
<< HotDogsOnHand << endl;
cout << “Buns on hand = ”
<< BunsOnHand << endl;
}
void initData() // get initial data from user
{
cout << “Enter dogs on hand: ”;
cin >> HotDogsOnHand;
cout << “Enter buns on hand: ”;
cin >> BunsOnHand;
}
void SoldOneDog() // adjust data to reflect sale
{
--HotDogsOnHand;
--BunsOnHand;
}
}; // end of class HotDogStand
All I’ve done is to fill in the function bodies to complete the specification. However, it’s easier
now to see the relation between the class data and its member functions. The member functions
all operate on the data, but in different ways. The displayData() function sends the values
of the data (HotDogsOnHand and BunsOnHand) to cout so they will be displayed. The
initData() function asks the user for values and inserts these values in to the data variables.
The SoldOneDog() function decrements both data items by 1 to reflect the sale of a hot dog
(with bun).
I’ll devote the remainder of this lesson to the exercises, which will do more than anything to
solidify your understanding of class specifications.

Quiz 7

1. The HotDogStand class specification

a. creates a number of HotDogStand objects.
b. provides data and functions that will be accessed from main().
c. serves as part of an inventory program for hot dog stands.
d. allows the creation of a number of hot dog stand objects.
e. accomplishes nothing useful until other parts of the program are written.
2. The SoldOneDog() function
a. hands the hot dog to the customer and makes change.
b. decrements the number of buns and hot dogs.
c. displays the number of buns and hot dogs.
d. obtains the number of buns and hot dogs from the user.
e. calculates the number of buns and hot dogs remaining.
3. When a member function in the HotDogStand class performs I/O with cout or
cin, it is interacting with the user on behalf of
a. a class.
b. an object.
c. a function.
d. data.
e. main().
4. If you created a class where each object represented an aircraft, this class would likely
include
a. airport runway data.
b. a function to change the aircraft’s direction.
c. the positions of other aircraft.
d. the aircraft’s altitude.
e. luggage-handling capability.
5. In a traffic simulation program, it’s most likely there would be a class of
a. yellow school buses.
b. highways.
c. vehicles.
d. acceleration characteristics of various vehicles.
e. speeds.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the class specification for the HotDogStand class to include a data item for the cash
on hand (you can call it CashOnHand), stored in dollars and cents format (e.g., 198.95).
Assume the retail price of a hot dog (including the bun) is $1.95. Modify the member functions
as follows:
• Add statements to initData() so the user can specify the initial amount of cash on
hand at the beginning of the day.
• Add statements to SoldOneDog() that subtract the price of a hot dog from
CashOnHand when a sale is made.
• Add statements to displayData() that display the cash on hand along with the
number of dogs and buns.

Exercise 2

Write a complete class specification, including member functions, for an elevator class. Each
object of this class should include a data item that records the floor the elevator is currently on
(e.g., from 1 at the bottom to 20 at the top). Write member functions that take the following
actions:
• Display the floor the elevator is on.
• Move the elevator up one floor.
• Move the elevator down one floor.

Session 8: Creating and Interacting with Objects

You’ve learned how to specify a class using instance data and member functions. However, the
purpose of a class specification is to serve as blueprint for creating objects. How do you actually
create objects? And once you’ve created some, how do you interact with them so they do
something useful?

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Creating Objects from a Class Specification

As it turns out, you use the same syntax to create an object that you use to
create a variable of a basic type such as int or float. This is no accident.
In C++, objects are treated very much like variables and classes are treated
very much like data types.
Here’s how to create an object called stand1 of the class
HotDogStand:

HotDogStand stand1;
What happens when this statement is executed? First, your program finds
the specification for the HotDogStand class (which must have appeared
earlier in your listing). It figures out how large such an object needs to be
and sets aside enough memory to hold it. It then gives this memory space a
name: stand1. This is exactly what it would do with a variable of a basic
type. However, stand1 is more complicated because it has several pieces
of data and several member functions as well.
You can create as many objects as you need.

HotDogStand stand1;
HotDogStand stand2;
HotDogStand stand3;
Or (as with basic data types) you can also use a single statement to create
multiple objects of the same type.

HotDogStand stand1, stand2, stand3;

So you see that, although writing a class specification may appear difficult
or at least unfamiliar, creating objects based on this specification is
simplicity itself.

Sending Messages to Objects

Once an object has been created, you need to interact with it. To do this, use
its member functions, that is, the functions described in the class
specification. You call an object’s member function. This is the same as
saying you send a message to the object.
A special syntax is used for this. When you send a message to an object,
there are two things to consider. First, which object are you communicating
with? In the case of the hot dog stands, is it stand1, stand2, or another
stand? Second, what message are you sending to the object? This is the
same as asking which of the object’s member functions you are calling.
Thus, you need a syntax with two parts: the name of the object and the
name of the member function.
Here’s how you would send a message to stand1 asking it to display its
data with displayData():

stand1.displayData();
The object name and the function name are connected by the period symbol
(.), which is called the dot operator or, more formally, the class member
access operator. This rather ponderous name means that the operator
allows you to access an object’s member functions or data, but let’s stick
with the handier dot operator. Figure 1-15 shows how this looks.

Figure 1-15 Syntax for sending a message

When this statement is executed, stand1 will display its data

Hot dogs on hand = 347

Buns on hand = 298
(or whatever values are actually stored in its data variables). You can send
the same message to a different object, for example, stand2.

stand2.displayData();
It will then display its data (which is probably not the same as that in
stand1).

Hot dogs on hand = 74

Buns on hand = 82
Similarly, you could send a message to stand3 telling it to get initial data
values from the user.

stand3.initData();
When this statement is executed, stand3 will call its initData()
function and the following interaction with the user might take place:

Enter hot dogs on hand: 19

Enter buns on hand: 21
where the user enters the 19 and 21.
Once the stand3 object has been given these initial values, you could call
the SoldOneDog() function every time a hot dog is sold at this stand.

stand3.SoldOneDog();
This would cause the HotDogsOnHand and the BunsOnHand variables
in stand3 to be decremented, although nothing would appear on the
screen. If you then executed

stand3.displayData();
you would see

Hot dogs on hand = 18

Buns on hand = 20
In other words, you can call member functions of specific objects to make
the objects do useful work for us. This is what OOP is all about.

Quiz 8

1. Creating an object normally involves

a. declaring a variable.
b. causing the compiler to designate memory space for the
object.
c. specifying what data and functions go in the object.
d. using the object as a specification for a class.
e. giving a name to the object.
2. Sending a message to an object normally involves
a. modifying the object’s data.
b. calling one of the object’s member functions.
c. specifying the particular object and the message to be sent
to it.
d. using a dot (or other) operator to connect the object name
and the member function name.
e. changing the class specification.
3. If you create a class of aircraft named acraft and you want to
tell an aircraft called ac1 to turn right, you might say
a. ac1.rightTurn();.
b. acraft.ac1.rightTurn();.
c. rightTurn(ac1);.
d. rightTurn().ac1;.
e. acraft.rightTurn();.
4. When you send a message to an object, the message content is
determined by
a. which object the message is sent to.
b. the data in the object at the time.
c. who sends the message.
d. which member function you call.
e. arguments to a member function.
5. To send a message to an object, you must always
a. include the data to be placed in the object.
b. name the class of the object.
c. specify the member function you’re calling.
d. use the name of the object you are sending the message to.
e. declare the object.

Exercise 1

Start with the elevator class specification of Exercise 2 in Session 7. Write

statements that create an elevator object, display its position, move it up
two floors, and display its new position.

Exercise 2

Start with the augmented HotDogStand class specification of Exercise 1

in Session 7. Write code that will allow the user to enter, for a particular
stand, the hot dogs, buns, and cash on hand. Then tell the HotDogStand
object to sell two hot dogs and display the same three variables.

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Summary: Chapter 1
Let’s review the main points in this chapter. You’ve seen that the
fundamental building blocks of C++ programs are objects, which are
created using a class as a blueprint. Designing a program means figuring
out what the objects will represent.
The two important constituents of objects are instance data and member
functions. An object’s data is usually made private, or inaccessible to all
parts of the program except the object’s own member functions. This makes
it less likely the data will be corrupted by a programming error.
Once a class is specified and objects of that class are created, a program
“sends messages” to the objects—that is, it calls their member
functions—to cause them to carry out appropriate tasks, usually involving
the object’s own data.
In Chapter 2, you’ll put together everything you’ve learned in this chapter,
plus a few new details, to create a complete, working C++ program.

End-Of-Chapter Discussion
Don: I think I’m starting to get it. Everything in the program is an
object. A class specification describes how a bunch of similar
objects will look. So the trick in designing a program is to
figure out what the objects are going to be.
Estelle: That seems hard now, but I bet it’ll get easier.
George: I think it’s nuts. If I want to print a line of text, I’ve got to
figure out what objects to use, write a specification for a class,
define objects, and send one of them a message to print the
text. You’ve got to be kidding! I can print a text with one
statement in regular C code!
Don: So if all your program does is print one line, write it in C. The
point is, most programs do more than that.
George: So be sarcastic. I’m just afraid all this OOP stuff will be so
complicated it won’t be worth the trouble, even for major
programs.
Don: Lots of people seem to think it works fine for major programs.
Estelle: I’ve got a different question. I can’t understand how anyone
ever figured out that it would be a good idea to put data and
functions together to make objects.
Don: I know, it’s not exactly an obvious concept. It must have been a
major inspiration.
George: More likely a lucky guess. If it works at all, which I doubt.
Estelle: It’ll work. In the next chapter, we’ll see a complete program.
George: It’s about time!

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-----------

CHAPTER 2
WRITING COMPLETE OOP PROGRAMS
So far, you’ve seen bits and pieces of a C++ program. In the beginning of this chapter, I’m
going to put these pieces together and demonstrate a complete, working program. Then, in the
next part of the chapter, I’ll improve this program by using loops and decisions, the
fundamental C++ control statements that allow your program to do something more than once
and to do different things in different circumstances.
In the second half of this chapter, I’ll introduce another complete C++ program—one that
models time values. This is a completely new use for classes: modeling new data types rather
than physical objects such as hot dog stands.
I’ll show other improvements you can make to this program by introducing function arguments
and function return values. Along the way, I’ll touch on such topics as software reusability,
output formatting, and creating temporary objects.

Session 1: The Complete Hot Dog Stand Program

I’ll begin by showing the complete source file, or listing, for the hot dog stand program. Most
of it should look familiar, but I’ll also explain some important features that you haven’t seen
before: header files and the main() function.

Listing for the Hot Dog Stand Program

Listing 2-1 is the complete HOTDOG1 program.

Listing 2-1 HOTDOG1

// hotdog1.cpp
// hot-dog stand inventory database program

#include <iostream.h> // for cout, cin, etc.

class HotDogStand // class specification

{
private:
int HotDogsOnHand; // hot dogs on hand
int BunsOnHand; // buns on hand
public:
void displayData() // display hot dogs and buns
{
cout << “\n Hot dogs = ” << HotDogsOnHand;
cout << “\n Buns = ” << BunsOnHand;
}
void SoldOneDog() // record sale of one dog
{
--HotDogsOnHand;
--BunsOnHand;
}
void initData() // set initial quantities
{
cout << “\n Enter hot dogs on hand: ”;
cin >> HotDogsOnHand;
cout << “ Enter buns on hand: ”;
cin >> BunsOnHand;
}
}; // end of HotDogStand class

/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void main()
{
HotDogStand stand1; // create hot-dog stand objects
HotDogStand stand2;
// set initial data
cout << “\nInitialize data for stand 1”;
stand1.initData();
cout << “\nInitialize data for stand 2”;
stand2.initData();
// record some sales
cout << “\nSelling 2 dogs from stand1”;
stand1.SoldOneDog();
stand1.SoldOneDog();
cout << “\nSelling 3 dogs from stand2”;
stand2.SoldOneDog();
stand2.SoldOneDog();
stand2.SoldOneDog();
cout << endl;
// display current data
cout << “\nSupplies on hand, stand1”;
stand1.displayData();
cout << “\nSupplies on hand, stand2”;
stand2.displayData();
}
You’ve seen the specification for the HotDogStand class before. You’ve also seen the
statements that create hot dog stand objects and that access their member functions. Let’s look
at two unfamiliar parts of the program.

The IOSTREAM.H Header File

To use I/O streams, you need to place in the program various class specifications from which
the cin and cout objects, the << and >> operators, the endl manipulator, and so on are
derived. These specifications, along with various other definitions, are stored in a file called
IOSTREAM.H, which comes with your compiler. It’s a text file, just like the .CPP source files
you write yourself.
To insert the IOSTREAM.H file into your source file, place a line of text called a preprocessor
directive into your code. It looks like this:

#include <iostream.h>
This directive inserts all the text from the file IOSTREAM.H into your source file (or at least the
compiler treats it as if it had been inserted; actually your source file isn’t altered).

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Preprocessor Directives

Preprocessor directives are instructions to the compiler. By contrast, ordinary C++ statements, such
as alpha=17; are instructions to the microprocessor, which the compiler translates into machine
language that the microprocessor can understand. Preprocessor directives always start with a pound
sign (#).
When the compiler encounters the #include preprocessor directive shown above, it starts to search
for the file IOSTREAM.H. There is a particular subdirectory where such files are stored, usually called
…\INCLUDE\ (where the dots represent the first part of the path name, such as C:\BC5). This
subdirectory is usually found in the general directory for the compiler you’re using. The compiler
should know where such a directory is located; if not, it may need to be told (see the appendix in this
book that applies to your particular compiler). Once it finds the file, the compiler (actually a part of
the compiler called the preprocessor) simply inserts its text into the source file in place of the
#include directive.
If you want to see what’s in IOSTREAM.H, you can go to the …\INCLUDE\ directory and examine it
with the compiler’s editor or any other text editor. (Be careful not to change the file.) The contents
won’t make much sense at this point, but you will at least prove to yourself that IOSTREAM.H is a text
file, written in normal ASCII characters.
There are other preprocessor directives besides #include; you’ll encounter a few more as you go
along.
I should note that there are two formats for specifying the file in an #include directive. Using the
appropriate format speeds up the compiler’s search for the file. In the example above, angle brackets
are used to delimit the file name.

#include <filename.ext>
This causes the compiler’s search for the file to start in the standard …\INCLUDE\ directory. If quotes
are used instead

#include “filename.ext”
then the search for the file will begin in the directory where the program’s source files are stored.
This is the format you would use if you had written the header file yourself, a situation you’ll
encounter in Chapter 11.

Other Header Files

There are many header files. Some are used with the C function library. For example, if you need to
use mathematical functions such as sin() and cos(), you need to include a header file called
MATH.H. If you’re going to operate on strings, you’ll need STRING.H; if you’re going to perform
certain kinds of data conversion, you may need to include STDLIB.H. Various specialized I/O
functions may require CONIO.H or STDIO.H.
Other header files are needed for other kinds of class specifications. For example, your compiler may
be bundled with a container class library. Container is a general name for a data structure, such as an
array, a stack, a queue, or a linked list. The container class library contains classes that model these
data structures, but if you want to use one, you’ll need to include a header file specific to the
particular container, such as ARRAYS.H, STACKS.H, or QUEUES.H.
Don’t worry if there seems to be an endless number of header files. All you really need to know
about header files at this point is that they are an important part of C++ programs and you’ll need to
include IOSTREAM.H to run any program that does stream I/O.

The main() Function

Everything must have a beginning, and your program begins executing in a function called main().
This is not a member function of a class; it’s a special standalone function to which control is
transferred from the operating system. The first statement in main(), whatever it may be, is the first
statement in your program to be executed.
Here’s how main() looks when it has no statements installed in it:

void main()
{
}
Every program must contain a main() function. If it doesn’t, you’ll get error messages from the
linker when you try to compile and link your program.
Above I show main() with a return type of void. You can also use a return type of int. When
you do, the value returned is a code, which is usually used to indicate whether the program ran
successfully. (This is useful for batch files.) The example programs in this book don’t return a code,
so the return type of main() will always be void. You don’t need to worry about return types now
anyway.
The main() function can also take arguments, which are used when a program is called from the
command line and has extra text, such as a file name, typed after the program name. However, I’ll
ignore this possibility as well.

Interaction with the Hot Dog Stand Program

Here’s some typical interaction with this version of the hot dog stand program:

Initialize data for stand 1 <--Interaction with initData()

Enter hot dogs on hand: 103 <--(User enters numbers)
Enter buns on hand: 107
Initialize data for stand 2
Enter hot dogs on hand: 223
Enter buns on hand: 227

Selling two dogs from stand 1 <--Interaction with SoldOneDog()

Selling three dogs from stand 2

Supplies on hand, stand 1 <--Interaction with displayData()

Hot dogs = 101 <--(Program displays numbers)
Buns = 105
Supplies on hand, stand 2
Hot dogs = 220
Buns = 224
As you’ve seen, the user enters the initial amounts by calling the initData() function for each
object. The program then somewhat arbitrarily sells two dogs from stand 1 and three dogs from stand
2, and displays the resulting supplies on hand.
Of course, this kind of interaction isn’t really very useful, because the program always causes the
exact same number of hot dogs to be sold. A more practical program would allow the user to enter a
sale for any hot dog stand at any time, and print out supplies on hand for a particular stand when
requested. You’ll see how to achieve this after you learn about loops and decisions later in this
chapter.

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Program Organization

Here’s how your source file is usually arranged. Preprocessor directives

such as #include come first, followed by class specifications, followed
by main(). The main() function contains statements that define objects
and send messages to them. Figure 2-1 shows what this looks like.

Figure 2-1 Source file organization

In larger programs, things may be a bit more complicated. There will

probably be many files. Some will contain class specifications, whereas
others will hold the code that uses these classes. Nevertheless, the simple
arrangement I use here reveals the essentials of OOP.

Quiz 1

1. Preprocessor directives
a. tell the compiler to do something before translating the
source file into machine code.
b. give the compiler instructions that will be translated into
machine code.
c. are executed just before the program executes.
d. are executed just before the program is compiled.
e. are executed just before the program is linked.
2. Which of the following will most efficiently include the file
CONIO.H, located in the compiler system’s …\INCLUDE\ directory,
into your source file?
a. #include “conio.h”
b. #include “..\include\conio.h”
c. #include <conio.h>
d. #include <..\include\conio.h>;
e. #include “conio”;
3. The main() function
a. must contain any class specifications.
b. is a member function of all classes.
c. may return void or int.
d. is the first function to be executed when a program is
executed.
e. may contain statements that create objects.
4. In HOTDOG1, the user can’t interactively signal the program every
time a hot dog is sold because
a. such interaction is impossible in an object-oriented
language.
b. there is no member function to handle this activity.
c. you haven’t learned yet how to write loops and decisions in
C++.
d. the main() function does not include code to handle this
activity.
e. there are no I/O statements in the program.
5. The general scheme of program organization you’ve seen so far is
that
a. a class is specified outside of main() and objects of that
class are created in main().
b. objects are defined outside of main() and told what to do
within main().
c. all parts of the program are within main().
d. objects are told what to do inside of main().
e. classes tell objects what to do and when to do it.

Exercise 1

Write a complete C++ program based on the elevator class specification

and instructions of Exercise 1 in Chapter 1, Session 8, which encouraged
you to display the elevator’s position, move it up two floors, and display its
position again. Run this program. Its output should look like this:

Elevator location: floor 1

Elevator location: floor 3

Exercise 2

Start with Exercise 2 in Chapter 1, Session 8. This augmented hot dog stand
class (hotdogstand2) included a cash-on-hand data item in addition to
the number of hot dogs and buns. Create a complete program, with
functionality similar to HOTDOG1, that uses the capabilities of this class.
Create two hot dog stand objects from the hotdogstand2 class.
Interaction with the program should look something like this:

Initialize data for stand 1

Enter hot dogs on hand: 103
Enter buns on hand: 107
Enter cash on hand: 100.00
Initialize data for stand 2
Enter hot dogs on hand: 223
Enter buns on hand: 227
Enter cash on hand: 200.00

Selling two dogs from stand 1

Selling three dogs from stand 2
Supplies on hand, stand 1
Hot dogs = 101
Buns = 105
Cash = 96.10
Supplies on hand, stand 2
Hot dogs = 220
Buns = 224
Cash = 194.15

Session 2: Loops
You can’t write interesting programs without loops. A loopless program
does something once, then exits. A program with a loop, on the other hand,
can do something as many times as necessary. Now I’m going to introduce
the three kinds of loops available in C++. If you already know C, you can
probably skip this lesson, because loops are the same in C and in C++.
To determine how many times to cycle around a loop, all C++ loops check
whether an expression is true or false. This tells them whether to cycle one
more time or to exit the loop immediately. Thus, to understand loops you
must first examine what makes an expression true or false,and how to
construct such true/false expressions. Then you can examine specific kinds
of loops: the while loop, the do loop, and the for loop.

True and False Values

Loops (and decisions, which I’ll discuss next) make decisions based on
values that can be either true or false. In C++, a value of 0 (zero) is false
and any other value is true. Thus, the constant 0 is false by definition, but
the constant 1 is true, as are -1, 275, and any other nonzero numbers. Some
languages have a special Boolean data type to hold true/false values, but in
C++ these values are simply stored in any of the integer data types (char,
int, short, long, and their unsigned counterparts).
Sometimes the value of a single variable is used by a loop to decide
whether to cycle again or exit. For example, a loop might check whether the
variable avar is true or false (nonzero or zero), and quit when it becomes
false. More often, however, loops check whether a relationship between
two variables, or between a variable and a constant, is true or false. That is,
a loop might want to continue cycling only if j is greater than 0; another
loop might want to continue if ch is not equal to ‘x’. Being equal to,
greater than, and so on are calculated with relational operators in C++, so
let’s examine these operators before examining examples of loops.

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Relational Operators

Relational operators compare two values and evaluate to a true/false value, depending on
whether the comparison is true or not. There are six such operators, as shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Relational operators
Symbol Meaning Example

== equal to a == b
!= not equal to a != b
< less than a<b
> greater than a>b
<= less than or equal to a <= b
>= greater than or equal to a >= b

The expressions in the Example column will be either true or false depending on the values
of a and b. For example, suppose a is 9 and b is 10. Then a==b is not true, because 9
does not equal 10, but a!=b is true, as are a<b and a<=b. The expressions a>b and
a>=b are false.
You can compare characters as well as numbers, because characters have underlying
(ASCII) numerical values. Thus, it’s true that ‘a’<‘b’ and that ‘A’==65, but not true
that ‘z’<=‘a’ (because ‘z’ in fact has a higher ASCII value than ‘a’).
Now that you understand relational operators, let’s look at the three kinds of C++ loops
and see how they decide what to do based on expressions that use these operators.

while Loops

A while loop lets you do something over and over until a condition changes. The
condition is something that can be expressed by a true/false value. For example, a while
loop might repeatedly ask the user to enter a character. It would then continue to cycle
until the user enters the character ‘q’ (for “quit”).
Here’s an example of a while loop that behaves just this way:

while(ch != 'q')
{
cout << “Enter a character: ”;
cin >> ch;
}
If the user does not press ‘q’, the loop continues. Some sample interaction might look
like this:

Enter a character: c
Enter a character: a
Enter a character: t
Enter a character: s
Enter a character: q
A while loop consists of the keyword while followed by a test expression (also called a
conditional expression or condition) enclosed in parentheses. The body of the loop is
delimited by braces (but no semicolon), just like a function. Figure 2-2 shows how this
looks.

Figure 2-2 Syntax of the while loop

If the body of the loop consists of only one statement, you don’t need the braces.

while(n < 100)

n = n * 2; <--One-statement loop body, so no braces
This loop will keep doubling n until n is not less than (i.e., becomes greater than or equal
to) 100; it will then terminate. If n has a value of 1 when the loop is entered, what value
will it have when the loop terminates? That’s right, 128. The values will go 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64, and 128, at which point the loop terminates (i.e., control goes to the statement
following the loop). Figure 2-3 is a flow chart of a while loop’s operation.

Figure 2-3 Operation of the while loop

Note: Note that the test expression is checked before the body of the loop is executed. If
the condition is false when the loop is entered, then the body of the loop will never be
executed. This is appropriate in some situations, but it means you must be careful that a
variable in the test expression has an appropriate value before you enter the loop. The ch
in the first example must not have a value of ‘q’ when you enter the loop, or the loop
body will never be executed. The n in the second loop must be initialized to a value less
than 100.

do Loops

The do loop (often called the do while loop) operates like the while loop except that
the test expression is checked after the body of the loop is executed. This is nice when you
always want something (whatever is in the body of the loop) done at least once, no matter
what the initial true/false state of the condition is. Figure 2-4 shows how this looks.

