Urinary tr

tract
act infection (recurrent):
antimicrobial prescribing

NICE guideline
Published: 31 October 2018
nice.org.uk/guidance/ng112

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and-conditions#notice-of-

rights).
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Your responsibility

The recommendations in this guideline represent the view of NICE, arrived at after careful
consideration of the evidence available. When exercising their judgement, professionals and
practitioners are expected to take this guideline fully into account, alongside the individual needs,
preferences and values of their patients or the people using their service. It is not mandatory to
apply the recommendations, and the guideline does not override the responsibility to make
decisions appropriate to the circumstances of the individual, in consultation with them and their
families and carers or guardian.

Local commissioners and providers of healthcare have a responsibility to enable the guideline to be
applied when individual professionals and people using services wish to use it. They should do so in
the context of local and national priorities for funding and developing services, and in light of their
duties to have due regard to the need to eliminate unlawful discrimination, to advance equality of
opportunity and to reduce health inequalities. Nothing in this guideline should be interpreted in a
way that would be inconsistent with complying with those duties.

Commissioners and providers have a responsibility to promote an environmentally sustainable

health and care system and should assess and reduce the environmental impact of implementing
NICE recommendations wherever possible.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 2 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Contents
Overview .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Who is it for? ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

Recommendations ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

1.1 Preventing recurrent urinary tract infections ........................................................................................................ 5

1.2 Self-care.................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

1.3 Choice of antibiotic prophylaxis .................................................................................................................................. 10

Terms used in the guideline....................................................................................................................................... 14

Recurrent urinary tract infection ........................................................................................................................................ 14

Trigger............................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

Summary of the evidence........................................................................................................................................... 15

Self-care......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Oestrogens ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Antibiotic prophylaxis .............................................................................................................................................................. 22

Choice of antibiotic prophylaxis .......................................................................................................................................... 27

Antibiotic dosing and course length ................................................................................................................................... 30

Other considerations................................................................................................................................................... 32

Medicines adherence ............................................................................................................................................................... 32

Resource implications .............................................................................................................................................................. 32

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 3 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

This guideline should be read in conjunction with NG109, NG111 and CG54.

Ov
Overview
erview

This guideline sets out an antimicrobial prescribing strategy for preventing recurrent urinary tract
infections in children, young people and adults who do not have a catheter. It aims to optimise
antibiotic use and reduce antibiotic resistance.

See a 2-page visual summary of the recommendations, including a table to support prescribing
decisions.

NICE has also produced a guideline on antimicrobial stewardship: systems and processes for
effective antimicrobial medicine use.

Who is it for?

Health professionals

People with recurrent urinary tract infection, their families and carers

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 4 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Recommendations

1.1 Preventing recurrent urinary tract infections

1.1.1 Manage an acute UTI as outlined in the NICE guidelines on urinary tract
infection (lower): antimicrobial prescribing or pyelonephritis (acute):
antimicrobial prescribing.

1.1.2 Be aware that recurrent UTI:

includes lower UTI and upper UTI (acute pyelonephritis)

may be due to relapse (with the same strain of organism) or reinfection (with a
different strain or species of organism)

is particularly common in women.

1.1.3 Give advice to people with recurrent UTI about behavioural and personal
hygiene measures and self-care treatments (see the recommendations on self-
care) that may help to reduce the risk of UTI.

Referr
Referral
al and seeking specialist advice

1.1.4 Refer or seek specialist advice on further investigation and management for:

men aged 16 years and over

people with recurrent upper UTI

people with recurrent lower UTI when the underlying cause is unknown

pregnant women

children and young people under 16 years in line with the NICE guideline on urinary
tract infection in under 16s

people with suspected cancer in line with the NICE guideline on suspected cancer:
recognition and referral.

See the evidence and committee discussion on antibiotic prophylaxis.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 5 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Treatment for women with recurrent UTI who are not pregnant

Oestr
Oestrogen
ogen
[1]

1.1.5 Consider the lowest effective dose of vaginal oestrogen (for example, estriol
cream) for postmenopausal women with recurrent UTI if behavioural and
personal hygiene measures alone are not effective or not appropriate. Discuss
the following with the woman to ensure shared decision-making:

the severity and frequency of previous symptoms

the risk of developing complications from recurrent UTIs

the possible benefits of treatment, including for other related symptoms, such as
vaginal dryness

the possible adverse effects such as breast tenderness and vaginal bleeding (which
should be reported because it may require investigation)

the uncertainty of endometrial safety with long-term or repeated use

preferences of the woman for treatment with vaginal oestrogen.

Review treatment within 12 months, or earlier if agreed with the woman.

1.1.6 Do not offer oral oestrogens (hormone replacement therapy) specifically to

reduce the risk of recurrent UTI in postmenopausal women.

See the evidence and committee discussion on oestrogens.

Antibiotic pr
proph
ophylaxis
ylaxis

1.1.7 For women with recurrent UTI who are not pregnant, consider a trial of
antibiotic prophylaxis only if behavioural and personal hygiene measures, and
vaginal oestrogen (in postmenopausal women) are not effective or not
appropriate.

1.1.8 For women with recurrent UTI who are not pregnant, ensure that any current
UTI has been adequately treated then consider single-dose antibiotic
prophylaxis for use when exposed to an identifiable trigger (see the
recommendations on choice of antibiotic prophylaxis). Take account of:

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 6 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

the severity and frequency of previous symptoms

the risk of developing complications

previous urine culture and susceptibility results

previous antibiotic use, which may have led to resistant bacteria

the woman's preferences for antibiotic use.

1.1.9 When single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis is given, give advice about:

how to use the antibiotic

possible adverse effects of antibiotics, particularly diarrhoea and nausea

returning for review within 6 months

seeking medical help if there are symptoms of an acute UTI.

See the evidence and committee discussion on antibiotic prophylaxis and antibiotic dosing and
course length.

1.1.10 For women with recurrent UTI who are not pregnant and have had no
improvement after single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis or have no identifiable
triggers, ensure that any current UTI has been adequately treated then consider
a trial of daily antibiotic prophylaxis (see the recommendations on choice of
antibiotic prophylaxis). Take account of:

any further investigations (for example, ultrasound) that may be needed to identify an
underlying cause

the severity and frequency of previous symptoms

the risks of long-term antibiotic use

the risk of developing complications

previous urine culture and susceptibility results

previous antibiotic use, which may have led to resistant bacteria

the woman's preferences for antibiotic use.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 7 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

1.1.11 When a trial of daily antibiotic prophylaxis is given, give advice about:

the risk of resistance with long-term antibiotics, which means they may be less
effective in the future

possible adverse effects of long-term antibiotics

returning for review within 6 months

seeking medical help if there are symptoms of an acute UTI.

See the evidence and committee discussion on antibiotic prophylaxis.

Treatment for men and pregnant women with recurrent UTI

1.1.12 For men and pregnant women with recurrent UTI, ensure that any current UTI
has been adequately treated then consider a trial of daily antibiotic prophylaxis
(see the recommendations on choice of antibiotic prophylaxis) if behavioural
and personal hygiene measures alone are not effective or not appropriate, with
specialist advice. Take account of:

any further investigations (for example, ultrasound) that may be needed to identify an
underlying cause

the severity and frequency of previous symptoms

the risks of long-term antibiotic use

the risk of developing complications

previous urine culture and susceptibility results

previous antibiotic use, which may have led to resistant bacteria

the person's preferences for antibiotic use.

1.1.13 When a trial of daily antibiotic prophylaxis is given, give advice as in

recommendation 1.1.11.

See the evidence and committee discussion on antibiotic prophylaxis.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 8 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Treatment for children and yyoung

oung people under 16 years with recurrent UTI

1.1.14 For children and young people under 16 years with recurrent UTI, ensure that
any current UTI has been adequately treated then consider a trial of daily
antibiotic prophylaxis (see the recommendations on choice of antibiotic
prophylaxis) if behavioural and personal hygiene measures alone are not
effective or not appropriate, with specialist advice. Take account of:

underlying causes following specialist assessment and investigations

the uncertain evidence of benefit of antibiotic prophylaxis for reducing the risk of
recurrent UTI and the rate of deterioration of renal scars

the severity and frequency of previous symptoms

the risks of long-term antibiotic use

the risk of developing complications

previous urine culture and susceptibility results

previous antibiotic use, which may have led to resistant bacteria

preferences for antibiotic use.

1.1.15 When a trial of daily antibiotic prophylaxis is given, give advice as in

recommendation 1.1.11.

Reassessment

1.1.16 Review antibiotic prophylaxis for recurrent UTI at least every 6 months, with
the review to include:

assessing the success of prophylaxis

discussion of continuing, stopping or changing prophylaxis (taking into account the

person's preferences for antibiotic use and the risk of antimicrobial resistance)

a reminder about behavioural and personal hygiene measures and self-care treatments
(see the recommendations on self-care).

If antibiotic prophylaxis is stopped, ensure that people have rapid access to treatment

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 9 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

if they have an acute UTI.

1.2 Self-care

1.2.1 Be aware that:

some women with recurrent UTI may wish to try D-mannose[ ] if they are not pregnant
2

some women with recurrent UTI may wish to try cranberry products if they are not
pregnant (evidence of benefit is uncertain and there is no evidence of benefit for older
women)

some children and young people under 16 years with recurrent UTI may wish to try
cranberry products with the advice of a paediatric specialist (evidence of benefit is
uncertain).

1.2.2 Advise people taking cranberry products or D-mannose about the sugar content
of these products, which should be considered as part of the person's daily sugar
intake.

1.2.3 Be aware that evidence is inconclusive about whether probiotics (lactobacillus)

reduce the risk of UTI in people with recurrent UTI.

See the evidence and committee discussion on self-care.

1.3 Choice of antibiotic prophylaxis

1.3.1 When prescribing antibiotic prophylaxis for recurrent UTI, take account of local
antimicrobial resistance data and:

follow the recommendations in table 1 for people aged 16 years and over

follow the recommendations in table 2 for children and young people under 16 years.

Table 1 P
People
eople aged 16 years and o
ovver

Antibiotic proph ylaxis1,2

prophylaxis Dosage3

First choice

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 10 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Trimethoprim4 200 mg single dose when exposed to a trigger or 100 mg at

night

Nitrofurantoin – if eGFR ≥45 ml/ 100 mg single dose when exposed to a trigger or
minute5 50 to 100 mg at night

Second choice

Amoxicillin6 500 mg single dose when exposed to a trigger or 250 mg at

night

Cefalexin 500 mg single dose when exposed to a trigger or 125 mg at

night
1
See BNF for appropriate use and dosing in specific populations, for example, hepatic
impairment, renal impairment, pregnancy and breastfeeding.
2
Choose antibiotics according to recent culture and susceptibility results where possible, with
rotational use based on local policies. Select a different antibiotic for prophylaxis if treating an
acute UTI.
3
Doses given are by mouth using immediate release medicines, unless otherwise stated.
4
Teratogenic risk in first trimester of pregnancy (folate antagonist; BNF, August 2018).
Manufacturers advise contraindicated in pregnancy (trimethoprim summary of product
characteristics).
5
Avoid at term in pregnancy; may produce neonatal haemolysis (BNF, August 2018).
6
Amoxicillin is not licensed for preventing UTIs, so use for this indication would be off-label.
The prescriber should follow relevant professional guidance, taking full responsibility for the
decision. Informed consent should be obtained and documented. See the General Medical
Council's Good practice in prescribing and managing medicines and devices for further
information.

Abbreviations: BNF, British natural formulary; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.