Figure 2-4 Operation of the do loop

Here’s an example of a do loop. This fragment repeatedly performs addition on two

numbers entered by the user. When the user enters 0 for the first number, the loop
terminates.

do
{
cout << “\nEnter two numbers (to quit, set first to 0): ”
cin >> x >> y;
cout << “The sum is ” << x + y;
} while(x != 0);
A do loop begins with the keyword do, followed by the body of the loop in braces, then
the keyword while, a test expression in parentheses, and finally a semicolon. This
arrangement is shown in Figure 2-5. Note that the do loop is the only loop that is
terminated with a semicolon. The semicolon is necessary because the test expression
follows the loop body, so the closing brace of the loop body can’t act as a delimiter for the
entire loop.

Figure 2-5 Syntax of the do loop

The do loop has a slightly dubious reputation among C++ programmers because its syntax
is not quite so clean and easy to read as that of the while loop. The consensus is to use a
while loop unless there’s a really good reason to use a do loop.

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for Loops

In both the while and do loops, you usually don’t know, at the time you enter the loop, how
many times the loop will be executed. The condition that terminates the loop arises
spontaneously inside the loop: The user answers ‘n’ instead of ‘y’, for example. This is not
the case with for loops.
In a for loop, the number of times the loop will be executed is (usually) stated at the beginning
of the loop. Here’s a loop that prints 20 asterisks in a line across the page:

int j; // define the loop variable

for(j=0; j<20; ++j); // cycle 20 times

cout << '*'; // print asterisk
The parentheses following the keyword for contain three different expressions, separated by
semicolons. In the most common situation, these three expressions operate on a variable called
the loop variable, which in this example is j. These three expressions are
• The initialization expression, which usually initializes the value of a loop variable.
• The test expression, which usually checks the value of the loop variable to see whether
to cycle again or to quit the loop.
• The increment expression, which usually increments (or decrements) the value of the
loop variable.
In the example, the loop variable j is given an initial value of 0, then the test expression is
evaluated. If this expression is true (if j is less than 20), the body of the loop is executed and the
increment expression is executed (j’s value is increased by 1). If the test expression is false, the
loop terminates. Figure 2-6 shows the syntax of the for loop, and Figure 2-7 depicts its
operation.

Figure 2-6 Syntax of the for loop

Figure 2-7 Operation of the for loop

How many times will the loop in the example be executed? 20 times. The first time through the
loop, j is 0; the last time, it’s 19. (It does not run from 1 to 20, as you might expect.) Starting at
0 and continuing until the loop variable is 1 less than a constant is the most common
arrangement in for loops because, among other reasons, array indexes (which you’ll learn about
in Chapter 3) typically start at 0 and go up to 1 less than the size of the array.
If you did want the loop variable to run from 1 to 20, you could write

for(j=1; j<=20; ++j)

// body of loop
where the less-than-or-equals operator is used instead of the less-than operator. However, this is
not a common idiom in C++.
Notice that, as in the while loop, the test expression is evaluated before the loop body is
executed the first time. Thus, the loop body may not be executed at all if the test expression is
false to begin with.
Here’s another example of a for loop, this one with multiple statements in the loop body. As in
the other loops, multiple statements must be surrounded by braces.

int j; // define loop variable

int total = 0; // define and initialize total

for(j=0; j<10; ++j) // cycle 10 times

{
total = total + j; // add j to total
cout << total << ' '; // display total
}
This fragment will display the sequence

0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45
Notice that there is no rule that says that the loop variable must be increased by 1 each time
through the loop. You can also decrease it by 1:

for(j=10; j>0; --j)

cout << j << ' ';
which will display

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
or you can increase it or decrease it by any other amount. This code

for(j=0; j<100; j=j+10)

cout << j << ' ';
will display

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
There is a surprising amount of flexibility in what you can put in the three expressions in a for
loop. For example, you can use multiple statements in the initialization expression and the test
expression. Here’s an example of a for loop with such multiple statements:

for(j=0, total=0; j<10; ++j, total=total+j)

cout << total << ' '; // display total
This loop prints

0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45
as in the earlier example. However, here the variable total is set to 0 in the initialization
expression instead of before the loop, and increased by j in the increment expression instead of
in the loop body. The individual statements in these expressions are separated by commas.
Another option is to leave out any or all of the three for loop expressions entirely, retaining
only the semicolons.
Generally, taking advantage of the flexibility of the for loop in these ways causes more
confusion than it’s worth, but big-time C gurus enjoy it.

Nested Loops

You can nest one loop inside another. For example, the following program fragment prints a 10
by 10 square of Xs, like this:

xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxx
in the upper-left corner of the screen.

for(y=0; y<10; y++) // outer loop, drops down line-by-line

{
for(x=0; x<10; x++) // inner loop, goes across char-by-char
cout << 'X'; // print 'X'
cout << endl; // go to new line
}
Of course, you can embed any kind of loop inside any other kind of loop, and loops can be
nested in loops that are nested in other loops, and so on.

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-----------
Logical Operators

It’s often convenient to test the true/false values of several expressions at

the same time and combine the results into a single true/false value. For
instance, you might want to create a true value any time both x<10 and
y<5 are true.
True/false values can be operated on with logical operators. There are three
logical operators in C++ (see Table 2-2). Two of them combine two
true/false values, and the third negates a true/false value.
Table 2-2 Logical operators
Logical Operator Meaning Example

&& AND x>0 && x<10

|| OR x==3 || x<1
! NOT !x

An AND expression is true only if the expressions on both sides of the &&
operator are true. Thus, the example in the table is true only if x is greater
than 0 and also less than 10. The AND operator is often used to determine
whether something is in a specified range. In the example in the table, the
expression is true if x is in the range of 1 to 9. Similarly, the expression

ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z'

is true if ch is a lowercase letter.
The OR (||) operator evaluates to true if either or both of its operands are
true. For example,

j==0 || ch == 'q'
is true if either j is 0 or ch equals ‘q’, or if both are true.
The OR operator is often used to discover if a value is outside a specified
range. The expression

temp<65 || temp>75
is true if temp is outside the 65 to 75 range (the “comfort zone” for
Fahrenheit temperatures).
The ! (NOT) operator negates the variable following it. Thus, !alpha is
true if alpha is false, and false if alpha is true. (As you can see, this
operator has an Alice in Wonderland quality.) It’s often used when you
want a while loop to continue until something is true, instead of
continuing until it’s false. For example,

while( !alpha )
{
}
will cycle until alpha becomes true (nonzero).
Logical expressions can often be written in several ways. The expression

temp<65 || temp>75
could also be written

!(temp>=65 && temp<=75)

because a value being not in range is the same as it’s being out of range.

Precedence

In normal algebraic expressions, multiplication and division are carried out

before addition and subtraction. For example, in the expression

2*2+3*3
the 2s are multiplied (which gives 4), then the 3s are multiplied (giving 9),
and only then are these results added, yielding 13. The multiplications are
carried out before the addition because the * operator has a higher
precedence than the + operator.
If there was no precedence and the compiler just evaluated expressions
blindly from left to right, the compiler would obtain a different answer.
Multiplying the 2s gives 4, adding the 3 makes 7, and multiplying the result
by 3 gives 21, which is not what you expect. Thus precedence is important
in normal arithmetic expressions. It’s also important when different C++
operators are used.
You may have wondered why, when I say

temp<65 || temp>75
how I can be sure that the true/false value of temp<65 and temp>75 are
evaluated first, before being ORed together. If the processor proceeded
from left to right, for example, temp<65 would be evaluated, ORed with
temp (whatever that would mean, because temp is a number, not a
true/false value), and the result compared with 75. This isn’t what I want, of
course.
The expression is evaluated correctly because relational operators have a
higher precedence than logical operators.
How is the expression

n + 2 < x + 3
evaluated? You want to compare two arithmetic expressions, n+2 and x+3.
Is that what’s happening? Yes, because arithmetic operators have a higher
precedence than relational operators. Table 2-3 shows the precedence
relations, with the higher precedence operators higher in the table.
Table 2-3 Precedence relations
Operators Operator Types Precedence

* / % Multiplicative Higher
+ - Additive
< > <= >= == != Relational
&& || Logical
= Assignment Lower

Notice that the assignment operator, =, has the lowest precedence of all;
that is, it’s applied after all the other operators. You’ll see other examples
of precedence relations as you go along.

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-----------
Quiz 2

1. True values and false values are represented in C++ by the numerical values _____ and
_____, respectively.
a. any number except 0, 0
b. any positive number, 0
c. 0, any negative number
d. 0, 1
e. 1, 0
2. Relational operators compare two
a. true/false values and evaluate to a number (such as 77).
b. numerical values and evaluate to a true/false value.
c. logical values and evaluate to a true/false value.
d. logical values and evaluate to a number.
e. true/false values and evaluate to a logical value.
3. What expression(s) will cause the while loop to cycle as long as j is greater than 0 and
ch is not ‘q’?
a. while( !(j<=0 || ch==’q’) )
b. while(j > (0 && ch) != ‘q’)
c. while(j > 0 && ch != ‘q’)
d. while(j <= 0 && ch == ‘q’)
e. while( !(j <= 0) || !(ch == ‘q’) )
4. If you want a loop variable to run from 12 to 36 (inclusive) in steps of 3, you might write
a. for(alpha==12, alpha<37, alpha=alpha+3)
b. for(x==12; x<=37; x=x+3)
c. for(b=12, b<37, b+b+3)
d. for( gamma=12; gamma<37; gamma=gamma+3 )
e. for(rad=12; rad<=36; ++rad, ++rad, ++rad)
5. while loops and do loops differ in that
a. a do loop is terminated by a condition arising within the loop.
b. the number of times a while loop will cycle is known before the loop is entered.
c. a while is terminated by a condition arising within the loop.
d. the body of a do loop is always executed at least once.
e. the loop variable may be incremented within a do loop.

Exercise 1

Write a loop that repeatedly asks the user to type a character and then displays the ASCII value of
the character. Hint: You can cause a variable of type char to print as a number by converting it to
type int. Use an expression such as int(ch), which converts the variable ch to an int. Have
the loop exit when the user enters the character ‘q’.

Exercise 2

Write a program fragment, probably consisting of some nested loops, that asks the user what
character to use to create a 10 by 10 square on the upper-left corner of the screen. Then display
this square and ask for another character. Exit from the outermost loop when the user enters ‘q’ .

Session 3: Simple Decisions

I’m going to cover decisions in two sessions rather than one. I’ll examine simple decisions (if
and if…else) now and advanced decisions (else…if, switch, and the conditional operator)
in the next lesson. This relaxed pace will give you a chance to see how to improve the hot dog
stand program with various kinds of decision statements.

The if Statement

The simplest way to make a decision in C++ is with the if statement. Here’s an example of an if
statement at work:

if(denominator == 0)
cout << “Division by zero is illegal”;
If a variable called denominator is 0, this fragment causes a message to be displayed. If
denominator is not 0, then nothing happens.
As with loops, if you use more than one statement in the body of an if statement, you need to
surround them with braces.

if(choice == 's') // if user chooses “sold dog' option

{
cout << “Selling a dog”; // verify I sold the dog
stand1.SoldOneDog(); // sell the dog
}
An if statement consists of the keyword if followed by a test expression in parentheses. The
loop body, which follows, consists of either a single statement or multiple statements surrounded
by braces. (With the exception of the keyword, an if statement has the same syntax as a while
statement.) Notice that there is no then keyword in C++, as there is in some other languages. The
body of the loop follows immediately after the test expression.
Figure 2-8 shows the syntax of the if statement and Figure 2-9 show how it operates.

Figure 2-8 Syntax of the if statement

Figure 2-9 Operation of the if statement

The if…else Statement

In a simple if statement, something happens if the condition is true, but if the condition is not
true, nothing happens at all. Suppose you want something to happen either way: one action if the
condition is true and a different action if the condition is false. To do this, you use an if…else
statement. The following fragment takes the hour of the day, expressed in 24-hour time, and
displays it in 12-hour time, with “am” or “pm” as appropriate:

if(hours < 12)

cout << hours << “ am”; // e.g., “7 am” if hours is 7
else
cout << hours-12 << “ pm”; // e.g., “3 pm” if hours is 15
Actually, this simple approach doesn’t handle the situation very well when hours is 0 (midnight)
or 12 (noon). You’ll see how to deal with these cases in the next lesson.
As with other C++ constructions, the if body or the else body may consist of multiple
statements surrounded by braces rather than the single statements I show here.

Test Expression

The test expression in an if or an if…else statement can be just as complicated as expressions

in loops. For example, this if…else statement advances the day from February 28 to either
March 1 or February 29, depending on whether the year is a leap year or not:

// if it's Feb 28 and it's a leap year

if(day==28 && month==2 && year%4==0 && year%100 != 0)
day = 29; // then the next day is the 29th
else // otherwise,
{
day = 1; // next day is March 1st
month = 3;
}
Leap years occur when the year is divisible by 4 (e.g., 1996 is a leap year), but not divisible by
100 (so 1900 is not a leap year, although it is divisible by 4. The remainder operator (%) is used to
find if the year is divisible by 4 (and by 100) with no remainder. The AND operators make sure
that February 29 occurs only when all the conditions are true at once. (Yes, I know, leap years
have other corrections as well.)

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-----------
Nested if…else Statements

You can nest if…else statements within one another. Typically, the nested statements end up
in the else body rather than in the if body. For example

if(age<2)
cout << “\nInfant”;
else
if(age<18)
cout << “\nChild”;
else // age >= 18
cout << “\nAdult”;
This if…else “ladder” prints an appropriate description of a person’s age.
An insidious problem may arise when you nest if…else statements. Here’s a program
fragment that is intended to have a similar functionality to the one above, except it can’t print the
adult designation:

if(age>2) // if greater than 2

if(age<18) // and less than 18
cout << “\nChild”; // it's a child
else
cout << “\nInfant”; // ERROR: inappropriate response
Will this fragment print “Infant” when age is less than or equal to 2, as I want? Alas, no.
“Infant” will be printed whenever age is greater than or equal to 18. Why? I have mislead
you with the indentation, so it looks as if the else matches up with the first if. It doesn’t.
Here’s the rule: An else is associated with the nearest preceding if that doesn’t have its own
else. The correct version of the fragment above would be

if(age>2)
if(age<18)
cout << “\nChild”;
else // the else goes with the preceding if
cout << “\nAdult”; // appropriate response, age>=18
If you really want an else to be associated with an if that doesn’t immediately precede it, you
must surround the intervening if statement with braces

if(age>2)
{
if(age<18)
cout << “\nChild”;
}
else // this else goes with the top if
cout << “\nInfant”; // appropriate response
The braces make the entire if statement invisible to the else. (It would be nice if we could
conceal ourselves from telemarketers this easily.)
The moral is to be careful with complicated if…else statements. Forgetting which if gets the
else is a common source of annoying program bugs.

Improving the Hot Dog Program with if

Now that you know how to cause a program to do things more than once and make decisions,
you can improve the hot dog stand program, HOTDOG1. Rewrite the main() part of the
program so it runs continuously, waiting for the user to tell it a hot dog has been sold. For
simplicity, work with only one hot dog stand, represented by the stand1 object.
When first started, the program asks the user to enter the initial amounts of buns and hot dogs on
hand. Then the program enters a while loop, waiting for user input. If the user enters ‘s’, the
program records a sale. If the user enters ‘q’, the program displays the hot dogs and buns on
hand and exits. Presumably, the user enters ‘q’ when the last sale has been made and the hot
dog stand has closed down for the day.
Notice that I use the if statement to see if the user has typed an ‘s’, and the while loop to
check for ‘q’. Listing 2-2 shows HOTDOG2.
Listing 2-2 HOTDOG2

// hotdog2.cpp
// hot dog stand inventory database
// uses while loop and if statement

#include <iostream.h> // for cout, cin, etc.

class HotDogStand // class specification

/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void main()
{
char choice = 'x'; // user's letter choice

HotDogStand stand1; // create hot dog stand object

// set initial data
cout << “\nInitialize data”;
stand1.initData();

while(choice != 'q') // loop until 'q' typed

{
cout << “\nEnter s to record sale, q to quit: ”;
cin >> choice;
if(choice == 's') // if user entered 's'
{ // then sell a dog
cout << “Selling a dog”;
stand1.SoldOneDog();
}
} // end while
// display current data

cout << “\nSupplies on hand”;

stand1.displayData();
}

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-----------
A Glimpse of Reusability

One of the most important things to notice about Listing 2-2 is that the
specification for the HotDogStand class is exactly the same as it was in
the HOTDOG1 program. I have made significant changes to the functionality
of the program, but I have not altered the class at all. In an embryonic way,
this demonstrates one of the major strengths of OOP. I have reused the
HotDogStand class in a new program. I haven’t worried about
integrating or modifying the parts of the class; I simply inserted the entire
class, just as I found it, into the new program. In a small program, the gain
may not appear significant, but in larger programs, the savings in time and
effort that result from being able to reuse already existing classes can be
substantial. The savings may be especially large when an entire library of
classes can be reused.
Of course, it is also possible to reuse code, especially functions, in
old-fashioned procedural languages such as C. However, the OOP
approach, which reuses classes instead of functions, provides a more
coherent and easily understood package for reuse, with both data and
functions combined into a single entity. The interface between the class,
which specifies how objects behave, and main(), which creates objects
and sends messages to them, is cleaner and more easily understood than the
relationship between some functions and some data that’s unrelated to the
functions and statements in main() that call functions and access the data.

Quiz 3

1. The test expression in an if statement

a. is an expression that counts how often the if statement
body will be executed.
b. may contain logical and relational operators.
c. determines whether the if statement body will be executed.
d. may be evaluated after the if statement body is executed.
e. may be any expression that evaluates to a true/false value.
2. Which of the following are test expression(s) for an if statement
that determine whether a character ch is a digit; that is, if it is in the
range of characters from '0’ to ‘9’.
a. if(ch>=’0’ && ch<=’9’)
b. if ( ch >= 0 && ch <= 9 )
c. if(ch>0) else (ch<9)
d. if( ch < ‘0’ || ch > ‘9’ )
e. if(ch > -1 && ch < 10)
3. Which of the following are true?
a. An else is associated with the if that has the same
indentation as the else.
b. An else is associated with the if that is closest to and
above the else, if that if is not surrounded by braces.
c. An else is associated with the if that is surrounded by
braces and immediately precedes the else.
d. The body of an else is executed if the test expression in
the corresponding if is true.
e. The body of an else is executed if the test expression
following the else is true.
4. The interface between a class and the rest of a program normally
includes
a. the class sending messages to objects.
b. the program creating objects.
c. the program sending messages to objects.
d. objects sending messages to main().
e. the program manipulating the objects’ data.
5. OOP offers superior reusability because
a. other parts of the program need not be concerned with how
data is structured in an object.
b. it’s easier for objects to communicate with each other.
c. every object is built to the same specification.
d. other parts of the program need to relate only to one
thing—objects—not to data and functions separately.
e. the programmer need not be aware of the class
specification.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the program of Exercise 1 in Session 1 in this chapter so that it

continuously waits for a character to be entered. The user should be able to
make the elevator go up one floor by entering a ‘+’ (pressing the ‘+’ and
) and go down one floor by entering a ‘-’. After each floor
change, the program should display the floor the elevator is on. Pressing
‘q’ should terminate the program. Assume that the elevator starts on floor
1 and that the program informs the user of this fact when it is first started.
Here’s some sample interaction:

Elevator is now on floor 1

Enter choice: +
Elevator is now on floor 2
Enter choice: +
Elevator is now on floor 3
Enter choice: -
Elevator is now on floor 2
Enter choice: q

Exercise 2

Rewrite the program of Exercise 2 in Session 1 in this chapter (which uses

the hotdogstand2 class with a CashOnHand variable) so that it has the
same functionality as the HOTDOG2 program (Listing 2-2).

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-----------
Session 4: Advanced Decisions
In this session, I’ll cover more advanced ways for a program to choose between different actions: the
else if construction, the powerful switch statement, and the weird but compact conditional
operator. I’ll also apply the switch statement to the hot dog stand program to enhance its
functionality.

The else if Construction

In the previous session, I showed an example of an if…else statement that displayed “am” or
“pm” for hour values less than and greater than 12. I also acknowledged that this statement didn’t
handle the occasions when hour was 0 or 12. How can I fix this? I can check for these specific
values of hour and respond accordingly. Here’s how that looks with an if…else ladder:

if(hours == 0) // first-level indent

cout << “Midnight”;
else
if(hours == 12) // second-level indent
cout << “Noon”;
else
if(hours < 12) // third-level indent
cout << hours << “ am”;
else
cout << hours-12 << “ pm”;
If the hours is 0, it’s midnight, so the program displays an appropriate message and exits from the
entire if…else ladder. If it isn’t 0, the program goes on to the next if…else. It keep moving to
more deeply nested if…else statements until it finds one whose test expression is true or it runs out
of possibilities.
This arrangement does what I want, but it’s hard for humans to read the multiple indentations. Here’s
a somewhat more easily understood way to rewrite the same code:

if(hours == 0)
cout << “Midnight”;
else if(hours == 12)
cout << “Noon”;
else if(hours < 12)
cout << hours << “ am”;
else
cout << hours-12 << “ pm”;
The if that follows each else is simply moved up onto the same line, thus creating a sort of
artificial else if construction and removing the multiple levels of indentation. This arrangement
not only saves space, it presents a clearer picture of the program’s logic (at least, after you’ve gotten
used to it).
Notice that the else if construction is not really a part of the syntax of the C++ language; it’s
merely a way to rewrite an if…else ladder by rearranging the whitespace on the page. You can do
this because—as you know—the compiler doesn’t care about whitespace.

Fine-Tuning Loops

This is a good place to introduce the break and continue statements, even though they pertain to
loops, because they are used most effectively in conjunction with decisions. Also, break is an
important feature in the switch statement, which I’ll demonstrate next.
Usually loops work well with the straightforward syntax I showed in the last session. However,
sometimes you need to fudge things a bit to make a loop behave as you want. The break and
continue statements provide this added flexibility.

The break Statement

The break statement causes you to exit immediately from a loop, as shown in Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10 Operation of the break statement

The break statement is often used to handle unexpected or nonstandard situations that arise within a
loop. For example, here’s a code fragment that sets the variable isPrime to 1 if an integer n is a
prime number or to 0 if n is not a prime number. (A prime number is divisible only by itself and 1.)
To tell if n is prime, I use the straightforward approach of trying to divide it by all the numbers up to
n-1. If any of them divide evenly (with no remainder), then it’s not prime.

isPrime = 1; // assume n is prime

for(j=2; j<n; ++j) // divide by all integers from 2 to n-1
{
if(n%j == 0) // if evenly divisible,
{
isPrime = 0; // n is not a prime
break; // no point in looping again
}
}
I want to divide by all the numbers up to n-1, so I use a for loop with appropriate expressions.
However, if one of the j values does divide evenly, there’s no use remaining in the loop and dividing
by the remaining the j values. As soon as the program finds the first number that divides evenly, it
should set isPrime to 0 and then immediately exit from the loop. The break statement allows you
to exit from the loop at any time.

The continue Statement

The continue statement is similar to the break statement in that it is usually activated by an
unexpected condition in a loop. However, it returns control to the top of the loop—causing the loop
to continue—rather than causing an exit from the loop. Figure 2-11 shows how this looks.

Figure 2-11 Operation of the continue statement

Whereas the break statement causes an exit from a loop, the continue statement causes part of
the loop to be “short-circuited” or bypassed while the loop keeps running. That is, following a
continue, control goes back to the top of the loop. Here’s an example:

do
{
cout << “Enter dividend: ”;
cin >> dividend;
cout << “Enter divisor: ”;
cin >> divisor;
if(divisor == 0) // if user error,
{
cout << “Divisor can't be zero\n”;
continue; // go back to top of loop
}
cout << “Quotient is ” << dividend / divisor;
cout “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> ch;
} while(ch != 'n');
Division by zero is illegal, so if the user enters 0 for the divisor, control goes back to the top of the
loop and the program prompts for a new dividend and divisor so the user can try again. To exit from
the loop, the user must answer ‘n’ to the “Do another” question.

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The switch Statement

Now you’re ready for perhaps the most powerful decision-making construction in C++. The switch
statement checks a variable and routes program control to any of a number of different sections of code,
depending on the value of the variable. Here’s an example:

switch(diskSpeed)
{
case 33: // if diskSpeed is 33
cout << “Long-playing album”;
break;
case 45: // if diskSpeed is 45
cout << “Single-selection”;
break;
case 78: // if diskSpeed is 78
cout << “Old single-selection”;
break;
default: // if nothing matches
cout << “Unknown format”;
}
The switch statement consists of the keyword switch followed by a variable name in parentheses. The
body of the switch statement, enclosed in braces, follows. Within the body are a number of labels, which
are names followed by a colon. In a switch statement, these labels consist of the keyword case followed
by a constant and then the colon. When the value of the switch variable is equal to the constant following
a particular case, control will go to the statements following this case label.
The above section of code prints different messages depending on the value of the diskSpeed variable. If
diskSpeed is 33, control jumps to the label case 33. If diskSpeed is 45, control jumps to the label
case 45, and so on. If diskSpeed doesn’t match any of the cases, control jumps to the default
label (or, if there is no default, falls through the bottom of the switch). Figure 2-12 shows the syntax
of the switch statement and Figure 2-13 shows its operation.

Figure 2-12 Syntax of the switch statement

Figure 2-13 Operation of the switch statement

The variable or expression used to determine which label is jumped to (diskSpeed, in this example)
must be an integer or a character or must evaluate to an integer or a character. The values following the
cases must be—or must evaluate to—integer or character constants. That is, you can use variable names
or expressions, such as alpha, j+20, and ch+’0’, as long as alpha, j, and ch already have
appropriate values.
Once control gets to a label, the statements following the label are executed one after the other from the
label onward. In this example, the cout statement will be executed. Then what? If the break weren’t
there, control would continue down to the next cout statement, which is not what you want. Labels don’t
delimit a section of code, they merely name an entry point. The break causes control to break out of the
switch entirely.
Here’s another example that might be used in the hot dog stand program. It gives the user the choice of
three stands for which to record the sale of a hot dog. The user types a digit from ‘1’ to ‘3’, which is
then used as the switch variable.

cin >> choice;

switch(choice)
{
case '1';
stand1.SoldOneDog();
break;
case '2';
stand2.SoldOneDog();
break;
case '3';
stand3.SoldOneDog();
break;
}

Improving the Hot Dog Program with switch

Let’s put this switch construction into a complete program. A while loop will allow the user to
repeatedly record the sale of hot dogs from the three stands. Listing 2-3 shows HOTDOG3.
Listing 2-3 HOTDOG3

// hotdog3.cpp
// hot dog stand inventory database
// uses while loop and switch statement

#include <iostream.h> // for cout, cin, etc.

class HotDogStand // class specification

/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void main()
{
char choice = 'x'; // user's letter choice

HotDogStand stand1; // create hot dog stand objects

HotDogStand stand2;
HotDogStand stand3;
// set initial data
cout << “\nInitialize data for stand 1”;
stand1.initData();
cout << “\nInitialize data for stand 2”;
stand2.initData();
cout << “\nInitialize data for stand 3”;
stand3.initData();

while(choice != 'q') // loop until user enters 'q'

{
cout << “\nEnter stand number, or q to quit: ”;
cin >> choice;
switch(choice)
{
case '1':
cout << “Selling a dog at stand 1”;
stand1.SoldOneDog();
break;
case '2':
cout << “Selling a dog at stand 2”;
stand2.SoldOneDog();
break;
case '3':
cout << “Selling a dog at stand 3”;
stand3.SoldOneDog();
break;
} // end switch
} // end while
// display current data
cout << “\nSupplies on hand at stand 1”;
stand1.displayData();
cout << “\nSupplies on hand at stand 2”;
stand2.displayData();
cout << “\nSupplies on hand at stand 3”;
stand3.displayData();
}

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The user can enter initial amounts of hot dogs and buns for three different stands, then record an
arbitrary number of sales at each stand, and then, at the end of the day, display the remaining
inventory before exiting from the program. Here’s some sample interaction:

Initialize data for stand 1

Enter hot dogs on hand: 100
Enter buns on hand: 110

Initialize data for stand 2

Enter hot dogs on hand: 200
Enter buns on hand: 220

Initialize data for stand 3

Enter hot dogs on hand: 300
Enter buns on hand: 330

Enter stand number, or q to quit: 1 <--sell 3 dogs from stand 1

Selling a dog at stand 1
Enter stand number, or q to quit: 1
Selling a dog at stand 1
Enter stand number, or q to quit: 1
Selling a dog at stand 1
Enter stand number, or q to quit: 2 <--sell 2 dogs from stand2
Selling a dog at stand 2
Enter stand number, or q to quit: 2
Selling a dog at stand 2
Enter stand number, or q to quit: 3 <--sell 1 dog from stand 3
Selling a dog at stand 3
Enter stand number, or q to quit: q <--quit program

Supplies on hand at stand 1

Hot dogs = 97
Buns = 107
Supplies on hand at stand 2
Hot dogs = 198
Buns = 218
Supplies on hand at stand 3
Hot dogs = 299
Buns = 329
In this example, the user enters initial amounts for the three stands and sells three hot dogs from stand
1, two from stand 2, and one from stand 3. Entering ‘q’ displays the current inventory and exits the
program.
Again, notice that I’ve altered the functionality of the program without changing the class
specification.

The Conditional Operator

The conditional operator was invented because a particular construction occurs often in C++
programs and it is nice to shorten it. Here’s an example of the lengthy version of the code:

if(alpha<beta)
min = alpha;
else
min = beta;
I have a variable min and I want to set it to alpha or beta, whichever is smaller. This if…else
statement requires four lines of code. (I could put it all on one line, of course, but it would still be
long and complicated.) However, using the conditional operator, I can shorten it to

min = (alpha<beta) ? alpha : beta;

The conditional operator is the only C++ operator that operates on three operands. It consists of two
symbols: a question mark and a colon. First comes a test expression (with optional parentheses), then
the question mark, then two values separated by the colon. If the test expression is true, the entire
expression takes on the value before the colon (here it’s alpha); if the test expression is false, the
entire expression takes on the value following the colon (beta). Figure 2-14 shows the syntax of the
conditional operator and Figure 2-15 shows its operation.

Figure 2-14 Syntax of the conditional operator

Figure 2-15 Operation of the conditional operator

Here’s another example. The statement

absvalue = (n<0) ? -n : n;
imitates an absolute value function. (The absolute value of a number is simply the number with any
negative sign removed.) The result is -n if n is less than 0 and +n otherwise.

Quiz 4

1. Suppose you want to display “Weekday” if a variable day is between 1 (Monday) and 5
(Friday), but you want to display “Saturday” if day is 6 and “Sunday” if day is 7.
Which of the following fragments might reasonably be part of the code for this task? Assume
day is always in the range of 1 to 7.
a. if else(day==7) cout << “Sunday”;
b. else if(day==6) cout << “Saturday”; else cout << “Sunday”;
c. else if(day<6) cout << “Weekday”; else if(day==6);
d. else cout << “Weekday”;
e. if(day<6) cout << “Weekday” else cout << “Saturday”;
2. Which of the following are true?
a. break brings you back to the top of a loop, whereas continue continues on from
the same point within the loop.
b. continue brings you back to the top of the loop, whereas break takes you out of the
bottom of the loop.
c. break takes you out of all the loops in which you may be nested
d. continue takes you immediately to the top of the innermost loop in which you’re
nested
e. break takes you immediately out of an if statement body
3. What will be displayed if the following code is executed when var has the value ‘b’?

switch(var)
{
case 'a': cout << “Alpha ”;
case 'b': cout << “Beta ”;
case 'c':
cout << “Gamma ”;
break;
default:
cout << “Not on list”;
}
a. Alpha
b. Beta
c. Gamma
d. Alpha Beta
e. Beta Gamma
4. If you want to display “Too slow” if speed is less than 40, “Too fast” if speed is
greater than 65, and nothing otherwise, it would be appropriate to use
a. a switch statement.
b. a series of if statements.
c. nested if…else statements.
d. an else if ladder.
e. a conditional operator.
5. You want to send a message to each object in a group of objects. You already know the
names of all the objects. The message would retrieve a certain item of instance data from each
object. Your program would then display “Found one!” if this data item in any object was
divisible by 7. You would be likely to use
a. a switch in a do loop.
b. nested if…else statements in a while loop.
c. an else if ladder in a do loop.
d. an if in a for loop.
e. an else if ladder in a for loop.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the program of Exercise 1 in Session 3 in this chapter so that it uses a switch statement to
distinguish among the user’s choices.

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Exercise 2

Rewrite the program of Exercise 2 in Session 3 in this chapter (which uses the
hotdogstand2 class with a CashOnHand variable) so that it has the same
functionality as the HOTDOG3 program in this session and uses a switch statement to
distinguish among the user’s choices.

Midchapter Discussion
Estelle: So George, what terrible negative thoughts do you have today?
George: No negative thoughts. I’m on top of the whole thing. I see how a C++
program fits together. It’s like there are two halves: the class
specification and main(). In the specification, you define what the
objects are and how they’ll act. In main(), you make objects based on
the class and interact with them.
Don: Well said. I think I’m beginning to see something else, too. There’s a
philosophical difference between a class specification and the code in
main(). The class is more general. You can imagine one programmer
writing a class specification, and then a whole bunch of different
programmers using the class for their own special purposes, each one
writing a different main(). It’s like someone designing a tool and other
people using it in different ways.
Estelle: Anyone with a chain of hot dog stands is a potential customer for the
HotDogStand class, but they might want to write their own main().
Don: Exactly.
George: I’m also relaxed because all the material on if and while and for
isn’t exactly news to an old C programmer such as myself.
Estelle: Lucky you. Actually, I didn’t think it was too hard either, except for the
conditional operator, which has too much going on in too small a space.
It’ll take me all day to figure out a line of code if it’s got one of those
things in it.
George: You don’t need to use a conditional operator if you don’t want to; just
use if…else instead.
Don: What I thought was silly is how in a switch statement you need to put
break statements at the end of every case. Why not have control
jump to the end of the switch automatically after a case is
completed?
Estelle: It’s a trade-off. The advantage of requiring a case is that, if you want,
two cases can go to the same code.
Don: When would you ever do that?
Estelle: Hmm…oh, I know. Suppose you wanted your program to do the same
thing if the user typed either an upper- or lowercase version of the same
character. Then you could put two cases right after each other. Here, I’ll
write it on the board:

case 'a':
case 'A':
// do something
break;
I guess that’s reasonable. But you know what I think is weird? The
Don:
continue statement.
George: Don’t worry about it. It doesn’t come up that much in C programming,
so I bet it doesn’t in C++ either.

Session 5: A class to Represent Time Values

In the first half of this chapter, I devoted attention to hot dog stands. Now, to prove
how versatile OOP can be, I’m going to use a class to model something quite
different: a new data type. This data type will represent time. In particular, it will
represent the time used for airline flight reservation systems. This time has two data
items: one for hours and one for minutes. There is (regrettably) no need for seconds in
airline scheduling. I’ll call this new data type airtime.

New Data Types

Why would you want to create a new data type? Don’t int and float and the other
basic types pretty much allow you to do anything you want? Well, not really. You
may be able to do everything, but you can’t do it very elegantly or quickly. It would
be nice if you could treat airtime values just as though they were basic types and
make statements such as

t1 = t2 + t3; <--nice clean way to add times

where I add two airtime values and set the result equal to a third airtime value.
Of course, I could do this by using two int values for each time value: one for hours
and one for minutes. But then I would need to use two addition operations to add two
times.

h1 = h2 + h3; <--more complicated way to add times

m1 = m2 + m3;
I would also need to worry about how to carry an hour when the sum of the minutes
exceeds 60.
Or perhaps I could represent times as a single minutes values, obtained by adding the
minutes value to the hours value multiplied by 60.

t2 = m2 + h2*60; <--another complicated way to add times

t3 = m3 + h3*60;
t1 = t2 + t3;
However, this is not particularly elegant, because I need to convert from
hours/minutes format to minutes-only format and back again. It turns out that it’s far
easier to write a program that uses time values if these values are represented by
objects that can be treated like basic C++ variables.
Representing new data types is a major use for OOP languages. Other data types you
might want to model using classes are
• Dates, which have separate values for year, month, and day
• Fractions, which have separate values for the numerator and denominator
• Points on the Cartesian plane, which have separate x and y coordinates
• Complex numbers in mathematics, which have a real and an imaginary
component
It will take several iterations before you’re ready to use the + operator to add two
values of a user-defined data type. Along the way, you’ll learn to add such values
using a member function, add(). But first, let’s create a time class with no capability
to add values and see what that looks like.

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A Simple Version of the airtime Class

Let’s first examine a simple version of the airtime class. This class does
little more than handle input and output for airtime variables, but it will
introduce the idea of user-defined data types. Note that airtime variables
use 24-hour time, where 13:00 is 1:00 pm, and 23:59 is 11:59 pm. Listing
2-4 is the complete TIME1 program.
Listing 2-4 TIME1

// time1.cpp
// a class that models a time data type

#include <iostream.h>

class airtime
{
private:
int hours; // 0 to 23
int minutes; // 0 to 59
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':' << minutes;
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1, t2; // create two airtime variables

cout << “For t1, ”;

t1.set(); // set t1
cout << “For t2, ”;
t2.set(); // set t2

cout << “\nt1 = ”;

t1.display(); // display t1
cout << “\nt2 = ”;
t2.display(); // display t2
}
The airtime class specifies two items of instance data, hours and
minutes, and two member functions, set() and display(), which
get an airtime value from the user and display a value. Here’s some sample
interaction with the program:

For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 10:15

For t2, Enter time (format 23:59): 23:30

t1 = 10:15
t2 = 23:30
The user enters two times and the program displays them.
Considering that it creates a data type instead of a group of hot dog stands,
this program is surprisingly similar to the HOTDOG1 program. But when
you think about it, time quantities and hot dog stands share common
characteristics. They both store data. Also, they should have similar
capabilities: they should specify their initial data, modify it, and display it.

Assignment Statements with Objects

One of the easiest ways to demonstrate the power of using classes for data
types is to assign the value of one object to another. You know how that
works with basic types such as int. The statement

avar = 3;
gives the value 3 to the variable avar. Can you do the same thing with
variables (objects) of data types (classes) that you’ve defined yourself?
Absolutely. Here’s a modification of the main() part of the TIME1
program. It gets a value for one airtime variable t1, assigns this value to
t2 with the statement

t2 = t1;
and then displays the value of t2.

void main()
{
airtime t1, t2; // create two airtime variables

cout << “For t1, ”;

t1.set(); // set t1

t2 = t1; // make t2 equal to t1

cout << “\nt2 = ”;

t2.display(); // display t2
}
How can you set one object equal to another? The capability is built into
C++. Although an airtime value contains two data items (hours and
minutes), the compiler has no trouble transferring these two values from
one variable to another. No matter how many items of instance data there
are in an object, they will all be copied to another object during assignment.
This may seem natural enough, but it’s a pretty slick capability.

What’s Really in an Object?

I’ve said that when you assign one object to another, its instance data is
copied into the other object. Are its member functions copied as well?
Conceptually, it’s probably easiest to think of them being copied along with
the data: Everything associated with one object is copied to another. You
probably won’t get into too much trouble if you assume this is true.
However, that’s not exactly what happens.
The truth is, no matter how many objects of a given class exist, there is only
one image of each member function stored in memory. This makes sense,
because the member functions are the same for each object, unlike instance
data, which in general contains different values for each object. It would
waste memory to duplicate the member functions, so all objects share the
class member functions, as shown in Figure 2-16.

Figure 2-16 Objects, data, functions, and memory

When you call a member function for a certain object, as in

t2.display(); // display t2
you always call the same display() function, but it operates on different
data, depending on what object called it. In this case, display() operates
on the data stored in t2.

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More Manipulators: Formatting Leading Zeros

As with most languages, there is a rich vocabulary in C++ for formatting output to the screen. So
far I’ve ignored such possibilities, except for endl and escape characters such as \n. However,
the airtime class suffers from an annoying drawback: It doesn’t print the hours with leading
zeros when appropriate. For example, in the time1 program, you might have the following
interchange:

For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 12:00

For t2, Enter time (format 23:59): 3:05

t1 = 12:0
t2 = 3:5
We humans don’t recognize 12:0 and 3:5 as time values. We want the times to be displayed with
leading zeros when appropriate, as the user entered them. Here’s how to modify the display()
member function to supply leading zeros:

void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'; // hours and colon
<< setfill('0'); // fill character is '0'
<< setw(2) << minutes; // minutes is 2 chars wide
}
This arrangement makes use of two new manipulators. Recall that a manipulator is an object that
can be inserted into an I/O stream. You’ve already made the acquaintance of endl, a manipulator
that takes no arguments.
The setw() manipulator takes one argument, which is the width in characters, of the field to be
occupied by the next output value. Ordinarily, the field width is automatically adjusted to the
number of digits to be displayed (which does not include leading zeros). By setting a fixed width
with setw(2), I specify that I want minutes to be displayed as two characters, even if it has a
value less than 10. The unused space will be filled with a fill character, which by default is a blank
(‘ ’). I want it to be a ‘0’ character, so I set this with the setfill(‘0’) manipulator. This
arrangement always prints two digits, using 0 for the left one when appropriate.
With this revised version of the display function, the input shown above will display

t1 = 12:00
t2 = 3:05
as it should.
There is a subtle difference between the setfill() and setw() manipulators. The effect of
setfill() lasts for the entire cout statement, no matter how many values are output. The
effect of setw(), on the other hand, lasts only until the next value has been displayed. Thus, you
must use setw() before every value if you want to change its field width.
There are other manipulators in C++; you’ll see some in Chapter 10.

Quiz 5

1. Data types are to variables as

a. classes are to member functions.
b. variables are to values.
c. data is to values.
d. variables are to member functions.
e. classes are to objects.
2. The following are advantages of representing multivalued quantities (such as time or
coordinates) by class objects rather than using separate variables.
a. Arithmetic is faster on objects than on separate variables.
b. It’s easier to declare an object than several variables.
c. It’s easier to write a statement to perform an arithmetic operation on an object than
on separate quantities.
d. It’s easier to write assignment statements for objects than for separate quantities.
e. Objects take up less space in memory than using separate variables for each
quantity.
3. If you wanted to line up three integer values (which would never exceed 32,767) in three
columns, you might say
a. cout << endl << setw(4) << alpha1 <<< alpha2 << alpha3;
b. cout << endl << setw(7) << alpha1 << alpha2 << alpha3;
c. cout << endl << setw(7) << alpha1

<< setw(7) << alpha2

<< setw(7) << alpha3;
d. cout << endl << setw(7) << alpha1

<< endl << setw(7) << alpha2

<< endl << setw(7) << alpha3;
e. cout << endl << setfill(‘*’)

<< setw(7) << alpha1 << setw(7) << alpha2

<< setw(7) << alpha3;
4. If you developed a class called AirCraftPosition, appropriate instance data might
be
a. latitude
b. longitude
c. speed
d. altitude
e. capacity
5. When you execute

alpha = beta;

(assuming that alpha and beta are objects of a user-specified class)

a. the compiler checks that their instance data has the same values.
b. beta’s data and member functions are copied to alpha.
c. beta’s data but not its member functions are copied into alpha.
d. the compiler sets beta equal to alpha.
e. the compiler doesn’t care if alpha and beta are of the same class.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the specification for the airtime class in the TIME1 program so it includes a seconds
data member. The new class should work with the same main() that the old class did.

Exercise 2

Add a member function to the original airtime class that will advance the time by 1 minute.
Handle the case where the minutes value is 59 and adding a minute will cause the hours value to be
incremented. If the hours value becomes 24, set it back to 00.

Session 6: Function Arguments

The member functions you’ve looked at so far have always done exactly the same thing in the same
way. I’ve asked them to display their object or to get input from the user or—in the case of the
SoldOneDog() function—to decrement all inventory items. In none of these cases did I need to
add additional details to a message when I sent it to an object. (Sending a message to an object is,
as you recall, the same as calling one of the object’s member functions.)
However, in most cases, you need to supply additional information to a function besides the mere
fact that you’ve called it. This is done with function arguments, which are values passed to a
function when it is called.

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Adding Hours to an airtime Value

Suppose that I need to add a certain number of hours to variables of type airtime,
described in the last session. I might do this to convert an airline departure or arrival to a
different time zone. Something that happens at 12:30 in San Francisco happens at 15:30
in Philadelphia, for example. I would carry out this conversion by adding the integer 3 to
the hours value of the airtime 12:30. I don’t need to touch the minutes value at all.
However, I don’t always want to increase the number of hours by 3. The time difference
between Salt Lake City and Chicago is 1, but between Chicago and London it’s 6. How
do I convey the number of hours, which will be 1 or 3 or 6 or whatever, to the airtime
object? As you’ve guessed, I use a function argument.

Sending a Message with an Argument

Assuming I am sending an addhours() message to the t1 object, telling it to add 3

hours to itself, I would say

t1.addhours(3);
The argument is placed between the parentheses following the function name. Or I could
use a variable name, provided it has already been given the appropriate value.

int diffhours = 3;
…
t1.addhours(diffhours);

Writing the Member Function

When I write a member function that takes an argument, I must place two things within
the parentheses in the function definition: the data type and a variable name, as shown in
Figure 2-17.

Figure 2-17 Syntax of a function call with arguments

Here’s the definition of the addhours() member function of the airtime class:

void addhours(int h)
{
hours = hours + h; // add hours
if(hours > 23) // if carry to next day,
hours = hours - 24; // subtract a day
}
The int in

void addhours(int h)
specifies the type of data expected as an argument and the h is the name of the argument.
This argument h is a variable that can be accessed anywhere in the function. However,
note that h is visible (has meaning) only within the function; it is unknown to other parts
of the program.
The addhours() function adds h to the hours value of its object. It then checks to see
if the resulting hours value exceeds 23; if so, it subtracts 24. (Don’t worry about the
date.)

Listing for houradd.cpp

Let’s put everything together to see how this new member function might be used in a
program. Listing 2-5 is a revision of the TIME1 program that incorporates addhours()
and lets the user exercise this function. This program is called HOURADD.
Listing 2-5 HOURADD

// houradd.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// includes member function to add hours to a time

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int hours; // 0 to 23
int minutes; // 0 to 59
public:
void set()
{
char dummy;

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0')
<< setw(2) << minutes;
}
void addhours(int h)
{
hours = hours + h; // add hours
if(hours > 23) // if carry to next day,
hours = hours - 24; // subtract a day
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1; // airtime
int diffhours; // hours
char choice; // user's choice: 'n' or 'y'

do
{
cout << “For t1, ”;
t1.set(); // set t1

cout << “Enter hours to add: ”;

cin >> diffhours;
t1.addhours(diffhours); // add hours to t1
cout << “t1 = ”;
t1.display(); // display t1
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
}
while(choice != 'n');
}
The user enters an airtime value and an hours value, and the program adds them. This
continues until the user enters ‘n’ to quit the loop.

For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 10:45

Enter hours to add: 3
t1 = 13:45
Do another (y/n)? y

For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 23:30

Enter hours to add: 5
t1 = 4:30
Do another (y/n)? n
Let’s look at some other examples where function arguments are helpful.

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The set() Member Function with Arguments

There’s more than one way to design a class. In the airtime class (and the hotdogstand
class as well), I initialized the values of an object’s data members by having a member function
request the values directly from the user. However, I could instead pass these values as
arguments to the member function. This would shift the responsibility for getting user input from
the class to the main() function. Depending on circumstances, this might be a superior choice.
Let’s revise the set() member function from the airtime class, as seen in the TIME1
program, so that it obtains values as arguments rather than from the user. Let’s also revise
main() to handle user input, as shown in Listing 2-6.
Listing 2-6 TIME2

// time2.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// uses arguments to the set() function

#include <iostream.h>

class airtime
{
private:
int hours; // 0 to 23
int minutes; // 0 to 59
public:
void set(int h, int m) // set airtime value
{ // (values supplied by arguments)
hours = h; minutes = m;
}
void display() // display airtime value
{
cout << hours << ':' << minutes;
}
};

void main()
{
int hhs, mms; // variables for user-supplied values
char dummy; // for colon
airtime t1, t2; // two airtime variables

cout << “For t1, enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hhs >> dummy >> mms;
t1.set(hhs, mms); // set t1 values

cout << “For t2, enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hhs >> dummy >> mms;
t2.set(hhs, mms); // set t2 values

cout << “\nt1 = ”;

t1.display(); // display t1
cout << “\nt2 = ”;
t2.display(); // display t2
}
The set() member function now takes two arguments: h and m. The body of the function
simply sets the hours and minutes instance data items to the values of these arguments.

void set(int h, int m) // (values supplied by arguments)

{
hours = h; minutes = m; // set airtime value
}
Notice the breakdown of effort between the two parts of this program, the class specification and
main(). Compared with the TIME1 program, the set() function is simpler, but main() has
become more complicated. Actually, in this particular case, this is probably a mistake. The idea
in OOP is that classes will be created once but will be used many times in many different
programs. Thus it makes sense to embed as much functionality as possible within the class so
that every program that uses the class can be simpler.

Arguments of Any Type

I’ve shown only arguments of type int, but arguments may be of any type, and there can be any
number of arguments to a function. Here’s the skeleton for a member function that takes three
arguments of different types:

class Foo
{
…
void func(int ivar, float fvar, char cvar) // define function
{
}
…
};

main()
{
Foo foo; // make an object
int iarg = 17; // make some variables
float farg = 6.025e23;
char carg = 'x';
…
foo.func(iarg, farg, carg); // call the function
…
}
I specify a class Foo with a member function func() that takes three arguments of three
different types. Then in main(), I create an object of class Foo and call func() for this
object, with appropriate values for the arguments.