Table 2 Children and yyoung

oung people under 16 years

Antibiotic proph ylaxis1,2

prophylaxis Dosage3

Children under 3 months

Refer to paediatric specialist

Children aged 3 months and o

ovver (specialist advice only)

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 11 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

First choice

Trimethoprim4 3 to 5 months, 2 mg/kg at night (maximum 100 mg per dose) or

12.5 mg at night
6 months to 5 years, 2 mg/kg at night (maximum 100 mg per
dose) or 25 mg at night
6 to 11 years, 2 mg/kg at night (maximum 100 mg per dose) or
50 mg at night
12 to 15 years, 100 mg at night

Nitrofurantoin – if eGFR 3 months to 11 years, 1 mg/kg at night

≥45 ml/minute5 12 to 15 years, 50 to 100 mg at night

Second choice

Cefalexin 3 months to 15 years, 12.5 mg/kg at night (maximum 125 mg

per dose)

Amoxicillin6 3 to 11 months, 62.5 mg at night

1 to 4 years, 125 mg at night
5 to 15 years, 250 mg at night

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 12 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

1
See BNF for children (BNFC) for appropriate use and dosing in specific populations, for
example, hepatic and renal impairment.
2
Choose antibiotics according to recent culture and susceptibility results where possible, with
rotational use based on local policies. Select a different antibiotic for prophylaxis if treating an
acute UTI. If 2 or more antibiotics are appropriate, choose the antibiotic with the lowest
acquisition cost.
3
The age bands apply to children of average size and, in practice, the prescriber will use the
age bands in conjunction with other factors such as the severity of the condition and the child's
size in relation to the average size of children of the same age. Doses given are by mouth using
immediate release medicines, unless otherwise stated.
4
Teratogenic risk in first trimester of pregnancy (folate antagonist; BNFC, August 2018).
Manufacturers advise contraindicated in pregnancy (trimethoprim summary of product
characteristics).
5
Avoid at term in pregnancy; may produce neonatal haemolysis (BNFC, August 2018).
6
Amoxicillin is not licensed for preventing UTIs, so use for this indication would be off-label.
The prescriber should follow relevant professional guidance, taking full responsibility for the
decision. Informed consent should be obtained and documented. See the General Medical
Council's Good practice in prescribing and managing medicines and devices for further
information.

Abbreviations: BNFC, British natural formulary for children; eGFR, estimated glomerular
filtration rate.

See the evidence and committee discussion on choice of antibiotic prophylaxis and antibiotic
dosing and course length.

[1]
Vaginal oestrogen products are not licensed for preventing recurrent UTI, so use for this
indication would be off-label. The prescriber should follow relevant professional guidance, taking
full responsibility for the decision. Informed consent should be obtained and documented. See the
General Medical Council's Good practice in prescribing and managing medicines and devices for
further information.

[2]
The evidence was based on a study where D-mannose was taken as 200 ml of 1% solution once
daily in the evening. D-mannose is a sugar that is available to buy as powder or tablets; it is not a
medicine.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 13 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Terms used in the guideline

Recurrent urinary tract infection

Recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) in adults is defined as repeated UTI with a frequency of 2 or
more UTIs in the last 6 months or 3 or more UTIs in the last 12 months (European Association of
Urology [EAU] guidelines on urological infections [2017]).

Recurrent UTI is diagnosed in children and young people under 16 years if they have:

2 or more episodes of UTI with acute pyelonephritis/upper UTI or

1 episode of UTI with acute pyelonephritis plus 1 or more episode of UTI with cystitis/lower
UTI or

3 or more episodes of UTI with cystitis/lower UTI.

See the NICE guideline on urinary tract infection in under 16s.

Trigger

Some people (mainly women) may be able to identify 1 or more triggers (for example, sexual
intercourse) that often brings on a UTI. These triggers may vary for different people.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 14 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Summary of the e
evidence
vidence

Self-care

Probiotics (lactobacillus)

Lactobacillus did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent infection in premenopausal
women with a history of previous urinary tract infection (UTI; 1 or more episode in the past
12 months) compared with placebo (low quality evidence). This was based on a systematic
review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs; Grin et al. 2013). When the
analysis was restricted to 2 RCTs with 'effective strains' of lactobacillus, there was a
statistically significant difference (16.1% versus 32.3%: number needed to treat [NNT] 7
[range 4 to 64]; moderate quality evidence).

In most studies lactobacillus was used following a UTI treated with antibiotics until the
infection resolved. Lactobacillus pessaries were used in 4 RCTs and a drink preparation was
used in 1 RCT.

Evidence for lactobacillus compared with antibiotic prophylaxis (co-trimoxazole) in

postmenopausal women with 1 or more previous UTI found, overall, no significant differences
between treatment options (low quality evidence). This was based on 1 RCT included in a
systematic review (Schwenger et al. 2015).

No safety data were reported for lactobacillus compared with placebo. Data for lactobacillus
compared with antibiotic were reported narratively, and the reason for not pooling data was
unclear. One systematic review reported no significant difference in the number of people
experiencing at least 1 adverse event with lactobacillus compared with antibiotics (Schwenger
et al. 2015; low quality evidence).

No systematic reviews or RCTs were identified that included data on lactobacillus in men or
children.

Cr
Cranberry
anberry products

A range of cranberry products are available; a liquid preparation (juice or syrup), tablets or
capsules were used in the included studies.

Evidence for these products was identified in different populations (non-pregnant women,
pregnant women, elderly men and women, and children), with some conflicting results.

In women (unclear whether pregnant women were included) with a previous history of UTI,

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 15 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

cranberry products used for up to 12 months did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent
infection (19.9% versus 22.8%) compared with placebo or no treatment (very low quality
evidence). This was based on a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Jepson et
al. 2012).

However, a more recent systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Fu et al. 2017) was
identified following stakeholder consultation, which included additional data to Jepson et al.
(2012). Cranberry products used for 6 to 12 months did significantly reduce the incidence of
UTI in non-pregnant women with a previous history of UTI compared with placebo or no
treatment (20.7% versus 26.5%; NNT 17 [range 9 to 68]; very low quality evidence). This
significant reduction was not seen when UTIs were confirmed by urine culture (19.8% versus
24.0%; very low quality evidence).