Other Uses for Functions

Because I’m focusing on the object-oriented approach to programming, using examples with
simple classes and programs, I’ve shown only one situation involving function calls: from
main() to a member function. However, functions may be called in all sorts of other situations
as well. First, the main() part of the program may be divided up into many functions, all of
which are called from main() or perhaps called from other functions that are called from
main(). This is a way of organizing the program. Second, member functions within classes
may call other functions. You’ll see examples as we go along. In the meantime, keep in mind the
comforting thought that things can always be more complicated than I show here.

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Passing by Value

The method of passing arguments that I have shown here is called passing
by value. This means that the function creates an entirely new variable (a
place in memory with a name and a suitable size) to hold the value of each
argument passed to it. In the skeleton example above, there are three
variables in main(), iarg, farg, and carg. When the function is
called, it creates three new variables, ivar, fvar, and cvar, and copies
the values into them, as shown in Figure 2-18.

Figure 2-18 Passing by value

The function may modify the variables it has created, but doing so has no
effect on the variables in main(). This provides a built-in protection
mechanism: main() can use variables as arguments without worrying that
they might be modified by the function it supplies them to.
Sometimes you want a function to be able to modify the variables passed to
it. When this is the case, you can use a different approach: passing by
reference. With this mechanism, the function operates on the original
variables in main(). This approach is used less often, but sometimes it’s
essential, as you’ll see later.

Quiz 6

1. Function arguments are generally used to

a. download responsibilities from a class to main().
b. create new variables that the function can use however it
likes.
c. make a copy of data in case of harm to the original.
d. pass information to the function.
e. make functions more versatile.
2. If var1 is 11 and var2 is 13, the statement
obj1.dotask(var1, var2);
a. assigns the values 11 and 13 to the variables var1 and
var2 in the dotask() function.
b. transmits 11 and 13 to the dotask() member function of
obj1.
c. writes 11 and 13 into the instance data of obj1.
d. gets new values of var1 and var2 from obj1.
e. assigns 11 and 13 to some other variables in the
dotask() function of obj1.
3. Which of the following might be a reasonable way to tell an
object of the ship class to locate itself at +120 degrees longitude
and -17 degrees latitude? (In case you wondered, west longitude is
plus and east is minus, north latitude is plus and south is minus).
a. RoyalStar.setPosition(120, -17);
b. RoyalStar.setLongitude(120);
RoyalStar.setLatitude(-17);
c. RoyalStar.setPosition(long, lat);
d. RoyalStar(120).setLongitude;
RoyalStar(-17).setLatitude;
e. RoyalStar.setLongitude120();
RoyalStar.setLatitude-17();
4. The keywords int and float in the function declarator

void afunc(int ivar, float fvar)

{
}
a. are optional, because the function already knows the values
and types being sent.
b. specify the data type of the expected values, so the function
can check that the correct types are passed.
c. convert the values passed to the function to type int and
type float, respectively.
d. tell the function the types of two variables in main() so
the function can access their values.
e. create new variables of type int and float, called ivar
and fvar.
5. When arguments are passed from main() by value, the called
function
a. cannot modify the variables whose names are supplied by
main().
b. makes copies of the variables supplied by main() to hold
the values passed.
c. can modify the variables whose names are supplied by
main().
d. cannot access the values passed to it.
e. refers to the same variables as main() but uses different
names.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the HOTDOG1 program so that the initData() member function

takes two arguments, one for the number of hot dogs and one for the
number of buns. To keep the same functionality, rewrite main() so it
obtains this information from the user.

Exercise 2

Write a member function for the airtime class that will change the
seconds data by an integer amount supplied as an argument to the
function. You’ll need to handle the cases where seconds overflow past 60
and hours overflow past 23. Write a main() program to test this new
member function.

Session 7: Arithmetic For User-defined Types

You’ve seen that you can write a member function that will alter one of the
data values of an object. (see the addhour() function in the HOURADD
program). However, this is not the same as performing arithmetic on an
entire object all at once. In fact, you can perform arithmetic on user-defined
types just as you can on basic types like float; this is a powerful
capability of C++. As examples, I’ll show how to add two airtime values
and how to multiply an airtime value by a number of type float.
Along the way, you’ll see how user-defined data types can be used in
function arguments.

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Adding airtime Values

The add() member function in the airtime class takes two time values as arguments, adds
these values, and places the result in the object that called it. That is, if add() is called like this

t3.add(t1, t2);
then t1 will be added to t2 and the result placed in t3. For example, if t1 is 10:10 and t2 is
2:30, then the result placed in t3 will be 12:40. (Technically, this amounts to adding a time
interval, not another time, to a time. Adding 2 o’clock to 3 o’clock doesn’t really make much
sense, but if you leave Denver at 10 minutes after 10 and it takes you 2 hours and 30 minutes to
fly to Dallas, then it does makes sense to say you’ll arrive there at 12:40.) Listing 2-7 shows
TIMEADD.

Listing 2-7 TIMEADD

// timeadd.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// includes member function to add two times

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 t0 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0')
<< setw(2) << minutes;
}
void add(airtime at1, airtime at2)
{
minutes = at1.minutes + at2.minutes; // add minutes
hours = at1.hours + at2.hours; // add hours
if(minutes > 59) // if carry,
{
minutes = minutes - 60; // adjust minutes
hours = hours + 1; // and hours
}
if(hours > 23) // if carry,
hours = hours - 24; // adjust hours
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1, t2, t3; // create three airtime variables
char choice;

do
{
cout << “For t1, ”;
t1.set(); // set t1
cout << “For t2, ”;
t2.set(); // set t2

t3.add(t1, t2); // add t1 and t2, result in t3

cout << “t3 = ”;

t3.display(); // display t3
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');
}
Figure 2-19 shows how the function call t3.add(t1, t2) interacts with the the add()
function.

Figure 2-19 Operation of function call with arguments

It’s important to notice that you can use function arguments of types (classes) you’ve defined
yourself (airtime in this case) just as you can with basic types such as int. Here the add()
member function takes two values of type airtime as arguments:

void add(airtime at1, airtime at2)

This is a powerful capability. Variables of a user-defined type can be treated almost exactly the
same way as basic types in every aspect of C++ programming.
The add() function adds the minutes for the two airtime values, then adds the hours. If the
sum of the minutes exceeds 59, then 1 hour is added to hours and 60 is subtracted from
minutes. If the sum of the hours exceeds 23, then 24 is subtracted from hours. (Don’t
worry that the resulting airtime is the next day.)
If using functions such as add() to carry out arithmetic seems crude, rest assured that you will
eventually learn how to perform arithmetic operations by overloading the arithmetic operators
such as + and *. This will make for more natural-looking arithmetic expressions, like

t3 = t1 + t2;
instead of

t3.add(t1, t2);

Arithmetic Is Not for All Classes

It makes sense to add objects of type airtime because such objects represent a quantity that is
basically numerical: time. (Assuming, as I noted, that you imagine adding a time interval to a
time.) However, addition doesn’t make sense for objects of all classes. If I add two objects of the
hotdogstand class, for example, it’s not clear what meaning the “sum” would have.

Access to Private Data

Notice that the add() member function can access the private data members of the objects
passed to it as arguments. It receives copies of the data in t1 and t2 when it’s called in the
statement

t3.add(t1, t2); // add t1 and t2, result in t3

These values are copied in the function’s at1 and at2 objects. Statements within the function
can then access individual data items using the names at1.minutes, and so on. This is done
in the statements

minutes = at1.minutes + at2.minutes; // add minutes

hours = at1.hours + at2.hours; // add hours
As you may recall, private data items such as at1.minutes cannot be accessed by main()
directly. Because they are private, they can be accessed only by member functions of their own
class. However, member functions can access the private data, not only of the object for which
they are called (t3 in this example) but of any object, provided it’s from the same class (as t1
and t2 are). An object’s data is private to the outside world, but not to other objects of its own
class. Figure 2-20 shows how this looks.

Figure 2-20 Accessing other objects

Let’s try some sample interaction with the TIMEADD program.

For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 10:10

For t2, Enter time (format 23:59): 10:50
t3 = 21:00
Do another (y/n)? y
For t1, Enter time (format 23:59): 23:59
For t2, Enter time (format 23:59): 0:01
t3 = 0:00
Do another (y/n)? n

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-----------
Converting Minutes to airtime

The add() member function operated on two variables. Let’s look at a different function
that operates on a single variable. This function will take as its only argument an int
value representing minutes (which can be larger than 59). It converts this minutes value
into an airtime value. This airtime value is then stored in the object that called the
function. The result is a minutes-to-airtime conversion function. Listing 2-8 shows
TIMECNV1.

Listing 2-8 TIMECNV1

// timecnv1.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// includes a member function to convert minutes to airtime

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 to 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0') << setw(2) << minutes;
}
// convert minutes to airtime
void MinsToAirtime(int imins)
{
hours = imins / 60;
minutes = imins - hours*60;
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1;
int iminutes; // minutes (can be > 59)
char choice;
do
{
cout << “Enter minutes (for example, 241): ”;
cin >> iminutes;

t1.MinsToAirtime(iminutes);

cout << “t1 = ”;

t1.display(); // display t1
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');
}
In the class specification for airtime, I define the member function
MinsToAirtime(), which converts an int minutes value to an airtime value. To
do this, the function first divides the minutes by 60 to get the hours. The fractional part
of this result (representing minutes) is chopped off when the number is converted to
type int because integers don’t have a fractional part. The resulting hours value
becomes the hours instance data in the object that called MinsToAirtime(),
which, as can be seen in main(), is t1 in this example. To obtain minutes, the
function subtracts the number of minutes in the hours variable (hours*60) from the
original number of minutes and assigns this to the instance variable minutes.
In main(), I ask the user for a minutes value and then convert it to airtime by
calling MinsToAirtime() for the t1 object. The resulting value of t1 is then
displayed in the usual way with the display() member function, just to prove that
the conversion works.

Nonautomatic Conversions

Conversions, such as the one from minutes to airtime, play an important role in C++
programs. Remember that C++ automatically converts basic types from one to another.
For example, you can say

int ivar = 27;

float fvar;

fvar = ivar;
and the C++ compiler will arrange for the integer value 27 to be converted to the
equivalent floating-point value, 27.0, for storage in fvar. Such conversions are
completely automatic. The conversion routines are built into the compiler, and it knows
how to use them.
However, when you convert between basic types and types you’ve specified yourself,
such as airtime, there are no routines built into the compiler to handle the
conversion. (After all, it doesn’t know what type you might invent.) You must write the
routines yourself, as I’ve done here with MinsToAirtime(). I’ll be returning to the
subject of conversions.

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Multiplying an airtime Value

Let’s look at another example of arithmetic on the user-defined data type airtime. Multiply
an airtime value by a floating-point number. Such an operation might be handy if, for
example, you want to know how long it would take an airplane mechanic to service 23 jet
engines if it takes her 1 hour and 15 minutes to service one engine. Listing 2-9 shows
TIMEMULT.

Listing 2-9 TIMEMULT

// timemult.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// includes a member function to multiply a time by a float

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 t0 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0') << setw(2) << minutes;
}
// multiply airtime by float
void mult(airtime at1, int mplier)
{ // convert to minutes
int im = at1.hours * 60 + at1.minutes;
int ianswer = im * mplier; // do the multiply
hours = ianswer / 60; // convert back to
minutes = ianswer - hours*60; // hours and minutes
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1, t2; // create airtime variables
int m; // multiplier
char choice;

do
{
cout << “For t1, ”; // get t1 from user
t1.set(); // set t1
cout << “Enter multiplier: ”;
cin >> m; // get multiplier

t2.mult(t1, m); // multiply t1 by m, result in t2

cout << “t2 = ”;

t2.display(); // display t2
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');
}
The user enters an airtime value and an integer to be used as a multiplier. Here’s some
sample interaction. As you can see, servicing the 23 engines will take 28 hours and 45
minutes.

For t1, Enter time (format 23:29): 1:01

Enter multiplier: 3
t2 = 3:03
Do another (y/n)? y
For t1, Enter time (format 23:29): 1:15
Enter multiplier: 23
t2 = 28:45
Do another (y/n)? n
The mult() member function takes two arguments, one of type airtime (which is t1)
and one of type int (called m, for multiplier). It multiplies these together and stores the
resulting airtime value in the object that called it (t2).
This function first converts the t1 airtime value to an integer, im, representing minutes. It
then multiplies this value by the multiplier mplier and saves the answer in ianswer. To
convert this all-minutes value back to an hours-and-minutes airtime value, it uses the same
approach shown in the TIMECONV1 program. As you can see, two different data type
conversions are actually carried out in this one function: airtime to minutes and minutes to
airtime.
Notice that in both the sub() and the mult() functions, the answer is stored in the
airtime object that called the function. The answer to a calculation can be placed in other
objects as well, as you’ll see in the next lesson, on function return values.

Calling Each Other

A member function can call another member function. In the mult() function in TIMEMULT,
I performed the same conversion from minutes to airtime that I did in the
MinsToAirtime() function in the TIMECNV1 program. I could have saved myself the
trouble of rewriting this conversion code by using the MinsToAirtime() function instead.
Here’s how I would rewrite mult() to do this:

// multiply airtime by int

void mult(airtime at1, int mplier)
{ // convert to minutes
int im = at1.hours * 60 + at1.minutes;
int ianswer = im * mplier; // do the multiply
MinsToAirtime(ianswer); // convert back to airtime
}
The MinsToAirtime() function, because it is being called from a member function, is
smart enough to act on the same object as the function that called it. That is, it will operate on
the hours and minutes data in t3. It doesn’t need to be called with an object name and
the dot operator, as member functions do in main(). Of course, the MinsToAirtime()
function would also need to appear in the class specification.

// convert minutes to airtime

void MinsToAirtime(int imins)
{
hours = imins / 60;
minutes = imins - hours*60;
}

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-----------
Quiz 7

1. Performing arithmetic on user-defined types is useful

a. when the user-defined type represents something that acts
like a number.
b. for the same reason it’s useful to perform arithmetic on
basic types such as int and float.
c. because otherwise it’s impossible to access an object’s
private data.
d. in situations where the data in an object is numerical.
e. any time two objects have similar data.
2. In the statement t3.add(t1, t2); found in the TIMEADD
program in this lesson,
a. the function add() could, if it were rewritten in the class
specification, add the values of t1 and t3 and place the result
in t2, without changing the format of the call.
b. the arguments t1 and t2 are variables of a basic C++ type.
c. the values in t1 and t2 are added and the result is placed
in t3.
d. the function add() is a member function of the t3 object.
e. the add() function can access private data in three objects.
3. We use a member function of class A to perform arithmetic on
objects of class A because
a. the compiler won’t let you call a function of class A from an
object of any other class.
b. only member functions of class A can access the private
data of class A objects.
c. only member functions of class A can access public parts of
class A objects.
d. functions in class A cannot access public data in class A.
e. functions in other classes cannot access the private data of
objects of class A.
4. A member function that converts a value from a basic data type to
a user-defined data type
a. is impossible because a user-defined type is not a number.
b. can place the new value in the object that called the
conversion function.
c. can get the old value from the object that called the
conversion function.
d. can take the user-defined type as a pass-by-value argument.
e. can take the basic type as a pass-by-value argument.
5. The statement t3.mult(t1, t2); in which the variables are
all of class airtime (as defined in the TIMEMULT program in this
lesson)
a. will apparently cause t1 to be multiplied by t2.
b. implies that the mult() function can modify data only in
t1, t2, or t3.
c. implies that the mult() function can modify data only in
t1 or t2.
d. implies that the mult() function can modify data only in
t3.
e. doesn’t make sense, because multiplying two airtime
values has no meaning.

Exercise 1

Write a sub() member function for the airtime class that subtracts one
airtime value from another. Write a main() that allows the user to test
this function. Assume that the smaller (earlier) time value will always be
subtracted from the larger so that negative values will not arise.

Exercise 2

Write a minutes-to-airtime conversion member function for the airtime

class. You can call it MinsToAirtime(). This function should take an
all-minutes time value, which can have values such as 65 and 241, as its
only argument. The function should convert this minutes value to an
airtime value in hours and minutes and store these values in the object
that called it. Write a main() that tests this function by asking the user for
a minutes value, and then convert this quantity into an airtime and
display it.

Session 8: Function Return Values

So far, all the functions I’ve used have been type void; that is, they have
not returned a value. When a member function, such as add() or
MinsToAirtime(), generated a value, this value was given to the object
itself. But what happens if you need a function to generate a value of some
other type? Then the value can’t be inserted in the object that called the
function. What can you do with it?
The function can return the value. This means that the call to the function
actually takes on the new value and can be assigned or otherwise used as if
it were a constant.

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Converting airtime to Minutes

As an example of a function that returns a value, I’ll develop a member function for the
airtime class that’s the opposite of MinsToAirtime(). That is, the new function,
AirtimeToMins(), will convert an airtime value to a minutes value and will
return this minutes value. (This minutes value can be greater than 59 because it
represents both hours and minutes.) Listing 2-10 shows TIMECNV2.
Listing 2-10 TIMECNV2

// timecnv2.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// includes member function to convert airtime to minutes

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 to 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0') << setw(2) << minutes;
}
int AirtimeToMins() // convert airtime to minutes
{
int imins = hours*60 + minutes;
return imins;
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1;
int iminutes; // minutes (can be > 59)
char choice;

do
{
cout << “For t1, ”; // get airtime value from user
t1.set();
// convert airtime to minutes
iminutes = t1.AirtimeToMins();

cout << “Minutes = ” // display minutes

<< iminutes;
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');
}
In main(), I obtain an airtime value from the user and store it in t1. Then I call
AirtimeToMins() with t1 as an argument. The return value from this function is
the equivalent time in minutes, which is then displayed.
Notice how I treat the entire expression t1.AirtimeToMins() as if it were a value,
assigning it to the variable iminutes.

The return Statement

Any function will return to the code that called it when control “falls through” the
bottom of the function (passes from the last statement to the closing brace). However,
this simple approach doesn’t allow you to return a value. For a function to return a
value, it must use a return statement. The keyword return can be followed by an
expression that evaluates to the value to be returned. In AirtimeToMins(), I say

return imins;
which causes the minutes value, stored in imins, to be returned, as shown in Figure
2-21.

Figure 2-21 Operation of the return statement

A return statement causes control to jump immediately out of the function and to
return to the code that called it. The expression following return must be the same
type as the type of the function. This expression is optional. If it’s not included, then the
function must be of type void, meaning it does not return a value. In void functions,
a return statement is not necessary (as you’ve already seen in numerous examples),
provided you want the function to end at its last statement. Using return gives you
the option of exiting from the function anywhere.

Creating Automatic Variables

You’ve seen examples of variables that are defined in a function body. Mostly these
definitions have occurred at the beginning of the function and defined a variable
without giving it a value.

int somevar;
…
somevar = 3;
However, it’s also possible to initialize a variable at the same time it’s defined. Not only
that, but the value used to initialize it can be calculated in the same statement. This is
what I do in the AirtimeToMins() function.

int imins = hours*60 + minutes;

Defining a variable and calculating it in the same statement is not a common idiom in
C, but it’s used frequently in C++.
When a function returns to the program that called it, any automatic variables created
within the function, such as imins, are destroyed. (That’s why they’re called
automatic; they’re created automatically when the function is called and destroyed
automatically when the function returns.) In this case, the value of imins is returned
just in time—as soon as the return statement has finished executing, the function
returns and imins is destroyed.

The Stack

Automatic variables are stored in a part of computer memory called the stack. The stack
grows and shrinks as functions are called and returned. It has a maximum size, usually
several thousand bytes, so you can’t use huge amounts of automatic data (unless you
make special arrangements to enlarge the stack). When an automatic variable is first
created, it has a random “garbage” value, probably not zero. This is because the stack
has just expanded into an (often) previously occupied part of memory. The moral is:
Don’t trust that an automatic variable will have an initial value of 0; be sure to initialize
it before you use it.

Nameless Automatic Variables

You can simplify the AirtimeToMins() function. You don’t actually need to give a
name to the variable that holds the result of the calculation. Instead, rewrite the function
like this:

int AirtimeToMins() // convert airtime to minutes

{
return hours*60 + minutes;
}
The number of minutes will be calculated as before and assigned to a nameless variable.
This variable will be type int, because that’s the return type of the function. Its value
will be returned and the nameless variable will be destroyed when the function returns,
just as imins was in the original version of the function.

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Returning a Value from add()

C++ is nothing if not versatile, and there are often many ways to carry out a given task. As an
example, I’ll rewrite the add() member function of airtime so that it returns a value instead of
storing the result of its addition in the object that called it. As you may remember, add() in the
TIMEADD program was called this way

t3.add(t1, t2);
where the values of t1 and t2, passed as arguments, were added and the result was stored in t3,
the object that called add() in the first place.
However, if I use a version of add() that returns a value, I can rewrite this statement in a
different way.

t3 = t1.add(t2);
This is a mixed blessing in terms of clarity. It’s more natural to assign t3 the result of the
addition, because that’s closer to the way it would be written in normal algebra: t3=t1+t2.
However, t1 and t2 are now treated differently: t1 is the object for which the function is called
and t2 is an argument to the function. This looks odd, because t1 and t2 play the same kind of
role.
Whether it’s any clearer or not, this new version of add() works just as well as the old one.
Listing 2-11 shows TIMERET.
Listing 2-11 TIMERET

// timeret.cpp
// a class that models a time data type
// member function to adds times, returns time value

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 t0 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0') << setw(2) << minutes;
}
airtime add(airtime at2)
{
airtime temp;
temp.minutes = minutes + at2.minutes; // add minutes
temp.hours = hours + at2.hours; // add hours
if(temp.minutes > 59) // if carry,
{
temp.minutes = temp.minutes - 60; // adjust minutes
temp.hours = temp.hours + 1; // and hours
}
if(temp.hours > 23) // if carry,
temp.hours = temp.hours - 24; // adjust hours
return temp;
}
};

void main()
{
airtime t1, t2, t3; // create three airtime variables
char choice;

do
{
cout << “For t1, ”;
t1.set(); // set t1
cout << “For t2, ”;
t2.set(); // set t2

t3 = t1.add(t2); // add t1 and t2, result in t3

cout << “t3 = ”;

t3.display(); // display t3
cout << “\nDo another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');
}
In the add() function, the program creates an object, called temp, of class airtime. This is an
automatic variable and it will be destroyed when the function returns, just as any automatic
variable is. Remember, the compiler treats all variables the same, whether they are of a built-in
type or a type defined in the program.
You might wonder if there’s a way to generate nameless temporary objects. There is, but to use
them you’ll need to learn about constructors, a topic I’ll get to in Chapter 5.

Returning by Value

I should note that the return statements I examine in this session return by value. The actual
value is passed back to the code that called the function. In other words, there will be—at least
briefly—two variables holding the same value: one in the function and one in the code that called
the function.
Another mechanism can be used to handle return values: returning by reference. In this case, the
code that calls the function receives only a reference to the original variable in the function.
However, you’ll need to learn about constructors before I talk about returning by reference.

Library Functions

Now that you know about function arguments and return values, I can mention the existence of
C-style library functions. These functions were developed for the C language, but can also be used
in C++. Many of these functions are not as useful in C++ as they are in C (such as I/O functions,
assuming you use the C++ stream classes). However, C library functions are still an essential
aspect of C++ programming. There are library functions for input/output, data conversions, string
handling, directory and file control, memory allocation, math, process control, and so on. You’ll
encounter many of these functions.
As an example, let’s look at the sqrt() function, which returns the square root of a
floating-point number. This skeleton code shows the essentials.

#include <math.h> // needed for sqrt()

…
double answer, somenum; // sqrt operates on type double
…
answer = sqrt(somenum); // find the square root
To use a library function, you’ll need to look it up either in your compiler’s online help or in the
manual. The first thing you’ll need to know is the name of the appropriate header file. Every
library function requires that a header file be included before the function is called; here it’s
MATH.H. Most of the math-related functions use this same header file.

The documentation will also tell you the data types of the function’s arguments and return value.
The sqrt() function takes a single argument of type double and returns the same type, so in
this example, both somenum and answer are type double. Other examples of library functions
will pop up in future lessons.

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Quiz 8

1. In the TIMECNV2 program, converting a value from airtime to

minutes involves using a function that
a. returns a minutes value.
b. accesses a minutes value provided as an argument.
c. accesses the private data of the airtime object that called
it.
d. accesses the private data of the airtime variable
provided as an argument.
e. cannot exist, because airtime values are not numbers.
2. Depending on how it’s written, a return statement may cause
a. control to return from a function when the closing brace is
reached.
b. control to return from a function immediately.
c. control to return from a function once the return value is
calculated.
d. a function definition to assume a value.
e. a function call to assume a value.
3. An automatic variable is created when which two events have
occurred?
a. The program loads.
b. The program executes.
c. The variable is defined.
d. The variable is assigned a value.
e. Control is transferred to the function in which the variable
is defined.
4. Returning the answer from a function that adds two user-defined
values is superior to putting the answer in the object that called the
function because
a. the object that called the function is destroyed when the
function returns.
b. you can use the equal sign as it’s used in arithmetic.
c. one of the values to be added is the object that called the
function.
d. one of the values to be added is an argument to the
function.
e. it’s awkward to use an argument to send the answer back to
the code that called the function.
5. Returning from a function by value means that
a. a nameless temporary object (or variable) is always created
in the function.
b. a function call can be assigned to a variable.
c. a reference to a variable defined in a function is returned.
d. a reference to a variable defined outside a function is
returned.
e. the function must be of type void.

Exercise 1

Write statements to create variables called LetterCode, SalePrice,

and Quantity of types char double and long.

Exercise 2

Write statements to set the three variables in Exercise 1 to ‘V’, 67.95 and
1,000,000, respectively.

Summary: Chapter 2
In this chapter, you’ve seen two quite different kinds of complete, working
C++ programs: one in which a class represents hot dog stand inventory data
and another in which a class models a data type that represents time.
Because time is a numerical entity, you can treat a class that models it as a
new, user-defined C++ data type.
I also focused on some of the nuts and bolts of C++ programming: loops
(while, do, and for), decisions (if, if…else, the else if
construction, switch, and the conditional operator), and function
arguments and return values. I used various kinds of loops and decisions in
programs that further extend the capability of the hot dog stand and time
programs.
A major focus was expanding the kinds of member functions you can write.
You saw how to write member functions that perform arithmetic on objects
and that convert from one data type to another.
Finally, I discussed several more subtle features of C++. You discovered
that you can assign the value of one object to another the same way you can
with basic C++ types. You also learned that, although it may be convenient
to think of each object as containing both data and member functions, the
member functions are actually shared by all objects of a class. The function
examples you’ve seen so far pass arguments by value; that is, values are
copied from the calling program to variables in the function. The functions
also return by value, which means that a copy of a variable in the function
is returned to the calling program.
You learned that member functions can access the object for which they are
called. They can also access objects sent to them as arguments, provided
these objects are of the same class as the member function.
Automatic variables or objects are created automatically when a function is
called and are destroyed when the function returns. Automatic variables are
stored on the stack. Some automatic variables have no name and are created
temporarily to store the results of evaluating expressions.
C-style library functions are available to carry out many tasks. They are not
object oriented but they are very helpful in some situations, such as
mathematics operations.

End-Of-Chapter Discussion
George: I was just getting used to the idea that objects represent things
in the real world, and now it turns out they can represent data
types. Anyway, doing arithmetic on objects is too weird. No
one would do addition using a function!
Estelle: Poor George. I know you hate this answer, but again I think the
payoff is going to come later.
Don: Right. It doesn’t buy you much to add two airtime values
with a function such as add(), but it’ll be a lot more
interesting to say t3=t1+t2, just like in ordinary arithmetic.
George: Yeah, that may be cute, but what good is it? I can calculate
time values in C just by using separate variables for hours and
minutes. I don’t see that this airtime class is making my life
any easier. These sample programs he’s showing us are more
complicated than a C program would need to be.
Estelle: That’s because you’re looking at both parts of the program: the
class specification and the main() function. But suppose you
bought a whole airtime class library. Then the class
specification and all the member functions would already be
written and you wouldn’t need to put them in your listing, you
could just use an #include. You probably wouldn’t even need
to look at the source files for the class. You’d just need to
create objects and send them messages.
George: You mean define weird things and call their member functions.
Estelle: Whichever way you like to say it.
Don: You’d need a description of how the member functions
worked, like what arguments and return values to use for
add() and display() or whatever.
Estelle: Right, so you’d know how to use them. But looking up a short
description of a function is a lot easier than trying to figure it
out from the source code.
Don: Usually.
Estelle: And if you look at the listings of the programs we’ve seen so
far, about half the lines of code are the class specification. If all
you had to worry about was main(), things would be pretty
easy.
Easy as chopping wood with a broom, as my granny used to
George:
say.
Estelle: Come on, George. Get with the program.

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CHAPTER 3
ARRAYS AND STRINGS
Arrays are the most common way to combine a number of data items into a single unit. Most
computer languages include array handling in their fundamental syntax, and C++ is no exception.
Because arrays are such a fundamental data storage mechanism, I’ll devote several sessions to them.
Also, as it turns out, a text string in C++ is treated as an array of characters. So after you’ve seen
what arrays can do in general, I’ll introduce strings.
Arrays do have an important limitation: The variables stored in an array must all be of the same type.
However, you can group variables of different types together in another storage mechanism called a
structure, so I’ll talk about structures as well. Finally, I’ll introduce the enumerated data type, which
is a sort of simple way to create your own data types. Along the way, you’ll make the acquaintance of
some new and surprising classes.

Session 1: Array Fundamentals

An array is a way to group together a number of variables of a single data type. Arrays are useful
primarily because the individual variables stored in an array can be accessed using an index number.
This makes it easy to cycle through the array, accessing one variable after another.
In this session, I’ll look at the fundamentals of array syntax. Later in this chapter, you’ll see how to
put arrays to work, first as instance data in a class and then as an array of class objects.

Defining an Array

To define an array, you tell the compiler to set aside storage for a given number of data items of a
specified type. You also tell the compiler the name of the array. Here’s an example of an array
definition that creates storage for four integers. I’ll give this array the name age; perhaps it will be
used to store the ages of four people.

int age[4];
The int specifies the type of data to be stored, age is the name of the array, and 4 is the size of the
array; that is, the maximum number of variables of type int that it will hold. Brackets [] (not
braces or parentheses) surround the size. It’s the brackets that tell the compiler I’m defining an array
and not something else, such as a function. Figure 3-1 shows the format of this array definition.

Figure 3-1 Syntax of array definition

You can define arrays of any data type, of course. Here’s an array of 100 variables of type float,
called foo:

float foo[100]; // 100 floats

There is also no problem defining arrays of types you have created yourself, using classes:

airtime DenverDepartures[50]; // array of 50 airtimes

The type of the array can be any kind of class, whether it behaves like a data type or not:

HotDogStand stands[6]; // array of 6 hot dog stands

Here you have an array of objects that represent physical objects, not data types. It doesn’t matter to
the compiler.

Array Elements

Each variable stored in an array is called an element. The elements are numbered. These numbers are
called index numbers or indexes. Some people also refer to them as subscripts. The index of the first
array element is 0, the index of the second is 1, and so on. If the size of the array is n, the last element
has the index n-1. For example, in the age array, which has a size of 4, the elements are numbered 0,
1, 2, and 3. This numbering can be the source of some confusion. Keep in mind that the last element
in an array has an index one less than the size of the array.
Figure 3-2 shows the array elements for the age array stored in memory. (Here each element is
assumed to occupy 2 bytes.) The elements have been given the values 44, 16, 23, and 68. Don’t
confuse the values of the elements with their index numbers (0 to 3).

Figure 3-2 Array elements

Accessing Array Elements

You refer to individual array elements using their index numbers and the array name. Somewhat
confusingly, the brackets [] are used again, but in a different context than in defining an array. As
you can see in Figure 3-2, the first element is called age [0], the second is age [1], and so on.
You can make statements such as

age[2] = 23;
which sets element age [2] to a value, and

cout << age[3];

which displays the value of age [3] (which is 68, given the data in Figure 3-2). Remember that the
statement

int age[4];
defines an array of four elements, but the expression

age[2]
does not define an array of two elements; it refers to the third element of the array.
The real power of arrays comes from the fact that you can use a variable, rather than a constant such
as 2, as an array index. For example, you can print out all the values in the age array with the code

int age[4]; // define the array

... // (other code inserts values)
for(int j=0; j<4; ++j) // cycle through four elements
cout << age[j] << endl; // display each element
Such code is a common idiom in C++. The for loop cycles through values of j from 0 to 3, which
are simply the values of the array index needed to access each element. Notice that the expression
j<4 uses the size of the array as a limit, but restricts j to one less than this value. The output from
this fragment might be something such as

44
16
23
68
depending on what values had been inserted into the array. To set the elements of the array age to
values obtained from the user, you might say

int age[4];
...
for(int j=0; j<4; ++j)
{
cout << “Enter the value of element ” << j << “: ”;
cin >> age[j];
}
Interaction with this fragment might be

Enter the value of element 0: 44 <--User enters 44, 16, etc.

Enter the value of element 1: 16
Enter the value of element 2: 23
Enter the value of element 3: 68

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Initializing Array Elements

You can set array elements to a value when you first define the array. Here’s an example:

int coins[6] = { 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 };

The first element is initialized to 1, the second to 5, and so on. The equal sign connects the list of
values to the array definition, the values are separated by commas, and the list is delimited by
braces, as shown in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3 Syntax of array initialization

You could display these values with a for loop:

for(int j=0; j<6; ++j)

cout << coins[j] << “ ”;
which would produce the output

1 5 10 25 50 100
Here’s another example:

int days_per_month[12] = { 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30,

31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 };
A surprising feature of array initialization is that you don’t need to count how many items are
being initialized unless you want to. The definition

int coins[] = { 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 };

works just as well as the earlier version, despite not specifying the array size. The compiler
cleverly counts how many values there are and uses this for the array size.
What happens if you specify an array size but it disagrees with how many initialization values
are actually on the list? If there are more values than the array size specified, the compiler
complains. If there are fewer values in the list than the array size, the compiler will simply fill
out the balance of the array with 0s. Thus if you want to initialize an array—of any size—with
all 0s, you need only say

int anarray[10] = { 0 }; // initialize 10 ints to 0

The first element is initialized to 0 explicitly and the remaining 9 are initialized to 0 because no
value is given for them. If they are not initialized, the elements of arrays declared inside a
function will have random (garbage) values. Arrays declared outside of a function or class—that
is, as external variables—are initialized to zero automatically. You’ll learn more about the
external storage class in Session 5 in Chapter 4.

Multidimensional Arrays

So far, you’ve looked only at one-dimensional arrays. You can create arrays of as many
dimensions as you like, and each dimension can be a different size. Here’s the definition of a 4
by 3 array:

float sales[4][3]; // define two-dimensional array

Notice that each array dimension is surrounded by its own set of brackets. Don’t write [4,3],
as is done in some languages. If the first dimension represents sales districts (North, South, East,
and West, say) and the second dimension represents the three months in a quarter, then I might
represent this array as shown in Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4 Two-dimensional array

Individual array elements are accessed using two indexes. Thus in Figure 3-4, the element in the
upper-right corner of sales is sales[0][[2] and the element in the lower-left corner is
sales[3][0]. To display all the elements of such an array, you would probably use two
nested for loops.

for(int y=0; y<3; ++y) // step from row to row

{
for(int x=0; x<4; ++x) // step from column to column
cout << sales[x][y] << ' '; // display value and a space
cout << endl; // go to next line
}
A two-dimensional array can be looked at as an array of arrays. The sales array is an array of
four subarrays, each of which has three elements. The subarrays are one-dimensional arrays
called sales[0], sales[1], and so on. This way of looking at things is important if you
want to refer to the subarrays of an array, which is common in arrays of strings, as you’ll see
later.
To initialize a two-dimensional array, make a list of lists

float sales[4][3] = { { 1437.07, 234.50, 654.01},

{ 322.00, 13838.32, 17589.88},
{ 9328.34, 934.00, 4492.30},
{12838.29, 2332.63, 32.93} };
where each subarray is initialized with its own list of numbers separated by commas and
delimited with braces; these four lists are in turn separated by commas and delimited with braces.
If you initialize an array as shown here and then use the nested for loops to display its contents,
the output will be

1437.07, 234.50, 654.01

322.00, 13838.32, 17589.88
9328.34, 934.00, 4492.30
12838.29, 2332.63, 32.93
A three-dimensional array would be defined with the three dimensions in brackets

int cube[4][3][5]; // array of 60 ints

and its elements would be accessed with expressions such as cube[1][2][3]. Arrays of
higher dimensions can be defined and accessed similarly.

Danger: Index Out of Range

You should be aware that C++ contains no built-in mechanism to prevent a program from using
an incorrect index value. If your program generates an index value that is smaller than 0 or so
large it points beyond the last element of the array, you may be in for big trouble. If you read
data from nonexistent array elements (really memory outside your array), you will obtain
meaningless data. However, if you write data into memory outside your array, you may write
over other data, your program, or who knows what.
There are two morals here. The first is to be careful when programming arrays. The second is
that it would be nice to have a “safe array,” one that automatically checks all index values to be
sure they are in bounds. As it turns out, you can use a class to create safe arrays. I’ll return to this
topic later.

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Quiz 1

1. To specify an array of 30 variables of type char you would say

a. int[30] array_name;
b. char array_name[30];
c. array_name char[30];
d. char[30] array_name;
e. array_name[30];
2. To access the last element of an int array alpha of 10 elements, you would say
a. int[10]
b. int[9]
c. int alpha[0]
d. alpha[10]
e. alpha[9]
3. A for loop to access all the elements of an array of size 7 would most likely be
written as
a. for(k=1; k<10; ++k)
b. for(k=1; k<7; ++k)
c. for(k=1; k<=10; ++k)
d. for(k=0; k<=7; ++k)
e. for(k=0; k<7; ++k)
4. To initialize an array to the squares of the first six integers, you could write
a. int squares[6] = { 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 };
b. int squares[6] = { [1], [4], [9], [16], [25], [36] };
c. int squares[] = {1; 4; 9; 16; 25; 36};
d. int squares{6} = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36};
e. int squares[] = ( 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 );
5. In the two-dimensional array defined as int addr[2][20]; that represents the
starting and ending locations (in that order) of 20 programs (don’t worry about what
“location” means), you would refer to the ending address of the third program as
a. addr[2][20]
b. addr[1][2]
c. addr[2][1]
d. addr[2][3]
e. addr[3][2]
Since I am concentrating on syntax rather than complete programs in this session, there are no
exercises.

Session 2: Arrays as Instance Data

An array, like any other variable, can be used as instance data in classes. Let’s look at an
example in a class called employee. This class, as you might have guessed, models people
who are employees of a company. In this version of the class, the information about the
employees is not very complete; it is limited to a name and an employee serial number. A
full-scale employee class would include other data, such as home address, salary, position, and
date of first employment.
You may wonder, because you have not yet learned about strings (used in C++ for storing text),
how I am able to store a name such as John Smith. In this program, I treat a name simply as an
array of individual characters and I input and output each character separately. In other words, I
make my own strings “by hand.” This demonstrates how arrays work and may provide the
motivation for learning how to handle strings in a more efficient way (by terminating a string
with a zero), which I’ll get to in Session 4. Figure 3-5 shows an example of a homemade string
stored in memory.

Figure 3-5 Text stored in a homemade string

The employee Class

The employee class contains three data items: an array of type char to hold the letters of a
name, an integer n that specifies the length of the name (i.e., how many characters are currently
stored in the array), and another integer for the employee serial number. The member functions
that obtain and display this data for the user are called input() and output(), respectively.
Listing 3-1 shows EMPLOY1.
Listing 3-1 EMPLOY1

// employ1.cpp
// models an employee
// uses array of type char for name

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h> // for getche()

class employee
{
private:
char name[20]; // name (20 chars max)
int n; // length of name
int serial_number;
public:
void input() // get data from user
{
char ch;
n = 0;
cout << “ Enter name: ”;
do
{
ch = getche(); // get one char at a time
name[n] = ch; // store in “name” array
++n;
} while(ch != '\r'); // quit if “Enter” key
cout << “\n Enter serial number: ”;
cin >> serial_number;
}
void output() // display employee data
{
cout << “ Name = ”;
for(int j=0; j<n; ++j) // display one character
cout << name[j]; // at a time
cout << “\n Serial number = ” << serial_number;
}
};

void main()
{
employee e1, e2;

cout << “Enter employee 1 data” << endl;

e1.input();
cout << “Enter employee 2 data” << endl;
e2.input();

cout << “\nEmployee 1” << endl;

e1.output();
cout << “\nEmployee 2” << endl;
e2.output();
}
I must confess that this source file may elicit warning messages from the compiler, such as
“Functions containing do are not expanded inline” and “Functions containing for are not
expanded inline.” (Your compiler may generate somewhat different messages.) The compiler
prefers that I use standalone member functions when the functions contain loops. You’ll see
what this means when I discuss functions in Chapter 4. In the meantime, don’t worry about
these messages. The compiler will do the right thing.
In main(), the program creates two employee objects, gets the data from the user for each
one, and then displays the data. Some sample interaction with the program looks like this:

Enter employee 1 data <--User enters data

Enter name: George Harrison
Enter serial number: 1119
Enter employee 2 data
Enter name: Paul McCartney
Enter serial number: 2229

Employee 1 <--Program displays data

Name = George Harrison
Serial number = 1119
Employee 2
Name = Paul McCartney
Serial number = 2229

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Library Function getche()

I used a new library function in the EMPLOY1 program. A weakness of the stream I/O
approach to C++ is that there’s no way to input a character without pressing the key
afterward. However, if you’re typing a name, you don’t want to press after every
character. Fortunately, the C function library contains a function that does just what we want:
getche(). This function waits until a single key is pressed on the keyboard and then returns
with the ASCII value of the key. There’s no need to press to get the character. The
getche() function requires that the CONIO.H header file be included. I used this function in
a do loop to obtain all the letters of the employee name.

do
{
ch = getche(); // get one char at a time
name[n] = ch; // store in “name” array
++n; // increment the array index
} while(ch != '\r'); // quit if “Enter” key
Each time through the loop, the getche() function returns with a new character, which is
then assigned to an array element. The index n starts at 0 and is incremented each time
through the loop by the ++n; statement. (I’ll show a more compact way to increment n in a
moment.)

The Key

What is the ASCII code for the key? It turns out it’s 13 (decimal), but you don’t
really need to know this, because the escape code ‘\r’ (for carriage Return) represents this
code. When the program encounters this code, it exits from the do loop. At this point, it
obtains the serial number from the user, a simpler process.
Displaying a name is the reverse of storing it. The program goes through the array one
character at a time, using a for loop, displaying each one.

for(int j=0; j<n; ++j) // display one character

cout << name[j]; // at a time
The program knows how long the name is because it counted the incoming characters with n,
which is included as instance data for the class so it can be accessed by all member functions.
(When I discuss real C strings, you’ll see that you don’t need to store a string length.)

Postfix Increment Operators

When I store characters in the array name, I want to start with the array index of 0, as usual,
and then increment this index for each additional character. I do this with the code

name[n] = ch; // store the character

++n; // increment the index
The second line here is rather short; it’s too bad I need to devote a whole line of code to it. In
fact, it would be nice if I could cause n to be incremented inside the same statement in which
it’s used as the array index. Here’s how this might look:

name[++n] = ch;
Can I actually do this? Well, it’s perfectly legal syntax as far as the compiler is concerned.
However, there’s a glitch. The index n starts off at 0, and I want to put the first character in
array element 0, so I don’t want to increment n until after the contents of ch have been
placed in the array. Unfortunately, ++n causes n to be incremented before it is used. The
result will be that the first character of the name will go in name[1] instead of in name[0].
Is there a way to increment n after it’s used? The designers of C and C++ anticipated just this
situation and built the necessary capability into the increment and decrement operators. Here’s
the statement rewritten so it works properly:

name[n++] = ch;
When the ++ operator follows its operand, it’s called a postfix operator. When it precedes its
operand, as you’ve seen several times before, it’s called a prefix operator. The prefix operator
is applied before the value of the variable is used, whereas the postfix operator is used after
the variable is used. This is summarized as follows.

++n Prefix operator Incremented before being used

n++ Postfix operator Incremented after being used
Using the postfix operator, I can rewrite the do loop in EMPLOY1 as

do
{
ch = getche(); // get one char at a time
name[n++] = ch; // store in “name” array
} while(ch != '\r'); // quit if “Enter” key
This saves a line of code, which is widely believed to make the listing more readable. You
will not be surprised to learn that there is a postfix version of the decrement operator (n--) as
well as of the increment operator.

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The Stack Class

An array is a built-in way to store data, but arrays are inappropriate in many situations. A
major task of programming is creating other data-storage structures such as linked lists,
stacks, queues, hash tables, dictionaries, and vectors. (Here the word structure is used in a
general sense to mean any mechanism that stores data, not in reference to the C++ struct,
which you’ll encounter later.) Each such storage structure has advantages and disadvantages.
It’s faster to access a random data item or easier to add an item using some containers,
whereas using others, it’s easier to search or sort the data.
As it turns out, data storage structures belong in another category that lends itself to being
modeled by classes. Along with real-world objects such as hot dog stands and data types
such as time, you can also model arrays, linked lists, and so on.
Let’s look at an example in which a class models a stack. A stack is a data storage structure
that is convenient when you want to access the most recently stored data item first. This is
often referred to as LIFO, for Last In First Out. It’s like a stack of trays in a cafeteria. The
dishwasher puts trays on the stack and customers take them off. The last tray placed on the
stack goes on top, so it’s the first one to be removed. (That’s why the tray you get is often
still warm and damp; it’s been recently washed. Trays at the bottom of the stack may have
been there, unused, for weeks.)
Stacks are useful in many programming situations, such as parsing algebraic expressions
like 2*x+4*(3+y), where they are convenient for storing intermediate results. Hewlett
Packard calculators use a stack-based approach to calculations.

Pushing and Popping

Stacks can hold any kind of data, from basic types to complicated class objects. However,
like an array, each stack usually holds only one kind of data, int or float or whatever,
but not a mixture. (You can avoid this limitation if you use templates, which you’ll
encounter in Chapter 11.) When you place a value on a stack, you are said to push it; when
you take a value off, it’s called popping it. Figure 3-6 shows what this looks like.

Figure 3-6 Pushing and popping from a stack

In this example, I use an array, as instance data of the Stack class, to store a number of
integers. Listing 3-2 shows STACK1, which specifies the Stack class and then tests it by
creating a stack, pushing three integers on it, and then popping them back off and displaying
them.
Listing 3-2 STACK1

// stack1.cpp
// class models a stack

#include <iostream.h>

class Stack // a stack holds up to 20 ints

{
private:
int st[20]; // integers are stored in array
int top; // index of last item pushed
public:
void init() // initialize index
{
top = -1;
}
void push(int var) // place an item on the stack
{
st[++top] = var;
}
int pop() // remove an item from the stack
{
return st[top--];
}
};

void main()
{
Stack s1; // create a stack object

s1.init(); // initialize it
s1.push(11); // push 3 items onto stack
s1.push(12);
s1.push(13);

cout << s1.pop() << endl; // pop 3 items and display them
cout << s1.pop() << endl;
cout << s1.pop() << endl;
}
When you pop items off a stack, they appear in reversed order. Thus the output from this
program is

13
12
Notice that I use both prefix and postfix operators to manipulate the array index. This
instance variable, top, represents the top of the stack. (Think of a pointer to the top
cafeteria tray.) It’s initialized to -1 with the init() member function when main() first
starts. When items are pushed, top is incremented first (++top), and only then used as the
index, so top always points one place beyond the last item pushed. When items are popped,
they are accessed first and then the index is decremented (top--), so top again points just
above the top of the stack.

An Array Disguised as a Stack

The actual instance data, st, which is used as the storage mechanism in an object of the
Stack class, is an ordinary array of type int. However, to the user, a Stack object seems
to operate like a stack: Data is added and removed with the push() and pop() member
functions, rather than with index numbers as in an array. The Stack class wraps an array
with class member functions so it looks, to the user, like a completely different storage
mechanism.
This is a common theme in OOP classes: They create a new interface between the
programmer and the data. An example of this is the use of classes to wrap the basic
Windows Application Program Interface (API) functions in a new and presumably
easier-to-use set of classes and member functions.

Not a Constructor

Initializing top to -1 using a function like init(), as I do in the STACK1 program, is not
the favored approach in OOP. One reason is that the programmer who writes main() must
remember to call this init() function every time an object (in this example, the Stack
object s1) is created. According to Murphy’s law, anything that can be forgotten, will
eventually be forgotten, so init() is not a good idea. The solution to this is the
constructor, which I’ll discuss in Chapter 5.