Subgroup analysis in Fu et al. (2017) found that cranberry juice used for 6 to 12 months did not
reduce the incidence of UTI diagnosed by symptom presence or culture confirmation
compared with placebo or no treatment (22.0% versus 26.6%; very low quality evidence);
whereas cranberry tablets taken for 6 to 12 months did show a significant reduction in the
incidence of UTI (13.5% versus 28.0%; NNT 7 [range 5 to 20]; low quality evidence). However,
the analysis for cranberry tablets was based on much smaller numbers of participants.

In elderly adults (men and women) with a previous history of UTI, cranberry products used for
up to 12 months did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent infection (9.7% versus 12.6%;
moderate quality evidence) compared with placebo or no treatment (Jepson et al. 2012).

In pregnant women with a previous history of UTI, cranberry products did not show a
significant benefit in reducing recurrent UTI (56.6% versus 55.6%; moderate quality evidence)
when compared with placebo or no treatment (Jepson et al. 2012).

In children with a previous history of 1 or more UTIs or 'repeated symptomatic UTI', cranberry
products used for up to 12 months did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent infection
compared with placebo or no treatment (16.3% versus 29.5%; low quality evidence; Jepson et
al. 2012).

However, a more recent systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Roshdibonab et al.
2017) was identified following stakeholder consultation, which included additional data to
Jepson et al. (2012). Cranberry products used for up to 12 months did significantly reduce the
incidence of UTI in children with recurrent UTI compared with placebo (odds ratio 0.31, 95%
confidence interval 0.21 to 0.46; no absolute figures stated; very low quality evidence).

When cranberry products were compared with antibiotics (trimethoprim or co-trimoxazole),

there was no significant difference between groups in reducing the risk of recurrent infection

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 16 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

in women (51.1% versus 40.4%; moderate quality evidence; Jepson et al. 2012). There was also
no significant difference between cranberry products and antibiotics (trimethoprim) in
reducing the risk of recurrent infection in children (10.7% versus 15.4%; low quality evidence;
Jepson et al. 2012).

Evidence for cranberry products reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance compared with
antibiotics was conflicting. Cranberry products reduced the risk in premenopausal women
compared with antibiotic prophylaxis (co-trimoxazole) during a 12-month treatment period
(Beerepoot et al. 2011; moderate quality evidence). However, the risk was not reduced in
children during a 12-month treatment period (including children with vesicoureteral reflux
[VUR]; Uberos et al. 2012; moderate quality evidence).

There were no significant differences in gastrointestinal adverse events in adults treated with
cranberry products compared with no treatment or antibiotics (Jepson et al. 2012; low quality
evidence). Two further studies showed higher numbers of adverse events in adults given
placebo compared with cranberry products and 1 further study showed similar numbers of
adverse events between groups.

No data were identified for adverse effects of cranberry products in children.

D-mannose

D-mannose (200 ml of 1% solution once daily in the evening) used for up to 6 months
significantly reduced the risk of recurrent infection in non-pregnant women compared with no
treatment (14.6% versus 60.8%, NNT 3 [range 2 to 3]; high quality evidence). This was based
on 1 RCT in non-pregnant women presenting with a current UTI and a history of recurrent UTI
(Kranjcec et al. 2014). All women were treated with ciprofloxacin 500 mg twice a day for
7 days for their current infection.

There was no significant reduction in recurrent infection when D-mannose was compared with
antibiotic prophylaxis (nitrofurantoin 50 mg a day) over the 6-month study period (Kranjcec et
al. 2014; low quality evidence).

There were significantly fewer adverse events (such as diarrhoea, nausea and vaginal burning)
with D-mannose compared with antibiotics in non-pregnant women (7.8% versus 28.2%,
number needed to harm [NNH] 5 [range 4 to 10]; Kranjcec et al. 2014; high quality evidence).

No systematic reviews or RCTs were identified that included data on D-mannose in pregnant
women, men or children.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 17 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Committee discussion on self-care

Based on their experience, and the need to minimise inappropriate use of antibiotics, the
committee agreed that people should be given advice about behavioural and personal
hygiene measures to reduce the risk of UTI, such as:

drinking enough fluids to avoid dehydration

not delaying habitual and post-coital urination

wiping from front to back after defaecation

not douching or wearing occlusive underwear.

Pr
Probiotics
obiotics (lactobacillus)

The committee discussed the evidence for the probiotic lactobacillus. While there was
some evidence to support the use of 'effective strains', there was no information on which
lactobacillus products were included in this analysis. They also noted the high drop-out rate
in the study.

Based on evidence, the committee agreed that people should be told that there is
inconclusive evidence to recommend the use of lactobacillus to prevent recurrent UTIs.

Cr
Cranberry
anberry pr
products
oducts

The committee recognised that cranberry products are used widely and discussed the very
low quality evidence showing some benefit for reducing the risk of UTIs, specifically in non-
pregnant women, and children and young people. They were also aware that there was no
evidence to suggest benefit in older women. The committee also noted the conflicting
evidence for cranberry products in reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance.

Taking account of the limitations of the evidence, and the need to minimise antimicrobial
resistance, the committee agreed that some women who are not pregnant and some
children and young people under 16 may wish to try cranberry products as a self-care
treatment. However, due to safety concerns with delayed treatment, particularly in
children and young people, the committee agreed that cranberry products should only be
considered in this population following advice from a paediatric specialist.

The committee recognised that there was some evidence to suggest that cranberry juice
was not significantly better than placebo in non-pregnant women, while cranberry capsules

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 18 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

showed a significant benefit. However, due to significant limitations in the evidence the
committee was not able to recommend a specific cranberry product.

The committee discussed the sugar content of cranberry products, and based on their
experience, agreed that people should be advised to take account of their daily sugar intake
if using cranberry products.

D-mannose

The committee was aware of the mechanism of action of D-mannose, which is also in
cranberry products.

The committee noted evidence suggesting that D-mannose was effective in reducing the
risk of recurrent UTI in non-pregnant women, and noted the low NNT of 3 (range 2 to 3)
over 6 months, compared with no treatment. However, this was based on 1 small RCT. The
committee agreed to make a recommendation that some women who are not pregnant may
wish to try D-mannose, as a self-care treatment, noting the sugar content of this product
which should be considered.

Oestrogens

Oral oestrogens (with or without progestogens) taken for up to 4 years did not significantly
reduce the risk of recurrent infection in postmenopausal women with recurrent UTI compared
with placebo (moderate quality evidence). This was based on a systematic review and meta-
analysis of RCTs (Perrotta et al. 2008). Recurrent UTI was defined as 3 or more episodes in the
past 12 months or 2 or more episodes in the past 6 months.

Vaginal oestrogen cream (estriol cream 0.5 mg applied topically at night for 2 weeks then twice
weekly) for 8 months significantly reduced the risk of recurrent infection in postmenopausal
women compared with placebo (16.0% versus 62.8%, NNT 3 [range 2 to 4]; high quality
evidence). This was based on 1 RCT in the Perrotta et al. (2008) systematic review.

Vaginal oestrogen cream was also significantly more effective than oral antibiotics (ofloxacin
600 mg a day) in reducing the risk of recurrent infection over a 3-month study period (7.4%
versus 80.0%, NNT 2 [range 2 to 2]; low quality evidence). However, no difference was seen
2 months after treatment was stopped (very low quality evidence). This was based on 1 RCT
included in the Perrotta et al. (2008) systematic review.

Vaginal oestrogen administered via a vaginal ring in 12-week cycles, for a total of 36 weeks

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 19 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

significantly reduced the risk of recurrent infection in postmenopausal women compared with
placebo (50.9% versus 80.0%, NNT 4 [range 3 to 9]; Perrotta et al. 2008, moderate quality
evidence).

However, vaginal oestrogen administered via a pessary (used daily for 2 weeks then once
every 2 weeks) significantly increased the risk of recurrent infection in postmenopausal
women compared with an oral antibiotic (nitrofurantoin 100 mg a day) over a 9-month study
period (67.4% versus 51.8%; Perrotta et al. 2008; low quality evidence).

Oral and vaginal oestrogens increased adverse events (such as breast tenderness and vaginal
bleeding) in postmenopausal women compared with placebo, no treatment or oral antibiotics.
The NNH was 5 [range 3 to 14] for oral oestrogens (high quality evidence) and 5 [range 3 to 11]
for vaginal oestrogens (Perrotta et al. 2008; low to high quality evidence).

Oestrogens (hormone replacement therapy [HRT]) increase the risk of venous

thromboembolism (when taken orally), stroke, endometrial cancer (reduced by a progestogen),
breast cancer and ovarian cancer; there is an increased risk of coronary heart disease in
women who start combined HRT more than 10 years after menopause (Medicines and
Healthcare products Regulatory Agency [MHRA] Drug Safety Update, September 2007;
British National Formulary [BNF], August 2018). Before prescribing HRT, health professionals
should consider carefully the potential benefits and risks for every woman. See the NICE
guideline on menopause for more information on using vaginal oestrogen for urogenital
atrophy.

Vaginal oestrogens should be used in the smallest effective amount, for the shortest duration
to minimise systemic effects. The endometrial safety of long-term or repeated use of topical
vaginal oestrogens is uncertain; treatment should be reviewed at least annually, with special
consideration given to any symptoms of endometrial hyperplasia or carcinoma (MHRA Drug
Safety Update, September 2007; BNF, August 2018). The NICE guideline on menopause
recommends that women using vaginal oestrogen should report unscheduled vaginal bleeding
to their GP.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 20 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Committee discussion on oestrogens

Based on evidence of a lack of effectiveness and taking account of MHRA safety advice, the
committee agreed to not recommend oral oestrogens (HRT) specifically to prevent
recurrent UTI in postmenopausal women.

Based on evidence, the committee agreed that vaginal oestrogens were effective in
reducing the risk of recurrent UTI in postmenopausal women, although this was based on
small numbers of women and appears to diminish when the treatment is stopped. They
noted the low NNTs for recurrent infection compared with placebo (NNT 3 [range 2 to 4]
for topical cream; NNT 4 [range 3 to 9] for vaginal ring), and also when a topical cream was
compared with antibiotics (NNT 2 [range 2 to 2]). However, oestrogen administered via a
pessary was less effective than antibiotics.

Based on evidence and their experience, the committee recognised the adverse effects of
vaginal oestrogens (such as breast tenderness and vaginal bleeding), which may require
additional investigations. They noted the rate of adverse events appeared high in the
studies (NNH 5 [range 3 to 11]) for vaginal oestrogens.

The committee was aware of MHRA safety advice on the use of HRT; they agreed this was
important for women and prescribers to discuss the possible harms of vaginal oestrogens,
but that it should not prevent the safe use of an effective treatment for recurrent UTI.

Vaginal oestrogens are not licensed for preventing recurrent UTI, although oestrogen
deficiency is a known risk factor. The committee noted that there do not appear to be any
effective, licensed, non-antimicrobial alternatives for preventing recurrent UTI in
postmenopausal women.

Based on evidence, their experience and data on antimicrobial resistance, the committee
agreed that vaginal oestrogens could be considered for postmenopausal women with
recurrent UTI, with review within 12 months, or earlier if agreed with the woman. The
committee recognised that this was a preference-sensitive decision and the benefits and
harms of vaginal oestrogens need to be discussed with the woman, taking account of other
symptoms the woman may want to address, such as vaginal dryness. The committee agreed
that, before vaginal oestrogen is given, women should be asked about their preferences and
given advice about the possible risks and benefits, returning for review and reporting
unscheduled vaginal bleeding.