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-----------
Quiz 2

1. To insert into an array the characters that constitute a name (such as John Smith)
entered by the user, you might say
a. j=0; while(ch != ‘ ‘) { ch=getche();
charray[++j]=ch; }
b. j=1; while( ch != ‘\r’ ) { ch=getche();
charray[++j]=ch; }
c. j=0; while(ch != ‘\r’) { ch=getche();
charray[j++]=ch; }
d. j=1; while( ch != ‘ ‘ ) { ch=charray[j++];
getche(ch); }
e. j=0; while(ch != 13) { ch=charray[++j]; getche(ch);
}
2. The employee class in the EMPLOY1 program
a. contains an instance data item that holds the names of all the employees.
b. stores data for a number of employees in each object.
c. includes a member function that displays an employee’s name and serial
number.
d. requires the length of the name data item to be initialized to -1.
e. requires that main() create an array of employee objects.
3. Data storage structures such as stacks and linked lists
a. can be implemented with classes.
b. must be implemented with classes.
c. should not be implemented with classes.
d. exist because an array isn’t always the most useful approach to data storage.
e. can store data using a different approach than an array.
4. When you push a data item onto a stack in the STACK1 program, you are actually
a. creating an object.
b. reading data.
c. calling an object’s member function.
d. inserting the data item in array position 0.
e. storing the data item in an array.
5. Which of the following arrangements of Stack class member functions would
work together properly, without wasting space?
a.

void init() { top = 1; }

void push(int var) { st[--top] = var; }
int pop() { return st[top++]; }
b.

void init() { top = 0; }

void push(int var) { st[++top] = var; }
int pop() { return st[top--]; }
c.

void init() { top = -1; }

void push(int var) { st[++top] = var; }
int pop() { return st[top--]; }
d.

void init() { top = 0; }

void push(int var) { st[top++] = var; }
int pop() { return st[--top]; }
e.

void init() { top = -1; }

void push(int var) { st[++top] = var; }
int pop() { return st[--top]; }

Exercise 1

Seven years after an employee leaves the Amalgamated Widgets company, the employee
records are purged of all information about that employee. Add a member function
called purge() to the employee class of the EMPLOY1 program. It should write over
the existing data for an employee so that when displayed, the name will have no
characters and the serial number will be 0. Modify main() so it tests this function.

Exercise 2

Sometimes it’s useful to examine the data item at the top of a stack without actually
popping the item off the stack. (That is, after you’ve read its value, the item remains at
the top of the stack.) A member function that does this is traditionally called peek().
Write such a function that works with the Stack class of the STACK1 program. Modify
main() to check it out.

Session 3: Arrays of Objects

Just as there can be objects with arrays in them, there can also be arrays of objects. This
is a particularly useful construction. You will often want to treat a large number of
objects of the same class in a similar way. For example, you may want to display the
data from 100 employee objects. Placing the objects in an array and using a loop with
a member function in it is a simple way to carry out this task.

Defining an Array of Objects

The syntax for defining an array of objects is the same as that for defining an array of a
basic type. Of course, you must place the class specification in your file before you try to
define any arrays of objects (or single objects, for that matter). If you have already
created the specification for the Xerxes class, for example, then you can define an
array of objects of this class, called Xarray, like this:

Xerxes Xarray[5]; // array of 5 Xerxes objects

All the data for each object in the array is stored contiguously in memory. If you assume
that the specification for the Xerxes class looks like this:

class Xerxes
{
private:
int ivar;
float fvar;
public:
// member functions go here
};
then the elements of the array Xarray, each of which is an object of the class Xerxes,
will look as shown in Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7 Elements of Xarray in memory

New Syntax for Access

As it happens, you need to learn a new syntax, or at least a variation on some old syntax,
to reference member functions of objects stored in an array. Suppose you have a
specification for a class X like this:

class Xerxes
{
...
public:
void afunc()
{
// does something here
}
};
and further suppose that in main(), you’ve defined an array to 10 objects of class X

Xerxes xa[10]; // array xa of 10 objects of class Xerxes

Now the question is, how do you call the member function afunc() for the object that
is in, say, the third element of the array xa? You know you can’t say

xa.afunc(); // no good; xa is an array, not a single variable

because this gives no indication of which element in the xa array is calling the function.
You need to mix array notation with the dot operator, like this:

xa[2].afunc(); // accesses afunc() for the third object in xa

This syntax is straightforward, although it looks a little odd at first. Notice that the
subscript operator ([]) has higher precedence than the dot operator, so the expression
is interpreted as (xa[2]).afunc() and not as xa([2].afunc()). Let’s see how
this syntax is used in an actual program.

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C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
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Publication Date: 08/01/96
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Array of airtime Objects

I’ll use the same airtime class I introduced in the TIMERET program in Chapter 2.
In main() the program defines an array of airtime objects, obtains data for as
many such objects as the user wants to type, and finally, when the user has finished
with input, the program displays all the data. Listing 3-3 shows ARRAYAIR.
Listing 3-3 ARRAYAIR

// arrayair.cpp
// creates array of airtime objects

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> // for setw(), etc.

class airtime
{
private:
int minutes; // 0 to 59
int hours; // 0 to 23
public:
void set()
{
char dummy; // for colon

cout << “Enter time (format 23:59): ”;

cin >> hours >> dummy >> minutes;
}
void display()
{
cout << hours << ':'
<< setfill('0') << setw(2) << minutes;
}
};

void main()
{
airtime at[20]; // array of 20 airtime objects
int n=0; // number of airtimes in array
char choice;

do
{ // get time from user
cout << “Airtime ” << n << “. ”;
at[n++].set(); // and insert in array
cout << “Do another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');

for(int j=0; j<n; ++j) // display every airtime

{ // in the array
cout << “\nAirtime ” << j << “ = ”;
at[j].display();
}
}
Some sample interaction with the program looks like this:

Airtime 0. Enter time (format 23:59): 1:01

Do another (y/n)? y
Airtime 1. Enter time (format 23:59): 23:30
Do another (y/n)? y
Airtime 2. Enter time (format 23:59): 10:00
Do another (y/n)? n

Airtime 0 = 1:01
Airtime 1 = 23:30
Airtime 2 = 10:00
The important statements in ARRAYAIR are

at[n++].set(); // insert data into object in array

which calls the set() member function so the user can enter data for the object in the
array at index n (and which subsequently increments n) and

at[j].display(); // display data from object in array

which calls the display() member function to display the data for the object stored
at index j.

Array of employee Objects

In a similar way, I can define an array of objects of type employee, last seen in the
EMPLOY1 program earlier in this chapter. Listing 3-4 shows ARRAYEMP.

Listing 3-4 ARRAYEMP

// arrayemp.cpp
// models an employee
// uses array of employees

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h> // for getche()

class employee
{
private:
char name[20]; // name (20 chars max)
int n; // length of name
int serial_number;
public:
void input() // get data from user
{
char ch;
n = 0;
cout << “ Enter name: ”;
do
{
ch = getche(); // get one char at a time
name[n++] = ch; // store in “name” array
} while(ch != '\r'); // quit if “Enter” key
cout << “\n Enter serial number: ”;
cin >> serial_number;
}
void output() // display employee data
{
cout << “ Name = ”;
for(int j=0; j<n; ++j) // display one character
cout << name[j]; // at a time
cout << “\n Serial number = ” << serial_number;
}
};

void main()
{
employee emps[100]; // array of employee objects
int n = 0; // number of objects in array
char choice;

do
{
cout << “Enter employee ” << n << “ data” << endl;
emps[n++].input(); // get data
cout << “Do another (y/n)? ”;
cin >> choice;
} while(choice != 'n');

for(int j=0; j<n; j++)

{
cout << “\nData for employee ” << j << endl;
emps[j].output(); // display data
}
}
There should be no surprises in the operation of this program. The class specification
for employee is the same as in earlier examples, and the array of objects is handled
as it was in ARRAYAIR. Sample interaction with the program looks like this:

Enter employee 0 data

Enter name: Henry James
Enter serial number: 1119
Do another (y/n)? y
Enter employee 1 data
Enter name: Nathaniel Hawthorne
Enter serial number: 2229
Do another (y/n)? y
Enter employee 2 data
Enter name: Edgar Allan Poe
Enter serial number: 3339
Do another (y/n)? n
Data for employee 0
Name = Henry James
Serial number = 1119
Data for employee 1
Name = Nathaniel Hawthorne
Serial number = 2229
Data for employee 2
Name = Edgar Allan Poe
Serial number = 3339
One trouble with arrays is that you must declare an array that can hold the largest
number of objects that you will ever expect to be placed in it. Most of the time, the
array will hold fewer objects, so memory space is wasted. A linked list, or an array of
pointers to objects, can reduce this kind of memory extravagance, as you’ll see later.

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C++ Interactive Course:Arrays and Strings

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Publication Date: 08/01/96
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-----------
Quiz 3

1. The member function f() takes no arguments. To call this function for the fourth
element in an array arr of objects of type X, you would say
a. f().arr[3];
b. f(X).arr[3];
c. arr.f(X);
d. arr[3].f();
e. X arr.f()[3];
2. Suppose you have a two-dimensional array of airtime values, defined as

airtime aat[50][100];

How would you call the display() member function for the airtime variable
located at the 25th element in the 20th subarray?
a. aat[19, 24].display();
b. aat[19][24].display();
c. aat[24][19].display();
d. aat.display([24][19]);
e. aat[25][20].display();
3. An array of objects is useful when
a. there are many objects of the same class.
b. a number of objects of different classes must be stored and accessed.
c. a number of objects will all have the same values in their instance data.
d. there are many variables of the same basic type to store as class instance data.
e. a number of objects all have the same member functions.
4. Assume that n is 5 just before the statement emps[n++].input();, taken from
the ARRAYEMP program, is executed. You can conclude that
a. the sixth element of the array will be accessed.
b. the statement contains a subtle bug.
c. no additional statement is necessary to move the index to the next array
element.
d. no elements of emps will be modified.
e. data will be obtained from the user and placed in an object of type employee.
5. In the ARRAYEMP program, assume the user has entered three employees called
Henry James, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Edgar Allan Poe (as in the example). How
many bytes of memory are allocated to storing names?
a. 45
b. 2,000
c. 48
d. 60
e. 51

Exercise 1

Start with the program HOTDOG3 from Session 4 in Chapter 2. Write a program that uses the
HotDogStand class, allows the user to enter data for up to 10 hot dog stands, and then
displays the data for all the stands, as in the arrayemp program. Use an array to hold the
HotDogStand objects.

Exercise 2

Starting with the program in Exercise 1, modify main() so the user can choose what action to
take by entering one of four letters: ‘i’ to initialize the data at a particular stand, ‘s’ to
record a sale at a particular stand, ‘r’ to report the current data for all the stands, or ‘q’ to
quit the program. You may want to use a switch statement to select among these choices and
a while or do loop to cycle repeatedly through the switch.

Session 4: Strings
You learned in Session 2 in this chapter that text—such as a name—can be treated strictly as an
array of characters. Loops can be used to input and output the text from such arrays, one
character at a time. This is all a little awkward. Text is so common in computer programs that
having to program a loop every time text must be handled is not acceptable. Fortunately, C++
provides a sophisticated repertoire of ways to simplify text handling.
The C++ method of text handling treats text as a string, which is a sequence of characters
terminated by a special character. This approach to text was developed in C, long before the
arrival of OOP, so such strings are not object oriented. I will sometimes call them C strings to
avoid confusion with more sophisticated string classes, which can be created only in C++.
However, in most cases the context is clear, and I’ll simply call them strings.
Although they are old fashioned, strings are a key feature of both C and C++ programming, and
often form the foundation of more sophisticated string classes. It’s therefore important to learn
about strings, which is what you’ll do in the next few lessons.

String Variables

A string is a sequence of characters in which the last character has a numerical value of 0
(zero). As a character, this value can be represented by the escape sequence ‘\0’. It is often
called the null character. Using a special value like this to indicate the end of a text string
means that there is no reason to store the length of the text as a separate integer value, as I did
in the EMPLOY1 program. Instead, string-handling routines look for the ‘\0’ to determine
when the string ends.
A string variable is an array of type char. Like other variables, it may or may not contain a
value at any given time. Here’s how you would define a string variable called str:

char str[80]; // string variable; can hold up to 80 characters

When the string variable is first created, no value is stored in it. Unlike variables of basic types,
string variables can be different sizes; this one can hold a string of up to 80 characters.
Although they are really arrays of type char, C++ treats strings in some ways like a basic data
type such as int. For one thing, cin and cout know how to handle strings, so you can use
ordinary stream I/O to input or output a string with a single statement. Here’s how you would
create a string variable, read some text into it from the keyboard, and then display this same
text:

char str[80]; // create a string variable str

cin >> str; // get text from user, store in str

<< str; // display text entered by user

The user types the characters of the string and then presses . (As you know, this is
called entering the text.) Figure 3-8 shows how the array str looks in memory after the user
has entered the string “Amanuensis” (which means one employed to copy manuscripts).

Figure 3-8 String stored in string variable

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C++ Interactive Course:Arrays and Strings

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Publication Date: 08/01/96
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String Constants

You can initialize a string variable to a value when you define it, just as you can
with other variables. Here’s one way to initialize a string variable called name to
the string “George”:

char name[20] = {'G', 'e', 'o', 'r', 'g', 'e', '\0'};

This is the format used to initialize arrays of other types: a list of values separated
by commas. However, typing all those quotes and commas is inefficient to say the
least, so the designers of C and C++ took pity on us and acknowledged that strings
were slightly more than arrays of type char by allowing this kind of initialization:

char name[20] = “George”;

where double (not single) quotes delimit text. A sequence of characters surrounded
by double quotes like this is called a string constant. Although you can’t see it, a
null ‘\0’) is included as the last character of this string constant “George”; it’s
inserted automatically by the compiler. Thus, although there are only six characters
in the name George, there are seven characters in the string constant “George”:
six letters and the ‘\0’ character. If you’re creating a string variable, you must
keep this in mind. The array you define must be large enough to hold the largest
number of characters you will ever store in it plus one more for the null character.

char name[6] = “George”; // not OK, the '\0' won't fit

char name[7] = “George”; // OK, it just fits
A string constant is a value that can be placed in a string variable. You might
wonder whether this means you can say

name = “George”; // illegal

Alas, this doesn’t work. In this situation, C++ thinks of a string variable as an array,
and you can’t use the equal sign to assign a whole bunch of values to an array, even
though the equal sign is used to initialize an array. (Later you’ll see that you can
make the equal sign do anything you want by overloading it.)
As with any array, you don’t need to specify the number of elements in a string
variable if you initialize it when you define it. You can say

char somestring[] = “Four score and seven years ago”;

and the compiler will make somestring just the right length to hold the string
constant (including the null character). This can save you a lot of counting.

Improved String I/O

I’ve mentioned that you can use cout and cin for strings.

char str[80];

cin >> str; // get string from user, store in str

cout << str; // display string entered by user
Some sample interaction with this program fragment might look like this:

Caramba! <--user enters this

Caramba! <--program displays this
Used in this way, with the overloaded >> operator, cin has an unfortunate
drawback. Once it encounters a space (the ‘ ‘ character) typed by the user, it
stops reading the input, so you might have the following interchange with this
program:

Law is a bottomless pit.

Law
Only the word “Law” is stored in str. Everything else the user typed is lost. To
fix this, you must resort to another construction: the get() member function of
the istream class. I won’t explore stream classes in detail until Chapter 10, but
you can use their member functions without knowing much about them. To read a
string that may contain blanks, you can use this construction:

char str[80];

cin.get(str, 80); // get string from user

cout << str; // display string
Not only does get() handle input that contains blanks, it also provides an easy
way to ensure that the user won’t overflow the string array. The first argument to
get() is the name of the array where the string will be stored; the second is the
maximum length of the string that can be accepted. This length includes the null
character, so you can use the same number here that you use for the size of the
array. You can then input strings of up to, in this case, 79 characters.

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Using const Variables

The code fragment just shown provides the motivation to introduce a new keyword. Notice
that the number 80 appears in two places: as the size of the array str and as the maximum
number of characters that can be placed in that array by cin.get(). These numbers should
be the same; if they’re not, the input from get() may overflow the array, or—less
seriously—space may be wasted in the array because get() can’t fill it up.
To ensure that these numbers are the same, it’s desirable to use a variable instead of a
numerical constant, like this:

int size = 80; // array size

char str[size]; // define array

cin.get(str, size); // get string from user

cout << str; // display string
Now if you change the value of size in the first statement, making size equal to 40, for
example, then both the array size and the character limit in cin.get() will be changed
automatically, ensuring they remain the same.
This is a safer way to program, but I can go further. An array size cannot be modified during
the course of a program. This implies that the variable size should be a constant, so that the
programmer is prevented from inadvertently modifying it. But how can a variable be a
constant? I can mandate this seeming contradiction using the keyword const. This keyword
is used in the definition of a variable that cannot change its value during the course of the
program. Here’s how you might use const:

const int SIZE = 80; // array size: cannot be changed

char str[SIZE]; // define array

cin.get(str, SIZE); // get string from user

cout << str; // display string
I use all uppercase letters as a reminder that SIZE is a constant. Now I can change the value
of SIZE if I want, but only by rewriting its declaration and recompiling the program.
Attempts by other program statements to modify it will elicit a compiler error. Because it
cannot be changed, a const variable must be initialized to a value when it’s first defined.
Old-time C programmers may remember when a preprocessor directive, #define, was used
to create constants, as in

#define SIZE 80
This construction can also be used in C++, but it has fallen out of favor because no data type
can be applied to the name, which means the compiler can’t verify that the correct type is
used. This makes programs potentially more error prone.
The const keyword can be used to improve program reliability in a variety of other
situations, notably with function arguments. I’ll explore these possibilities in Session 7 in
Chapter 5.

Eating Extra Characters

Nothing is perfect, and sometimes when you mix cin.get() with cin >>, a problem
arises (at least with some compilers). For example, suppose you say

cout << “Enter the patient's age: ”;

cin >> age; // get a number
cout << “Enter the patient's name: ”
cin.get(name, SIZE); // get a string
The name may not be obtained from the user. Instead, the program appears to skip right over
the last statement. Why is this? Because, following the input of the number age, a newline
character ‘\n’) is left behind in the input buffer. When cin.get() is executed, it reads the
new line from the buffer, assumes this is all there is to read, and exits. To get rid of this new
line, I can employ another member function of istream, called ignore(). Here’s the
revised code:

cout << “Enter the patient's age: ”;

cin >> age; // get a number
cin.ignore(10, '\n'); // eat the newline
cout << “Enter the patient's name: ”
cin.get(name, SIZE); // get a string
Here the ignore() function reads and discards up to 10 characters (which probably won’t
be there) and the new line. The moral: If you’re having trouble using cin.get(), try using
cin.ignore() to eat any extra new lines first.

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-----------
Real Strings for the employee Class

Earlier in this chapter, I showed several programs that used the employee class. In this class,
I stored the employee’s name as a simple array of characters, not as a real null-terminated
string. Let’s rewrite this class to use real strings. This will simplify input and output, because I
can use cin and cout for text, instead of for loops. I’ll also add a switch statement to
main() so the user can operate the program interactively, choosing repeatedly from a list of
options. Listing 3-5 shows STREMP.
Listing 3-5 STREMP

// stremp.cpp
// models database of employees
// uses switch statement for user choice

#include <iostream.h>
const int SMAX = 21; // maximum length of strings
const int EMAX = 100; // maximum number of employees

class employee
{
private:
char name[SMAX]; // name (20 chars max)
int serial_number;
public:
void input() // get data from user
{
cout << “ Enter name: ”;
cin.get(name, SMAX);
cout << “ Enter serial number: ”;
cin >> serial_number;
}

void output() // display employee data

{
cout << “ Name = ” << name;
cout << “\n Serial number = ” << serial_number;
}
};

void main()
{
employee emps[EMAX]; // array of employee objects
int n = 0; // current number of objects in array
int j; // loop variable
char choice = 'x'; // (ensure it's not 'q')

while(choice != 'q') // exit on 'q'

{
cout << “\n'a' to add an employee”
“\n'd' to display all employees”
“\n'q' to quit program”
“\nEnter letter choice: ”;
cin >> choice; // get user's choice
cin.ignore(10, '\n'); // eat extra '\n'

switch(choice)
{
case 'a': // get employee data
cout << “Enter data for employee ” << (n+1) << endl;
emps[n++].input();
break;
case 'd': // display all employees
for(j=0; j<n; j++)
{
cout << “\nData for employee ” << (j+1) << endl;
emps[j].output();
}
break;
case 'q': // let the while loop
break; // terminate the program
default:
cout << “Unknown command”;
break;
} // end switch
} // end while
} // end main()

String I/O

Notice how using real strings simplifies the input() and output() member functions of
employee. The do and for loops have vanished.
I use cin.get() to read the employee’s name in the input() member function. This
requires that I use cin.ignore() in main() to eat the ‘\n’ after the user’s letter choice
so cin.get() won’t become confused.
The switch statement embedded in a while loop makes the program interactive. It displays
a list of possible letter choices; when the user enters one, the program carries out the
appropriate task before returning to the list of choices. Here’s some sample interaction with
STREMP:

'a' to add an employee

'd' to display all employees
'q' to quit program

Enter letter choice: a

Enter data for employee 1 <--input employee 1

Enter name: James Joyce
Enter serial number: 1117
'a' to add an employee
'd' to display all employees
'q' to quit program

Enter letter choice: a

Enter data for employee 2 <--input employee 2

Enter name: Henry James
Enter serial number: 2227

'a' to add an employee

'd' to display all employees
'q' to quit program
Enter letter choice: d <--display all employees

Data for employee 1

Name = James Joyce
Serial number = 1117
Data for employee 2
Name = Henry James
Serial number = 2227

'a' to add an employee

'd' to display all employees
'q' to quit program
Enter letter choice: q <-- quit the program

External Variables

I should mention that SMAX and EMAX are defined in a new way. The variables you’ve seen
before have been defined either inside a class or inside the main() function. SMAX and EMAX
, on the other hand, are defined outside of everything: There are no braces surrounding them.
Variables defined this way are called external variables. External variables are accessible to all
parts of the program, whereas variables defined within a class are accessible only within the
class and variables defined inside a function are accessible only within the function. I’ll delve
into external variables Session 5 in Chapter 4.

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-----------
Quiz 4

1. In C and C++, a string constant

a. has a character with a numerical value of 0 (zero) at the
end.
b. has a character count stored in memory along with it.
c. can be assigned to any string variable using the = operater.
d. is terminated by the null character ‘\n’.
e. must be manipulated one character at a time for
input/output.
2. Which of the following correctly defines a string variable?
a. char stringvar[8] = “piggyback”;
b. char stringvar[8];
c. char “piggyback”;
d. stringvar[8] = “piggyback”;
e. char stringvar[80] = “rolling stone”;
3. The expression cin.get(buff, MAX)
a. displays characters.
b. reads from the keyboard.
c. obtains up to MAX characters and places them in buff.
d. implies that buff should be an array of MAX characters.
e. is identical to cin >> buff.
4. The keyword const, used when declaring a variable,
a. implies that the variable’s value can be changed only by
member functions of the const class.
b. implies that the variable’s value cannot be assigned to
another variable.
c. implies that the variable must be given a value at the same
time it’s defined.
d. creates variables that can be used for storing keyboard
input.
e. implies that the variable’s value won’t be changed by other
program statements.
5. The architecture of an interactive program, where the user enters
one-letter choices, might reasonably involve
a. a switch in a while loop.
b. a switch in a for loop.
c. an else if ladder in a for loop.
d. an else if ladder in a do loop.
e. no loops at all.

Exercise 1

Modify the employee class in the STREMP program of this lesson so that
it includes an additional item of instance data to hold the employee’s title,
such as “Editorial Assistant”, “Vice-president of Marketing”, “Laborer”,
and so forth. This modified class should work with the same main()
found in STREMP.

Exercise 2

Write a class called book that contains the data necessary to manage books
in a bookstore. This includes the title, publisher, price, and quantity on
hand. Write a main() that stores book objects in an array and allows the
user to add a book to the array interactively, display all the books, and sell a
book by decrementing the number on hand.

Midchapter Discussion
Don: Well, at least arrays are pretty straightforward.
George: Except for that little detail about the last element being
numbered one less than the size of the array. Or was it one
more? I can never remember. Anyway, whatever happened to
10 apples numbered from 1 to 10? That’s the natural way to
number things.
Estelle: But then you waste the place for number 0. In computers, the
first address, or the first anything, is always 0. It’s more
logical.
Don: You could do it either way, but in C++, arrays just happen to
start with 0. You better get used to it.
George: No need to get huffy.
Estelle: How come I learned about two different kinds of strings?
George: Huh?
Estelle: You know, I started off with “homemade” strings, as in the
EMPLOY1 program in Session 2. Then I learned about “real”
C++ strings, which are terminated with a zero.
George: I didn’t know there was a difference.
Estelle: Uh, oh. You’re in trouble.
Don: The homemade strings just showed how to treat text as as array
of characters. But doing that isn’t practical, because you need
loops to handle the characters individually. Real C strings are a
lot easier to use.
Estelle: You can use a single operator such as cout << to output a
real string all at once, instead of doing it one character at a
time.
Don: And real strings are null terminated, instead of having to store a
separate character count.
George: Is that good?
Don: Well, probably. It’s another deal where either way would work.
A C string is always one character longer than the number of
characters, but on the other hand, you don’t need an extra
integer variable to specify the length.
Estelle: Isn’t there a lot of stuff about strings I don’t know how to do?
Adding strings together, copying them, and comparing them?
Are there operators built into C++ to do all that?
Don: I think they use library functions instead of operators, and I bet
we’ll get to them soon.