The committee could not make any firm conclusions from the evidence or their experience
about different vaginal oestrogen products. They agreed that this will need to be

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 21 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

considered with the woman on an individual basis.

Antibiotic prophylaxis

The main complication of lower UTIs, including recurrent infections, is ascending infection
leading to pyelonephritis. Most episodes of pyelonephritis are uncomplicated and result in no
residual kidney damage. However, complications can include impaired renal function or renal
failure, septicaemia and preterm labour in pregnancy (NICE clinical knowledge summary on
pyelonephritis).

In pregnancy, asymptomatic bacteriuria can lead to pyelonephritis; and symptomatic UTI has
been associated with developmental delay or cerebral palsy in the infant, and fetal death (NICE
clinical knowledge summary on UTI [lower] – women).

In men with UTIs, prostate involvement is common, which may lead to complications such as
prostatic abscess or chronic bacterial prostatitis, and urinary stones are a possibility (NICE
clinical knowledge summary on UTI [lower] – men).

In children, UTIs can lead to renal scarring, but more often this is preceded by acute
pyelonephritis rather than cystitis. Renal scarring is more common in children with
vesicoureteral reflux, where recurrent UTIs are more likely (NICE clinical knowledge summary
on UTI – children).

Efficacy of antibiotic proph

prophylaxis
ylaxis

Antibiotic prophylaxis for 6 to 12 months significantly reduced the risk of recurrent infection
(using microbiological criteria) in non-pregnant women with recurrent UTI (2 or more
'uncomplicated' episodes in the past 12 months) compared with placebo (12.3% versus 65.5%,
NNT 2 [range 2 to 3]; high quality evidence). This was based on a systematic review and meta-
analysis (Albert et al. 2004). However, there was no significant difference when recurrent
infections were reported after the period of prophylaxis (very low quality evidence).

Antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin for 5 weeks to 24 months significantly reduced the
risk of recurrent infection in a mixed population of adults (including non-pregnant women and
men) and children (mainly females) with recurrent UTI when compared with placebo or no
treatment (22.5% versus 59.0%, NNT 3 [range 3 to 4]; low quality evidence). This was based on
a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Muller et al. 2017).

Antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin 50 mg three times a day for the duration of

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 22 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

pregnancy significantly reduced the risk of recurrent asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnant

women who were admitted to hospital with acute pyelonephritis (32.6% versus 59.3%, NNT 4
[range 3 to 13]) compared with no treatment (monitoring alone; moderate quality evidence).
This was based on 1 RCT (n=102) included in a systematic review (Schneeberger et al. 2015).
However, antibiotic prophylaxis did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent UTI (including
pyelonephritis) in pregnant women, or birth outcomes such as pre-term birth, low birthweight
and miscarriage (Schneeberger et al. 2015; very low to low quality evidence).

Antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin or co-trimoxazole for at least 6 months (duration

not reported in all studies) did not significantly reduce the risk of recurrent infection in
children under 18 with recurrent UTI compared with placebo or no treatment (very low quality
evidence). This was based on a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Williams and
Craig 2011). Not all studies had clearly defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, and some had a
small proportion of children with vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). However, the result did not
change when the analysis was restricted to studies that included children without VUR (very
low quality evidence).

Antibiotic prophylaxis for at least 2 months (co-trimoxazole in most studies) did not
significantly reduce the rate of deteriorated renal scars in children under 18 years (with or
without VUR) compared with placebo or no treatment (very low quality evidence). This was
based on a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs (Dai et al. 2010).

There was no significant difference in the rate of antimicrobial resistance antibiotic

prophylaxis compared with placebo in children under 18 years (Williams and Craig 2011, very
low quality evidence).

Safety of antibiotic proph

prophylaxis
ylaxis

Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea occurs in 2 to 25% of people taking antibiotics, depending on

the antibiotic used (NICE clinical knowledge summary on diarrhoea – antibiotic associated).

About 10% of the general population claim to have a penicillin allergy; this has often been
because of a skin rash that occurred during a course of penicillin in childhood. Fewer than 10%
of people who think they are allergic to penicillin are truly allergic. See the NICE guideline on
drug allergy for more information.

Nitrofurantoin should be used with caution in those with renal impairment (MHRA Drug
Safety Update, September 2014). It should be avoided at term in pregnancy because it may
produce neonatal haemolysis. Adults (especially older adults) and children on long-term
therapy should be monitored for liver function and pulmonary symptoms (BNF, August 2018).

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 23 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Trimethoprim has a teratogenic risk in the first trimester of pregnancy (folate antagonist; BNF,
August 2018). Manufacturers advise that trimethoprim is contraindicated in pregnancy
(trimethoprim summary of product characteristics).

In non-pregnant women, there was no significant difference in serious adverse effects with
antibiotic prophylaxis compared with placebo, but there was a significant increase in the
number of 'other adverse effects' (low quality evidence). This was based on a systematic
review and meta-analysis of RCTs (NNH 13 [range 7 to 70]; Albert et al. 2004).

In children, there was no significant difference in the incidence of adverse effects reported or
the number of withdrawals due to adverse events with antibiotic prophylaxis compared with
placebo or no treatment (Williams and Craig 2011; very low quality evidence).

No systematic reviews or RCTs were identified that assessed the adverse effects of antibiotic
prophylaxis in pregnant women.

See the summaries of product characteristics for information on contraindications, cautions

and adverse effects of individual medicines.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 24 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Committee discussion on antibiotic proph

prophylaxis
ylaxis
People aged 16 years and ov
over
er with rrecurr
ecurrent
ent UTI

Based on evidence and their experience, the committee agreed that antibiotic prophylaxis
was effective in reducing the risk of recurrent UTI in non-pregnant women, although this
benefit was not seen after the treatment is stopped. They noted the low NNTs for recurrent
infection compared with placebo (NNT 2 [range 2 to 3]). However, they also recognised the
increased risk of harms with antibiotic prophylaxis compared with placebo.

Based on evidence, the committee agreed that antibiotic prophylaxis was also effective in a
mixed population of people with recurrent UTI, including pre- and postmenopausal women,
men and children (NNT 3 [3 to 4]). However, interpretation of the evidence was more
difficult due to variations in the populations studied and antibiotic choice, dosage and
duration.

The committee discussed the evidence specifically in pregnant women, which found that
antibiotic prophylaxis was effective in reducing the risk of recurrent asymptomatic
bacteriuria in pregnant women (NNT 4 [range 3 to 13]). However, they recognised that the
study had a number of limitations. The study was small and not powered to show any
benefit in preterm births. The population was pregnant women who were admitted to
hospital with acute pyelonephritis. The committee noted that nitrofurantoin is not an
appropriate choice of antibiotic to show benefit in this population. They were also aware
that UTI has been associated with developmental delay or cerebral palsy in the infant, and
fetal death.

Taking account of the benefits and harms of antibiotic prophylaxis and the need to minimise
antimicrobial resistance, the committee agreed that antibiotic prophylaxis could be
considered in people aged 16 years and over with recurrent UTI, but only after other
management options had been unsuccessful (behavioural and personal hygiene measures,
managing any triggers and using non-antimicrobial treatments), if appropriate.

The committee recognised the importance of reviewing antibiotic prophylaxis, and

considered that up to every 6 months was reasonable based on possible adverse effects of
antibiotics, the risk of resistance with long-term antibiotics, the possible need for any
further investigations if recurrence of UTIs continues, and to allow time to assess treatment
success. People should also know to seek medical help if they experience symptoms of an
acute infection despite taking prophylaxis.

The committee discussed the importance of the review and were aware of other conditions

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 25 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

where a specific date is included on the prescription to prompt review within 6 months.

To reduce the risk of antimicrobial resistance, the committee agreed that at each review
women should be reminded about self-care, and consideration should be given to either
stopping, continuing or changing antibiotic prophylaxis (for example, from single-dose to
daily prophylaxis). However the committee was not able to make specific recommendations
about when to stop, continue or change antibiotic prophylaxis as it will depend on the
circumstances of an individual person.

Based on evidence that suggests antibiotic prophylaxis does not continue to be effective
after stopping treatment, the committee agreed that if antibiotic prophylaxis was stopped,
women should be able to access treatment rapidly if they have symptoms of an acute UTI.

The committee recognised the limitations of the evidence on antibiotic prophylaxis in

pregnant women and men, and the lack of evidence to support the use of non-antimicrobial
treatments. Therefore, the committee agreed that it was appropriate to refer all pregnant
women to an obstetrician if recurrent UTI is diagnosed during pregnancy. They also agreed
that most men with recurrent UTI should be referred for further specialist urology
investigation and management, taking an individualised approach that takes account of
multimorbidity. The committee agreed that any decision to prescribe antibiotic prophylaxis
in pregnant women or men should be under specialist advice.

The committee also recognised the higher risks associated with recurrent upper UTIs
(pyelonephritis), and agreed that it was appropriate to refer these people for further
specialist investigation and management.

The committee agreed that further consideration should be made for women with
recurrent lower UTI if the underlying cause of recurrence was unknown or required further
investigation. However, due to resource implications and the lower risk of complications for
this population, the committee agreed that specialist advice should be sought, rather than
specialist referral.

The committee was aware of the recommendation in the NICE guideline on suspected
cancer: recognition and referral, which states that a non-urgent referral for bladder cancer
should be considered for people over 60 with recurrent unexplained UTI.

The committee also recognised the equality considerations for managing recurrent UTI in
transgender people, due to anatomical differences between women and men.

Childr
Children
en and yyoung
oung people under 16 years with rrecurr
ecurrent
ent UTI

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 26 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

The committee was aware that the NICE guideline on urinary tract infection in under 16s
makes recommendations on referring children and young people with recurrent UTI to a
paediatric specialist for assessment and investigations.

Based on evidence, the committee noted that antibiotic prophylaxis does not appear to be
effective in reducing the risk of recurrent UTI in children. However, there was considerable
uncertainty in the evidence (all very low quality).

Based on their experience, the committee agreed that most cases of recurrent UTI in
children and young people are due to a functional or structural abnormality of the urinary
tract.

Taking account of the uncertainty in the evidence and the need to minimise antimicrobial
resistance from long-term antibiotic use, the committee agreed that antibiotic prophylaxis
could be considered in children and young people under 16 years, but only under specialist
advice when other management options have been unsuccessful. This would be an
individualised decision following an assessment of underlying causes, taking into account
the severity and frequency of previous symptoms and the risk of developing complications.

The committee recognised the importance of reviewing antibiotic prophylaxis, and

considered that every 6 months was reasonable. They agreed that the same principles for
the review in adults apply to children and young people.

Choice of antibiotic prophylaxis

Antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin (various doses: 100 mg a day, 75 mg a day, 50 mg a

day or 50 mg twice a day) for at least 3 months significantly reduced the risk of recurrent
infection in a mixed population of adults (including non-pregnant women and men) and
children (mainly females) compared with methenamine hippurate (NNT 7 [range 4 to 102]; low
quality evidence). However, there was no significant difference between nitrofurantoin and
either trimethoprim, beta-lactams or quinolones (very low to low quality evidence). This was
based on a systematic review and meta-analyses of RCTs (Muller et al. 2017).

Antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin (1–1.5 mg/kg daily) for 6 months significantly
reduced the risk of having a positive urine culture at the end of the study period in children
with recurrent UTI compared with trimethoprim (2–3 mg/kg daily; NNT 3 [range 2 to 8]) and
reduced the risk of having a recurrent symptomatic UTI compared with co-trimoxazole (2 mg/
kg daily; NNT 6 [range 3 to 27]; very low to moderate quality evidence). However, there was no
difference with nitrofurantoin compared with cefixime (2 mg/kg daily; 6 to 12 months;

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 27 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

moderate quality evidence). This was based on a systematic review of single RCTs (Williams
and Craig 2011).