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Session 5: String Library Functions
The function library that accompanies most C and C++ compilers includes dozens of functions that operate on
strings. Functions copy strings, compare them, search them for other strings, and so on. You’ll look at a few of
these library functions in this lesson: the most common ones and those that will be useful later in this book.
Then you’ll put some of these library functions to work to create a simple string class, which can replace
ordinary C strings.

Library Functions for Strings

As with all library functions, you can find out more about the string functions by looking them up in your
compiler’s documentation or online help. What I cover here is just enough to get you started and give you an
idea what’s available. These string-oriented library functions all require the header file STRING.H.

Finding String Lengths

The strlen() function returns the length of a string used as an argument. Here’s a fragment in which a string
variable s1 is initialized to “Songs” and the strlen() function is applied to s1:

char s1[] = “Songs”;

cout << “Length of s1 = ”
<< strlen(s1);
The output would be

Length of s1 = 5
Notice that the terminating ‘\0’ character is not included in the length reported by strlen(). Nevertheless,
that character is there in s1, taking up space in memory. The array s1 is actually 6 bytes long.

Copying Strings

You can copy a string variable or constant to another string variable using the strcpy() function.

char src[] = “Songs”; // string initialized to a value

char dest[80]; // empty string variable

strcpy(dest, src); // copies the contents of src into dest

After this statement has been executed, dest will contain “Songs”. The string src will not be changed.
Notice that strcpy() causes the string named in its right argument to be copied to the string in its left
argument. If this right-to-left direction seems backward to you, remember that it’s how the assignment operator
(=) works: The value on the right is copied into the variable on the left.

Appending Strings

Appending strings might be called adding strings. If you append the string “hurry” onto the string “You
better “ the result is “You better hurry”. Here’s how that might look as a program fragment:

char s1[80] = “You better ”;

char s2[] = “hurry”;
strcat(s1, s2);
The string s1 is now “You better hurry”. The library function strcat() appends one string to
another. The cat in strcat() stands for concatenate, another word for append (although some writers use
concatenate to mean that a third string is created that consists of the other two).
Some languages allow you to concatenate strings using the + operator, as in s1+s2; this isn’t permitted with
ordinary C strings. (However, as I’ll demonstrate later, you can do this by overloading the + operator in
user-defined string classes.)
Let’s make a slight change in the previous code fragment. Will these statements operate correctly?

char s1[] = “You better ”; // s1 is 12 bytes long

char s2[] = “hurry”; // s2 is 6 bytes
strcat(s1, s2); // Error: now s1 needs to be 17 bytes
No, because the compiler makes s1 just large enough to hold “You better “ and concatenating anything
else onto it will overflow s1, leading to unpredictable but probably unpleasant results. The moral is, when you
put a string anywhere, you’d better be sure there’s enough space for it.

Comparing Strings

It’s often useful to compare strings—in checking passwords, for example. The strcmp() function compares
two strings and returns a number indicating that the strings are the same or, if they aren’t the same, which
comes first alphabetically. This function is case sensitive, so “Smith” is not the same as “smith”.

char name[] = “Smith”;

n1 = strcmp(name, “Renaldo”); <--returns 1 (first argument follows second)
n2 = strcmp(name, “Smith”); <--returns 0 (first argument same as second)
n3 = strcmp(name, “Townsend”); <--returns -1 (first argument precedes
second)
Some string functions have close cousins that perform similar but not quite identical tasks. For example, the
stricmp() function compares two strings in the same way that strcmp() does but is not case sensitive; the
i stands for case insensitive. Thus it will tell you that “Blue” and “blue” are identical. The strncmp()
function is also similar to strcmp(), except that it looks only at a specified number of characters in the strings
it’s comparing. Many other string functions have similar variations, signaled by the addition of a letter in the
function name.
Some string functions cannot be used effectively without an understanding of pointers, which you’ll encounter
in Chapter 8. These include functions that search a string for a given character and search a string for another
string.
Because the C++ function library was inherited from C, it is not based on classes. However, most C++
compilers also include a class library that contains a string class. For example, Borland C++ includes a class
called cstring. I’m going to ignore such prebuilt classes for the moment, because it will be more educational
to develop our own string class as we go along.

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A Homemade String Class

The motivation for creating a string class arises from the deficiencies of ordinary C strings
and string functions. What are these deficiencies? Here are a few:
• You must define an array, not a single variable, to store a string.
• You can’t copy one string to another with the assignment operator (=).
• The string functions don’t warn you if you overflow a string array.
• You can’t concatenate strings with the + operator.
• You can’t compare strings with the ==, !=, <, and > operators.
In this section, I’m going to take a first step toward creating a homemade string class. I’ll
address the first two items on the list here; the last three require that you know how to
overload C++ operators, so I’ll defer them until later.
I’ll name the string class xString. Its instance data consists of an ordinary string and it
includes member functions to initialize itself to an ordinary string, get a string from the user,
display its own contents, and append one string to another. A surprising benefit of making a
string into a class is that you can use the equal sign to set one xString object equal to
another. Listing 3-6 shows STRCLASS.
Listing 3-6 STRCLASS

// strclass.cpp
// uses a class to models strings

#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h> // for strlen(), strcpy(), etc.

const int MAX = 80; // maximum length of xStrings

class xString
{
private:
char str[MAX]; // ordinary C string
public:
void init( char s[] ) // initialize with string
{
strcpy(str, s);
}
void input() // get string from user
{
cin.get(str, MAX);
}
void display() // display string
{
cout << str;
}
void append(xString xs) // append argument string
{
if(strlen(str) + strlen(xs.str) < MAX-1)
strcat(str, xs.str);
else
cout << “\nError: xString too long” << endl;
}
};

void main()
{
xString s1, s2, s3; // make xString objects

s1.init(“Greetings, ”); // initialize s1

cout << “Enter your name: ”;

s2.input(); // get s2 from user

s1.append(s2); // append s2 to s1
s3 = s1; // set s3 to s1
s3.display(); // display s3
}
In main(), the program creates three xString objects. It initializes s1 to an ordinary
string using the function init(), gets text from the user for s2 with the input() function,
appends s2 to s1 with append(), sets s3 equal to s1 using the assignment operator, and
finally displays s3 with display(). This may not be exactly what you would want to do
with three string objects, but it does provide a chance to exercise all the member functions of
the xString class.
Now let’s look at some features of this program.

Library Functions

I use the strcpy(), strlen(), and strcat() library functions to copy, find the length
of, and append ordinary C strings. As you can see, these functions are far more convenient
than writing your own loops to do the same thing character by character.

Clean Format

You can see how easy it is to create xString objects. You don’t need to define arrays, only
simple variables (or what look like simple variables but are actually user-defined class
objects).

Data Conversions

As I’ve noted, the init() function is a rather clumsy way to initialize an object. You’ll
learn a more elegant approach when I talk about constructors. However, the init() function
does do something interesting and useful: It acts as a conversion function, converting an
ordinary C string into an xString object. The C string is given as an argument to init(),
which assigns its value to the xString object that called it. Converting from one data type
to another is an important topic in OOP; I’ll return to it later.

Appending

The member function append() appends its argument to the object that called it. In this
example, whatever name the user enters into s2 is appended to “Greetings, “.

Assignment

Perhaps surprisingly, the assignment operator (=) works with objects (at least these objects).
The program sets s3 equal to s1; when it displays s3, you can sees that s3 has indeed taken
on the value of s1. How can the equal sign work with objects that contain arrays, when it
doesn’t work with arrays? It seems odd at first, but makes sense when you think about it. For
one thing, because all objects of the same class are identical (except for their contents), it’s
easy to copy the data from one into another, whereas one array may be a different size than
another.

Overflow Protection

The input() member function provides built-in protection against the user overflowing the
xString storage buffer (the str array). The programmer doesn’t need to take any special
precautions, such as specifying a buffer size. Also, the append() function checks that the
two strings that it’s about to append won’t exceed the size of an xString. Thus the
xString class is safer to use than ordinary C strings.
Of course there’s a downside to this safety: All xStrings must be the same length. This
may waste a lot of memory space for short xStrings and precludes using long strings.
(Later I’ll show how objects of a string class can be made exactly as large as they need to be
using dynamic memory allocation.)

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-----------
Wrapping

Imagine that the xString class was created by one programmer, but another
programmer must write a main() that makes use of this class. The main()
programmer could use ordinary C strings and library functions such as strcpy(), or
she could choose to use the xString class instead. Thus, although the xString class
itself uses ordinary C strings and string library functions internally, these are invisible to
the main() programmer, who instead sees xString objects and member functions
such as input() and append(). This is another example of wrapping one set of
functions with another to create a new user interface.

Quiz 5

1. String library functions such as strlen() and strcpy()

a. work with user-defined class objects.
b. are useful for ordinary C strings.
c. are used exclusively with null-terminated strings.
d. are member functions.
e. cannot be applied to nonstring arrays of characters.
2. To use the strcpy() library function to copy the string s1 to the string s2,
you would say
a. s1.strcpy(s2);
b. s2.strcpy(s1);
c. strcpy(s1, s2);
d. strcpy(s2, s1);
e. s2 = strcpy(s1);
3. Which of these statements are true?
a. The chief task of the single equal sign (=) in C++ is to assign a value to
a variable.
b. You can assign one C string variable to another with a function.
c. You can assign one C string variable to another with an equal sign.
d. You can assign any object to another of the same class with the
strcpy() function.
e. You can assign any object to another of the same class with the =
operator (assume that = is not overloaded).
4. A string class can reasonably be expected to be superior to ordinary C strings
for which of the following reasons:
a. It’s less error prone.
b. It’s easier to program.
c. It can do more things.
d. It executes faster.
e. It takes less memory to store a string.
5. One might want to use a class to “wrap” a group of functions and data in a
different group of functions because
a. there were flaws in the way the original functions operated.
b. different program design goals may favor a new approach.
c. the idea of classes is easier to understand.
d. using classes is generally more efficient than using library functions.
e. the programmer’s interface can be made easier or more capable.

Exercise 1

For the xString class, create a member function called compare() that compares
an xString given to it as an argument with the xString that called it. This function
should return -1 if the argument comes before the object alphabetically, 0 if the two are
the same, and 1 if the argument comes after the object.

Exercise 2

For the xString class, create a member function that takes two xString objects as
arguments, concatenates them, and places the resulting value in the object that called
the function. You can name this function concat(). Add some statements to main()
to test it.

Session 6: Arrays of Strings

A commonly used construction is an array of strings. Such arrays can hold lists of
employee names, passwords, file names, and so on. In this session, I’m going to create a
class based on an array holding the names of the days of the week. First, however, I’ll
review the syntax of an array of strings.

Syntax of Arrays of Strings

You can create an array of empty string variables using a simple two-dimensional array.
Because a string is an array, an array of strings is an array of arrays.

Arrays of Empty Strings

Suppose you don’t know yet what strings you want to store but you want to create space
for them. To store five strings, each of which can be up to 10 characters long, you
would define an array this way:

char names[5][10]; // array of 5 strings

Notice that the number of strings is always the first dimension given. The length of the
strings (which, because this is an array, must all be the same) is the second dimension.
Figure 3-9 shows how this looks.

Figure 3-9 Array of empty strings

You might write some code so the user could enter names into this array:

for(j=0; j<5; j++)

{
cout << “Enter name (or press Enter to exit loop): ”;
cin.get(names[j], 10);
if( strlen(names[j])==0 ) // if user presses [Enter],
break; // exit from loop
}

Here the for loop won’t let the user enter more than five names. By pressing
and thus inserting a 0-length name into the array, the user can exit the loop after
entering fewer than five names.
Notice that a single string is referred to as names[j], with only one index. As I
mentioned earlier, this is how you refer to one subarray in a two-dimensional array.

Arrays of Initialized Strings

You can initialize the strings in an array of strings when you create them. Here’s an
example in which I store the days of the week:

const int MAX = 10; // maximum length of day name, +1

const int DPW = 7; // days per week

const char day_name[DPW][MAX] = // array of day names

{ “Sunday”, “Monday”, “Tuesday”,
“Wednesday”,“Thursday”, “Friday”,
“Saturday”};
The string constants used for initialization are separated by commas and surrounded by
braces, just as constants are in one-dimensional arrays. This causes each string constant
to be installed in the appropriate subarray of day_name. Figure 3-10 shows how this
looks.

Figure 3-10 Array of strings

Note: Note in Figure 3-10 that there is some space wasted at the ends of the shorter
string constants because all the string variables are the same length. You can avoid this
if you use pointers, as you’ll see later.

I’ve used the variable names MAX and DPW for the array dimensions and made them
type const, as discussed earlier. I’ve also made the entire array type const because
presumably the days of the week will never need to be changed.

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The weekday Class

I’ll turn the weekday names into a class. Because I don’t want to duplicate the day_name
array in every object, I’ll make it an external variable. (I could also have made it a static
variable within the class. I’ll discuss static variables, along with external variables, in Chapter
4. For the moment, all you need to know is that external variables can be accessed from
anywhere in the program.) Listing 3-7 shows WEEKDAYS.
Listing 3-7 WEEKDAYS

// weekdays.cpp
// creates a class of days of the week objects

#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h> // for stricmp()

const int MAX = 10; // maximum length of day name, +1

const int DPW = 7; // days per week

const char day_name[DPW][MAX] = // array of day names

{ “Sunday”, “Monday”, “Tuesday”,
“Wednesday”,“Thursday”, “Friday”,
“Saturday”};
class weekday // class of day names
{
private:
int day_number; // Sunday=0, etc.
public:
void inday() // user inputs day name
{
char tempday[MAX]; // holds user input
int gotit = 0; // match found? (0=false)
int j; // loop variable

while( !gotit ) // cycle until user enters

{ // a correct name
cout << “Enter day of week (e.g., Friday): ”;

cin >> tempday;

for(j=0; j<DPW; j++) // compare user input
{ // with list of names
if( stricmp(tempday, day_name[j])==0 )
{ // if there's a match,
gotit = 1; // set flag,
break; // break out of for loop
}
} // end for
day_number = j; // record what day it was
} // end while
} // end inday()

void outday() // display the day name

{
cout << day_name[day_number];
}

void outnumber() // display the day number

{
cout << (day_number + 1);
}
void add(int days) // add days to
{ // this weekday
day_number += days; // add days
day_number %= DPW; // ensure not > 7
}
}; // end weekdays class

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void main()
{
weekday wd; // make a weekday object

cout << “What day is it?” << endl;

wd.inday(); // user gives it a value
cout << “You entered ”;
wd.outday(); // display its day name
cout << “\nThat's day number ”;
wd.outnumber(); // display its day number
wd.add(10); // add 10 days to it
cout << “\nTen days later is ”;
wd.outday(); // display its day name
}
In main(), the program creates an object of the weekday class, wd. Then it gets a name from
the user and compares it with all the weekday names in the day_name array. If there’s a
match, it stores the number of the day in the object. Then it tells this object to display its day
name and day number.
I’ve added a member function to the weekday class to enable the user to add a number of days
to a weekday object. In main(), the program tells wd to add 10 days to itself, and then
reports what day of the week wd has become (10 days after Wednesday is a Saturday). Here’s
the output from WEEKDAYS:

What day is it?

Enter day of week (e.g., Friday): wednesday
You entered Wednesday
That's day number 4
Ten days later is Saturday
There are several new wrinkles in the operation of WEEKDAYS. It uses a variation of the string
function strcmp() and it uses a new kind of operator.

The stricmp() Function

Notice in the interaction with the program that the user typed “wednesday” with a lowercase
‘W’. The weekday class recognizes this as a legitimate weekday name because it uses the
stricmp() comparison function, which ignores case. This provides a more forgiving
approach to user input.

Arithmetic Assignment Operators

You may find the two lines in the add() member function somewhat puzzling. To add a fixed
number of days to the day_number variable, you might expect a statement such as

day_number = day_number + days;

where days is provided by the argument to the add() function. However, what I use instead
is the statement

day_number += days;
What’s this all about? The designers of C and C++ considered brevity a good thing and so
developed this shorthand format. Both statements have exactly the same effect, but the
day_number variable is named only once in the second statement. This is made possible by
the arithmetic assignment operator +=. This operator takes the value on its right and adds it to
the variable on its left, leaving the result in the variable on its left. Figure 3-11 shows how this
looks when the value of item is added to the value of total and the result is stored in
total.

Figure 3-11 Arithmetic assignment operator

It turns out that there are arithmetic assignment operators for all the arithmetic operations.

a += b; // same as a = a + b
a -= b; // same as a = a - b
a *= b; // same as a = a * b
a /= b; // same as a = a / b
a %= b; // same as a = a % b
There are a few other assignment operators as well, but you can ignore them for now.
In the WEEKDAYS program, I use the last of these operators, %=, to make sure that
day_number is always in the range of 0 to 6, no matter how many days you add to it.

day_number %= DPW;
This sets day_number to the remainder produced when day_number is divided by 7.
Arithmetic assignment operators provide a way to make your listing look less cumbersome,
possibly at the expense of some clarity for newcomers to C++.

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-----------
Quiz 6

1. Which of the following statements define(s) an array of 100

empty strings, each of which can hold up to 80 characters?
a. char strarray[100];
b. char strarray[80][100];
c. int strarray[80, 100];
d. char strarray[100, 80];
e. char strarray[100][80];
2. If you initialize an array of strings called names,
a. each character is placed in a one-dimensional subarray of
names.
b. each string constant is placed in a one-dimensional subarray
of names.
c. each character is placed in an element of a one-dimensional
subarray of names.
d. each string constant is placed in an element of a
one-dimensional subarray of names.
e. all the string constants are placed in a subarray of names.
3. The weekday class
a. models the number of work hours in each day of the week.
b. must have access to the day_name array.
c. can convert from a day name such as “Monday” to a
number and back again.
d. stores the name of a day of the week as instance data.
e. stores a number as instance data.
4. If an external variable is defined at the beginning of a file, and
there is only one file for the program, the variable is
a. not accessible by any statement in the program.
b. accessible by statements in member functions in the
program.
c. accessible by statements in main().
d. accessible by statements that are neither in standalone
functions such as main() nor in member functions.
e. not accessible unless it’s made into a class.
5. Arithmetic assignment operators such as += and *=
a. exist to shorten and simplify the program listing.
b. perform arithmetic only on imaginary numbers.
c. combine the tasks of the equal sign (=) and another binary
operator.
d. perform arithmetic on two variables and leave the result in
a third.
e. assign something and then perform arithmetic on it.

Exercise 1

Add a member function called difference() to the weekday class.

This function should subtract the day number of the object that called it
from the day number of its argument and return an integer representing the
number of days between these two days of the week. Here’s how it might
be called from main():

cout << “Enter the starting day: ”

start_day.inday();
cout << “Enter the ending day: ”
end_day.inday();
cout << “\nThe project will take ”;
cout << start_day.difference(end_day);
cout << “ days”;

Exercuse 2

Create a class called ordinal that models the names of the ordinal
numbers, “first”, “second”, “third”, “fourth”, “fifth”, and so on, up to
“twelfth”. Provide input and output member functions that get and display
such values using either of two formats: ordinary integers (1, 2, and so on)
or ordinals. Also, provide an add() function that allows you to add a fixed
integer to objects of the class. Assume that no number larger than 12 or less
than 1 will be represented.

Session 7: Structures
A C++ structure is a way to group together several data items that can be of
different types. An array, by contrast, groups a number of data items of the
same type. Structures are typically used when several data items form a
distinct unit but are not important enough to become a class. Structures are
more important in C, where there are no classes. In C++, a class plays many
of the roles filled by structures in C. Nevertheless, there are still many
situations where structures are useful.

Specifying a Structure

Here’s an example of a structure specification:

struct part
{
int modelnumber;
int partnumber;
float cost;
};
A structure consists of the keyword struct, followed by the structure
name (also called the tag) and braces that surround the body of the
structure. It is terminated with a semicolon. The body of the structure
usually consists of various data items, which may be of different types.
These individual data items are called members. (As you recall, the
individual data items within an array are called elements.) Figure 3-12
shows the syntax.

Figure 3-12 Syntax of the structure specifier

As you can see, a structure is quite similar syntactically to a class.

However, structures and classes are usually used in quite different ways.
Typically, a class contains both data and member functions, whereas a
structure contains only data. I’ll return to the relationship between
structures and classes at the end of this lesson.
As with a class, a structure specification does not actually create a structure.
It merely specifies how a structure will look when it’s created.

Defining Structure Variables

To define variables of type struct part, you would say something like

part cp1, cp2;

Figure 3-13 shows the relation between a structure specifier and the
variables created by using the specification as a blueprint.

Figure 3-13 Structures and structure variables

I should mention for completeness that there’s a shortcut for defining

structure variables. The variable names are telescoped into the structure
specification, like this:

struct part
{
int modelnumber;
int partnumber;
float cost;
} cp1, cp2;
This code specifies the structure and creates two variables of that structure
at the same time. A peculiarity of this format is that you can remove the
structure name or tag (part); it’s not needed because the variables already
know what structure they’re based on.
This shortcut format is not as easy to understand as using separate
statements for the specification and the definition, so I’ll avoid it in the
example programs.

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Accessing Structure Members

The dot operator is used to access structure members, just as it’s used to access member functions
from objects. Here’s how that looks:

struct part // specify structure

{
int modelnumber;
int partnumber;
float cost;
};

part cp1; // define structure variable

cout << “Enter model number: ”

cin >> cp1.modelnumber; // access data member in structure
cout << “Enter part number: ”;
cin >> cp1.partnumber; // access data member in structure
cout << “Enter cost: ”;
cin >> cp1.cost; // access data member in structure
The variable name precedes the dot and the name of the member data follows it: cp1.cost.
Figure 3-14 shows how this looks if the user enters 6244, 373, and 217.55 for the model number,
part number, and cost; Figure 3-15 shows how the variable name and member data name are
related to what’s stored in memory.

Figure 3-14 Structure members in memory

Figure 3-15 The dot operator

Initializing Structure Variables

You can provide initial values for structure variables just as you can for arrays. Here’s how you
would initialize a structure variable of type part to the same values seen in Figure 3-14:

part cp1 = { 6244, 373, 217.55 };

Structure Usage

Let’s modify an earlier example program so that it uses a structure. Notice in the STACK1
program, from Session 2 in this chapter, that the array that stores data items and the index to this
array (the top of the stack) are closely related. You might find it convenient to combine these two
data items into a structure, and then use the structure as a single data member of the Stack class.
Listing 3-8 shows how this might look.
Listing 3-8 STRUSTAK

// strustak.cpp
// class models a stack, uses struct for array and index

#include <iostream.h>
struct stackette // structure
{
int arr[20]; // storage array
int top; // index of top of stack
};

class Stack // class

{
private:
stackette st; // structure variable
public:
void init() // initialize index
{
st.top = -1;
}
void push(int var) // place an item on the stack
{
st.arr[++st.top] = var;
}
int pop() // remove an item from the stack
{
return st.arr[st.top--];
}
};

void main()
{
Stack s1; // create a stack object

s1.init(); // initialize it
s1.push(11); // push 3 items onto stack
s1.push(12);
s1.push(13);

cout << s1.pop() << endl; // pop 3 items and display them
cout << s1.pop() << endl;
cout << s1.pop() << endl;
}
Here the structure stackette holds the array of integers and the index that points to the top of
the stack (the last item placed in the array).

struct stackette
{
int arr[20]; // storage array
int top; // index of top of stack
};
The only item of instance data in the Stack class is now a variable of class stackette.

stackette st;
Member functions of Stack now refer to individual data members of st, using the dot operator

st.top = -1;
and

st.arr[++st.top] = var;
Notice that main() is identical to the main() in the STACK1 program. I’ve modified the class
but kept the class interface the same, so no rewriting is necessary for the functions that use the
class.
It’s doubtful whether in this particular programming example the use of a structure provides
significant simplification. However, once I discuss pointers, you’ll encounter examples where the
use of structures as class members can indeed clarify the workings of a program. (See the linked
list example in Session 7 in Chapter 8.)

Structures versus Classes

I’ve emphasized the use of structures as aggregates of data items. This is the way structures are
usually used. With this emphasis, structures appear quite different from classes. We might say that
a structure is a passive grouping of data items, whereas a class is an active combination of data
and functions. Of course, classes are far more important in C++ than structures are. Classes form
the very basis of object-oriented programming, whereas structures are a minor part of C++ usage.
However, these differences obscure the fact that the syntax of structures and classes is almost
identical. You can install member functions within a structure just as you can in a class, and
conversely you can remove the member functions from a class so that it acts like a structure.
There is only one real syntactical difference between a structure and a class: The members of a
structure are public by default, whereas the members of a class are private by default. That is, if
you don’t use the keywords public or private, class members are private.

class Foo
{ // no need for keyword, private by default
int george;
int harry;
public: // public must be specified
void init()
{ }
void display()
{ }
};
For clarity, I’ll always use the keyword private in class specifications in the example programs,
but in fact it’s optional. In structures, the situation is reversed.

struct Bar
{ // no need for keyword, public by default
void init()
{ }
void display()
{ }
private: // private must be specified
int george;
int harry;
};
In structures, you usually want all the data members to be public, so you normally leave out this
keyword.
These syntax distinctions are all rather academic because in most situations, using a structure as a
class or vice versa would simply cause confusion. No doubt, the designers of C++ borrowed the
syntax of C structures when they invented classes and then—perhaps to make compiler design
easier—augmented structures to make them as similar as possible to classes.

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-----------
Quiz 7

1. Specifying a structure
a. uses syntax similar to a class specification.
b. creates a structure variable.
c. requires the use of the keyword public.
d. usually involves a number of member data items.
e. usually involves a number of member functions.
2. Structures are normally used
a. as an alternative way to create classes and objects.
b. to group data items of the same type.
c. to group data items of different types.
d. to combine data items that are closely related into a single unit.
e. to increase memory efficiency.
3. Accessing a structure’s member data
a. is normally carried out using the structure’s member functions.
b. is normally carried out by a function located somewhere outside the
structure.
c. uses a similar format to accessing member functions in classes.
d. is easy because the data is public by default.
e. requires the dot operator (ignore pointers).
4. In the STRUSTAK program,
a. statements in main() access the stackette structure using the dot
operator.
b. a structure variable is included in the Stack class.
c. a structure specification is included in the Stack class.
d. there is only one member data item in the Stack class.
e. member functions in Stack need not be modified when a
stackette structure is inserted in the class in place of individual data
items of basic types.
5. Structures and classes differ in that
a. the public versus private distinction is applicable to classes but not to
structures.
b. structures are usually used only for data, not for data and functions.
c. data members may be accessed using the dot operator in classes, but
not in structures.
d. structures use brackets, whereas classes use braces.
e. both data and function members are public by default in structures, but
private by default in classes.

Exercise 1

In Exercise 2 in Session 2 in this chapter, I suggested you create a peek() function,

which would access the item on the top of the stack without removing it. Modify this
function so it works with the version of Stack in the STRUSTAK program.

Exercise 2

Modify the EMPLOY1 program from Session 2 in this chapter so that the array name
and the integer n, used as instance data in the employee class, are combined into a
structure. Substitute a variable of this structure type for these two member data items
and make whatever modifications are necessary for the employee class to work as it
did in EMPLOY1.

Session 8: enum and bool

I’ll cover two short topics in this lesson. An enumerated data type—specified by the
keyword enum—allows the programmer to invent a data type and then specify exactly
what values are allowed for the type. The bool keyword and the related literals true
and false are used in situations involving logic tests. These topics are related in that
bool type was typically, until a recent change in the C++ draft standard, implemented
using an enum type.

Enumerated Data Types

Creating a new type using enumerated data types is akin to creating a new type using a
class, as I did in programs that used the airtime class. However, enumerated data
types are much more limited than types created using classes. You can’t create
member functions to specify the operation of enum types; instead, they always behave
more or less like integers. Enumerated types existed in C long before OOP was
invented. You can think of them as a sort of poor person’s approach to creating one’s
own data types. However, given the right situation, they work well and they are
simpler to implement than classes. Enumerated types are usually used when a variable
has only a few allowable values, because every value must be named.

Specifying an Enumerated Type

In the WEEKDAYS example (Listing 3-7), I used a class to define a new data type
consisting of days of the week. This type also lends itself to being specified by an
enumerated type. Here’s how that would look:

enum days_of_week {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat };

They keyword enum is followed by the name of the type, days_of_week in this
example, and then by braces enclosing a list of comma-separated value names. Figure
3-16 shows the format.

Figure 3-16 Syntax of enum specifier

Enumerated means that all the values are listed explicitly. This is unlike the
specification of an int, for example, which has a range of possible values (such as
-32,768 to 32,767). In an enum, you must give a specific name to every allowable
value. This is potentially confusing. Remember, the names used for enum values are
not the names of variables. An int has values 0, 1, 2, and so on. The enum shown
above has the values Sun, Mon, and so on up to Sat. Figure 3-17 shows the
difference between an int and an enum.

Figure 3-17 Usage of ints and enums

As with classes and structures, specifying an enumerated type is not the same as
actually creating variables of that type. That step requires a separate statement.

Creating and Using Enumerated Variables

Here’s how you might create and give values to some enumerated variables:

// specify a type

enum days_of_week {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat };

days_of_week day1, day2; // create variables of that type

day1 = Mon; // give them values

day2 = Wed;
One of the advantages of using enumerated types is that attempting to assign a
nonspecified value will cause a compiler error, alerting you to program bugs. For
example, even if Easter is defined as an int variable,

day1 = Easter;
will not compile because day1 is a variable of type days_of_week and Easter is
not on the list of possible values for days_of_week.

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They’re Really Integers

The compiler actually stores enumerated values as integers, starting with 0 for the first name
specified. In the previous figure, north is 0, south is 1, east is 2, and west is 3. In the
days-of-the-week example Sun is 0, Mon is 1, Tue is 2, and so on. Alternatively, you can
specify that the series begins on a value other than 0. For example, you could say

enum ordinal { first=1, second, third };

where first is 1, second is 2, and third is 3. Or you can specify separate values for all
the names.

enum coin { penny=1, nickel=5, dime=10,

quarter=25, halfdollar=50, dollar=100 };

A Card Game Program

Let’s look at a lengthy example that uses arrays, structures, and enumerated types. This
program features a class, card, that models the playing cards used in games such as bridge,
hearts, and poker. Each object of this class represents a single card. Instance data records the
card’s number (2 through 10, jack, queen, king, and ace) and suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts,
spades). Member functions are provided to give the card an initial value and to display its
value.
In main(), the program defines an array of 52 objects of type card and calls it deck. It
then gives appropriate values to all these cards in order and displays the result. Next, it
shuffles the deck by exchanging each card with another in a random location in the deck
array. Finally, it displays the resulting shuffled deck. Listing 3-9 shows CARDARAY.
Listing 3-9 CARDARAY

// cardaray.cpp
// cards as objects

#include <iostream.h>
#include <stdlib.h> // for randomize(), rand
#include <time.h> // for randomize()
#include <conio.h> // for getche()

enum Suit { clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades };

const int jack = 11; // from 2 to 10 are

const int queen = 12; // integers without names
const int king = 13;
const int ace = 14;

class card
{
private:
int number; // 2 to 10, jack, queen, king, ace
Suit suit; // clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades
public:
void init(int n, Suit s) // initialize card
{ suit = s; number = n; }
void display() // display the card
{
if( number >= 2 && number <= 10 )
cout << number;
else
switch(number)
{
case jack: cout << “J”; break;
case queen: cout << “Q”; break;
case king: cout << “K”; break;
case ace: cout << “A”; break;
}
switch(suit)
{
case clubs: cout << 'c'; break;
case diamonds: cout << 'd'; break;
case hearts: cout << 'h'; break;
case spades: cout << 's'; break;
}
} // end display()
}; // end class card

void main()
{
card deck[52]; // deck of cards
int j = 0; // counts thru deck
int num; // card number

cout << endl;

for(num=2; num<=14; num++) // for each number
{
deck[j].init(num, clubs); // set club
deck[j+13].init(num, diamonds); // set diamond
deck[j+26].init(num, hearts); // set heart
deck[j++ +39].init(num, spades); // set spade
}

cout << “\nOrdered deck:\n”;

for(j=0; j<52; j++) // display ordered deck
{
deck[j].display();
cout << “ ”;
if( !( (j+1) % 13) ) // newline every 13 cards
cout << endl;
}

randomize(); // seed random number generator

for(j=0; j<52; j++) // for each card in the deck,
{
int k = random(52); // pick another card at random
card temp = deck[j]; // and swap them
deck[j] = deck[k];
deck[k] = temp;
}

cout << “\nShuffled deck:\n”;

for(j=0; j<52; j++) // display shuffled deck
{
deck[j].display();
cout << “ ”;
if( !( (j+1) % 13) ) // newline every 13 cards
cout << endl;
}
getch(); // wait for keypress
} // end main
This program uses two library functions that may not exist on all compilers. These are
randomize(), which seeds a random number generator (using the current time), and
random(), which returns a random number. These functions exist in Borland compilers but
other compilers use slight variations, so you may need to modify the source code to get this
program to run.
Here’s the output from CARDARAY. First the deck is displayed in the order it was initialized.
Then it’s displayed after shuffling.

Ordered deck:
2c 3c 4c 5c 6c 7c 8c 9c 10c Jc Qc Kc Ac
2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d 8d 9d 10d Jd Qd Kd Ad
2h 3h 4h 5h 6h 7h 8h 9h 10h Jh Qh Kh Ah
2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s 8s 9s 10s Js Qs Ks As

Shuffled deck:
3c 5c Qc 9s Ah Kd 6h 7h 4s As 2h 5d Ks
7c Js 3s 10h 8s Jc Jh Ac 5s 7s Qs 10d 2c
Jd 8d 4d 2d 6s 4h 10s 6d 4c Ad Qh 7d 6c
10c 9c 3h 8c 5h 2s Kc 9h Qd 8h 3d 9d Kh
The program uses an enum type for the suit because there are only four possible values:
clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades. This makes it impossible for the program to assign any
value other than these four. If you try to use an integer value, for example, the compiler will
issue a warning.
The enum approach would be unwieldy for the card number, so I use an integer that can have
a value from 2 to 14, with the special names jack, queen, king, and ace given to the
values 11, 12, 13, and 14. The display() member function uses switch statements to
figure out the appropriate display, given the suit and number of each card.

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-----------
The bool Keyword

Until recently, there was no Boolean type in C++. Such a type (named after George Boole, a
British mathematician), has only two values: true and false. Variables of this type are used to store
the results of logic tests, such as the answer to such questions as, “Is alpha less than 10?”.
Until recently, C and C++ programmers either used an integer type for a Boolean value or had to
create their own using an enum.

enum boolean (false, true); // false is 0, true is 1

Then later in the program, variables of this type could be defined

boolean flag;
and set to one of the two permissible values

if(alpha<10)
flag = false;
However, this homemade Boolean type is now unnecessary. A recent revision to the C++ draft
standard introduces a new keyword to specify Boolean variables, bool, and two new predefined
literal values for it, true and false. A variable of type bool must have one of these two
values.
Thus, to define a Boolean variable flag, simply say

bool flag;
There’s no need for an enum.
You can convert bool values to integers: true becomes 0 and false becomes 1. You can also
convert integers to bool values: 0 becomes false and all other values become true.
In the WEEKDAYS program in Session 6 in this chapter, I used an integer variable, gotit, to
indicate whether or not the user had typed a correct day name. I used the value 0 to indicate false
and 1 to indicate true. That’s not as clear or elegant as it might be. The new bool type allows you
to use a type designed for true/false values. Listing 3-10 shows WEEKDAYS rewritten to use a
bool type for the gotit flag.
Listing 3-10 BOOL

// bool.cpp
// creates a class of days of the week objects
// uses bool for logic value

#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h> // for stricmp()

const int MAX = 10; // maximum length of day name, +1

const int DPW = 7; // days per week
const char day_name[DPW][MAX] = // array of day names
{ “Sunday”, “Monday”, “Tuesday”,
“Wednesday”,“Thursday”, “Friday”,
“Saturday”};
class weekday // class of day names
{
private:
int day_number; // Sunday=0, etc.
public:
void inday() // user inputs day name
{
bool gotit = false; // match found?
int j; // loop variable
char tempday[MAX]; // holds user input
while( gotit==false ) // cycle until user enters
{ // a correct name
cout << “Enter day of week (e.g., Friday): ”;
cin >> tempday;
for(j=0; j<DPW; j++) // compare user input
{ // with list of names
if( stricmp(tempday, day_name[j])==0 )
{ // if there's a match,
gotit = true; // set flag,
break; // break out of for loop
}
} // end for
day_number = j; // record what day it was
} // end while
} // end inday()

void outday() // display the day name

{
cout << day_name[day_number];
}
void outnumber() // display the day number
{
cout << (day_number + 1);
}
void add(int days) // add days to
{ // this weekday
day_number += days; // add days
day_number %= DPW; // ensure not > 7
}
}; // end weekday class

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void main()
{
weekday wd; // make a weekday object

cout << “What day is it?” << endl;

Quiz 8

1. The enum keyword specifies

a. a list of variable names.
b. a new data type
c. a list of values.
d. a list of data types.
e. the numerical equivalent for each name on a list.
2. Enumerated data types are useful when
a. only a small number of variables of a certain type will be used.
b. you will redefine how arithmetic works with variables of the type.
c. you want to ensure that a variable is not given an incorrect value.
d. a variable can take on a limited number of values.
e. a variable contains instance data of several basic types.
3. Declaring a variable of an enumerated type
a. requires you to use the int basic type.
b. involves specifying a list of possible values.
c. requires that the variable be simultaneously initialized to a value.
d. has the same syntax as declaring an object of a class.
e. creates a variable that is represented in computer memory by an integer.
4. In the cardaray program, a card object
a. can display its number and suit.
b. must be initialized to an appropriate card value when it is defined.
c. represents a deck of 52 cards.
d. can be moved to a different location in the array deck.
e. might have the value { jack, hearts }.
5. The keyword bool
a. represents an enum type.
b. is used to create variables that can have only one of two values.
c. represents an integer type.
d. is a value given to variables.
e. defines variables used to store the results of logic tests.

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-----------
Exercise 1

Revise the main() part of the CARDADAY program so that, after shuffling
the deck, it deals a hand of 13 cards to each of four players (as in bridge). A
player can be represented by an array holding that player’s cards. After
dealing the four hands, display them.

Exercise 2

Revise the airtime class in the ARRAYAIR program in Session 3 in this

chapter so it works with 12-hour time. In other words, 1:30 should be
displayed as 1:30 am and 13:30 should be displayed as 1:30 pm. Create an
enumerated data type called meridian that has two possible values: am
and pm. Rewrite the set() and display() functions so they use this
type to help handle the 12-hour format.

Summary: Chapter 3
In this chapter, I’ve focused on arrays and strings, with brief looks at
structures and enumerated types. An array is a way to group a number of
variables of the same type and to refer to them using an index number or
subscript. The index number is represented by a number in brackets, such as
[5]. Arrays are the most commonly used data storage structure, but they
do not warn the programmer when an array index is out of bounds, so it’s
easy to make programming mistakes that cause serious malfunctions.
The increment and decrement operators, ++ and --, can be placed either
before or after their operands. If placed before (++x), the operand is
incremented (or decremented, if -- is used) before its value is used in an
expression. If placed after (x++), the operand is incremented (or
decremented) after its value is used.
A string is a group of characters terminated with a null character, ‘\0’,
which has the numerical value 0. A string variable is an array of type char
used for storing strings. A string constant is defined using double quotes:
“George Smith”. Special library functions exist for processing strings.
Strings (i.e., ordinary C strings) have nothing to do with classes and OOP.
However, string classes can be created that act like strings and improve
upon them in various ways.
A variable defined with the const modifier must be initialized to a value
when it’s defined; this value cannot be modified during the course of the
program.
A structure is, from a syntax standpoint, almost identical to a class; the only
difference is that a structure’s members are public by default, whereas a
class’s are private. However, a structure usually does not have member
functions; it’s used only as a way to group data items together. In many
cases in C++, a class replaces a structure.
Enumerated types allow the programmer to specify a new data type that can
be given only a small number of values whose names are specified. This
can aid in clarity and safety.

End-of-Chapter Discussion
George: Great. Now I have three kinds of strings to worry about.
Homemade, regular, and classes. When do you use what?
Estelle: Forget about homemade strings. No one would use them in a
real program; that was just a teaching device.
Don: In C++, assuming you have a string class, it’s easier to use
strings that are class objects than ordinary C strings.
Estelle: Why?
Don: Because you can define whatever string operation you want,
using member functions. But to write the class in the first
place, you need to use C strings. They’re the fundamental way
to handle text.
George: So you need to understand both?
Don: Ideally. But in your case, I’d stick with one or the other. No use
getting confused.
George: A wise guy, eh?
Estelle: I don’t understand why I need structures. It seems like classes
do everything structures do and then some.
Don: I don’t think structures are as important in C++ as they are in
C, for just that reason. But every now and then you probably
want to stick some data items together without going to the
trouble of making it a full-blown class.
George: What about enumerated types? What are they really for?
Don: I bet if they hadn’t already been part of C when C++ was
invented, no one would have bothered. For sure you can use a
class to do everything that enumerated types do. At least, I
think so. But because they’re in the language, you may as well
use them.
George: Use them when?
Estelle: Whenever some variable is going to have just a small number
of possible values.
George: What’s the advantage?
Don: It makes the listing clearer and makes it easier for the compiler
to find bugs in your program. If you assign an incorrect value
to an enumerated type, the compiler lets you know.
George: Who needs that? I never make programming mistakes anyway.
Estelle: Oh, right.

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C++ Interactive Course:Functions

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C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
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-----------

CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONS
Functions are important not only because they are one of the two major components of
objects but also because they are one of the basic ways to organize C++ programs.
I’ll first summarize what you’ve learned about functions so far. Then I’ll examine a new
way to write member functions outside of the class specification. I’ll look at the
advantages of overloading functions, which means giving the same name to different
functions, and default arguments, which allow a function to be called with fewer
arguments than it really has.
In the second half of this chapter, I’ll switch gears to a related topic: storage classes.
You’ll see how variables acquire different characteristics from two sources: first, from
the location of the variable with regard to functions and classes and second, from the use
of special keywords. Finally, I’ll examine references, a new way to pass arguments to
functions and to return values from them.

Session 1: Function Review and Function Declaration

This session begins with a brief review of what you’ve learned so far (or maybe just
assumed!) about functions and function syntax. It then introduces the function
declaration, which provides information to the compiler about how a function should be
called.

Review

I’ve been using functions all along. So far, you’ve seen them in three different situations.
First, I introduced member functions, which are one of the two fundamental components
of classes, along with instance data.
Second, functions appear independently in the listing, outside of any class specification.
An important function in this category is main(), which is the function to which control
is transferred when a C++ program starts to run. At the end of this lesson, you’ll see that
main() can, in effect, be divided into many functions.
Third, you’ve seen examples of C library functions such as getche() and strlen(),
which are called from main() or from member functions. The programmer does not
need the source code for library files; instead, object (.OBJ) or library (.LIB) files are
linked to user-written object files to create the final .EXE file. Library functions require
that the appropriate header file (e.g., CONIO.H for the getche() function) be included
in the source file.
Now let’s look in more detail at the various aspects of functions.

Function Calls

A function is a section of code. It is typically called (made to execute) from a statement

in another part of the program. The statement that does this is a function call. The
function call causes control to jump to the start of the function. As part of the function
call, arguments also may be passed to the function. After the code in the function has
been executed, control returns to the statement following the function call; at this time,
the call can return a value from the function.
Here’s an example of a function call:

func1();
This call causes the function func1() to be executed. This particular call takes no
arguments and does not return a value. It consists of the name of the function followed by
parentheses. Note that, like any other program statement, it is terminated with a
semicolon.
Functions, along with classes, serve as one of the important organizing principles of C++
programs. They also increase memory efficiency: A function can be executed many times
without the need for inserting duplicates of its code into the listing. Figure 4-1 shows how
three different statements cause the same section of code to be executed.

Figure 4-1 Flow of control to a function

Function Definitions

A function definition consists mostly of the function’s code, that is, the statements that
make up the function and cause it to do something. When I say function, I usually mean
the function definition. The function definition starts with a line called the declarator,
which specifies the function name, its return type, and the types and names of arguments.
Parentheses follow the function name and enclose the arguments, if any. The function’s
statements, which are the function body, are enclosed in braces. Figure 4-2 shows a
typical function definition.

Figure 4-2 Syntax of a function definition

Arguments

Arguments are the mechanism by which information may be passed from a function call
to the function itself. As an example, say that somewhere in your program is a function
called repchar(), whose purpose is to display a given character a certain number
times. The character to be displayed and the number of times to display it are passed as
arguments to the function. If you want to display 10 x’s in a line, for example, you might
call the function this way:

repchar('x', 10); // display 10 x's

Here’s the definition of the function repchar():

// repchar()
// displays n characters with value ch

void repchar(char ch, int n) <--This line is the declarator

{
for(int j=0; j<n; j++)
cout << ch;
}
This function will output the character ch exactly n times in a row. These variables are
assigned whatever values appeared in the function call. If the function is executed by the
function call shown above, it will display 10 x’s. If it is called with the statement

repchar('=', 30);
it will display 30 equal signs.
When data is passed as arguments in this way, the data is copied and the duplicate values
are stored in separate variables in the function. These variables are named in the function
declarator. This is called passing by value. Figure 4-3 shows how this looks.

Figure 4-3 Passing by value

Technically, the term arguments means the values specified in the function call, whereas
the term parameters is given to the variables in the function definition into which the
values are copied. However, argument is often used loosely for both meanings.

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C++ Interactive Course:Functions

To access the contents, click the chapter and section titles.

C++ Interactive Course

(Publisher: Macmillan Computer Publishing)
Author(s): ROBERT LAFORE
Go! ISBN: 1571690638
Publication Date: 08/01/96
Keyword
Brief Full
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-----------
Return Values

A function can return a value to the statement that called it. Here’s a function that
converts pounds (lbs) to kilograms (kg). It takes one argument, a value in pounds, and
returns the corresponding value in kilograms.

// lbstokg()
// converts pounds to kilograms
float lbstokg(float pounds) <--declarator
{
float kilograms = 0.453592 * pounds;
return kilograms;
}
The type of the value returned, in this case float, must precede the function name in
the function declarator. As I’ve mentioned, if a function does not return any value,
void is used as a return type to indicate this.
If a function does return a value, the return statement must be used. The value to be
returned is specified following the keyword return.

return kilograms;
This statement causes control to return immediately to the function call, even if it is not
the last statement in the function definition. It also causes the entire function call
expression to take on the value of the returned variable kilograms.
This function might be called this way:

kgs = lbstokg(lbs);
The function call expression, lbstokg(lbs), itself takes on the value returned and
can be assigned to a variable, in this case, kgs.
If the pounds variable happens to be 165.0 when this call is made, then the value
74.84 (i.e., 165.0 times 0.453592) is assigned to kgs when the function returns. Figure
4-4 shows how this value is copied from the kilograms variable in the function to the
kgs variable in main().

Figure 4-4 Returning by value

Function Declarations

In the example programs you’ve seen so far, all the functions were member functions of
a class, the main() function itself, or library functions. However, there are many other
possibilities. For one thing, main() can call other functions. Or, member functions
may call other functions located inside or outside the class.
When the compiler generates the machine language instructions for a function call, it
needs to know the name of the function, the number and types of arguments in the
function, and the function’s return value. If the function was defined someplace before
the function call, this isn’t a problem. The compiler will have taken note of these
characteristics and stored them away for reference. However, if the function definition
follows the function call, the compiler won’t know how to handle the call and you’ll get
an “undefined function” error message.
To keep this from happening (and assuming it’s not convenient to rearrange things so
the function definition precedes all calls to it), you must declare the function before any
function call. If you do this, the function can be defined anywhere. A function
declaration is a single line that tells the compiler the name of the function, the number
and types of arguments, and the return type. Here’s how you would declare the
lbstokg() function:

float lbstokg(float); // function declaration or prototype

The declaration looks very much like the declarator (the first line of the function
definition). However, it is followed by a semicolon because it is a standalone statement.
Also, you don’t need the names of the arguments, only the types.
Remember that a function declaration does not specify anything about what will go
inside the function body. All it tells is the name of the function, its return type, and the
number and types of its arguments. Function declarations are also called prototypes
because they serve as a sort of nonoperative model of how the function will be called.

Arguments

Although they aren’t necessary, argument names can be used in the declaration.

float lbstokg(float pounds); // function declaration

These names need not be the same as those in the definition; in fact, they are “dummy”
names, and the compiler ignores them (although they may be referred to in error
messages). Sometimes, however, they’re helpful for human readers. For example,
suppose the arguments x and y represent screen coordinates for a function that displays
a dot on the screen.

void draw_dot(int, int); // function declaration

This declaration is fine for the compiler, but the programmer may not know which is the
x coordinate and which is the y. So it’s helpful to write

void draw_dot(int X, int Y); // function declaration

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