Overall, antibiotic prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin (for at least 3 months) increased the risk of
mild (not defined) adverse effects compared with other antibiotics in a mixed population of
adults and children (30.6% versus 11.7%; NNH 5 [range 4 to 6]; Muller et al. 2017; low quality
evidence). When specific antibiotics were compared, there were significantly more mild
adverse effects with nitrofurantoin compared with beta-lactams (NNH 7 [range 4 to 28]),
trimethoprim (NNH 3 [range 2 to 4]) and methenamine (NNH 3 [range 2 to 6]), but no
difference between nitrofurantoin and quinolones or co-trimoxazole (Muller et al. 2017; very
low to moderate quality evidence).

In children, there were significantly fewer adverse events with nitrofurantoin compared with
trimethoprim (NNH 2 [range 1 to 8]), but significantly more adverse events with nitrofurantoin
compared with cefixime (NNH 3 [range 2 to 6]; moderate quality evidence). This was based on
a systematic review of single RCTs (Williams and Craig 2011).

No systematic reviews or RCTs were identified that included data on the choice of antibiotic in
pregnant women.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 28 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Committee discussion on choice of antibiotic proph

prophylaxis
ylaxis

Based on evidence of no major differences in clinical effectiveness between classes of

antibiotics, the committee agreed that the choice of antibiotic prophylaxis should largely be
driven by minimising the risk of resistance. Resistant bacteria are a particular concern in
UTIs and, where possible, any previous urine culture and susceptibility results, and
antibiotic prescribing for UTI, should be checked and antibiotics chosen accordingly.

Based on their experience and resistance data, the committee agreed that a different
antibiotic should be selected for antibiotic prophylaxis if an acute UTI is being treated. They
also recognised that rotational use of antibiotics may be needed, based on local policies.

The committee discussed that, if antibiotic prophylaxis is needed to prevent an infection

that is not life threatening, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic should generally be first choice.
Indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum antibiotics creates a selective advantage for bacteria
resistant even to these 'last-line' broad-spectrum agents, and also kills normal commensal
flora leaving people susceptible to antibiotic-resistant harmful bacteria such as Clostridium
difficile. Broad-spectrum antibiotics need to be reserved for second-choice treatment of
non-life-threatening infections when narrow-spectrum antibiotics are ineffective.

Based on evidence, their experience and resistance data, the committee agreed to
recommend trimethoprim or nitrofur
nitrofurantoin
antoin (based on culture and susceptibility results) as
first choice antibiotics for prophylaxis. These antibiotics have less effect on the normal
intestinal microflora in gastrointestinal tract, which is particularly important when
continuous antibiotic prophylaxis is used.

Trimethoprim should only be prescribed if a lower risk of resistance is likely, for

example, if trimethoprim has not been used in the past 3 months, if previous urine
culture results suggest trimethoprim susceptibility (but this was not used as
treatment) and in younger women in areas where local epidemiology data suggest
resistance is low. There is a higher risk of trimethoprim resistance with recent use
and in older people in residential facilities. Trimethoprim is contraindicated in
pregnant women.

Nitrofurantoin is not recommended for people with an estimated glomerular

filtration rate (eGFR) <45 ml/minute. With long-term use, there is a lower risk of
resistance of nitrofurantoin compared with trimethoprim, but this needs to be
balanced against the increased harms, such as pulmonary fibrosis.

The committee was aware that nitrofurantoin suspension is currently substantially

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 29 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

more expensive than trimethoprim suspension and, if both antibiotics are

appropriate, the one with the lowest acquisition cost should be chosen.

Based on evidence, their experience and resistance data, the committee agreed to
recommend cefale
cefalexin
xin or amo
amoxicillin
xicillin (based on culture and susceptibility results) as second-
choice antibiotics for prophylaxis.

Amoxicillin and cefalexin are broad spectrum antibiotics that have a similar spectrum
of activity and can be used if bacteria are susceptible.

Based on evidence that methenamine hippurate was less effective than antibiotic
prophylaxis with nitrofurantoin, the committee was not able to make a recommendation on
its use. They were also aware that methenamine hippurate is a medicine that is considered
less suitable for prescribing (BNF, August 2018).

Antibiotic dosing and course length

Single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis (used when exposed to conditions that may trigger a UTI)
was not significantly different to daily antibiotic prophylaxis in the number of women with at
least 1 recurrent infection over a 12-month study period in postmenopausal women with
recurrent UTI (3 or more episodes in the past 12 months; 80.6% versus 70.3%; moderate
quality evidence). This was based on 1 RCT (Zhong et al. 2011).

The conditions for using the single-dose antibiotic were determined by the woman's
experience, such as walking for a long time or sexual intercourse. The choice of antibiotic
(nitrofurantoin, amoxicillin, co-trimoxazole, quinolones or cephalosporins) varied and was
determined on a case by case basis, depending on the woman's previous antibiotic use and
following an antibiotic susceptibility test.

In 1 RCT (reported in a systematic review by Albert et al. 2004) single-dose ciprofloxacin

(250 mg) taken immediately after sexual intercourse was as effective as a daily dose in non-
pregnant women in reducing the risk of recurrent UTI during the period of prophylaxis (Albert
et al. 2004; low quality evidence).

There were significantly fewer adverse events with single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis
compared with daily antibiotic prophylaxis (NNH 3 [range 2 to 9]; Zhong et al. 2011; moderate
quality evidence).

There was no significant difference in the number of non-serious adverse effects between

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 30 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

those who took a single dose of ciprofloxacin (250 mg) immediately after sexual intercourse, or
daily at night (Albert et al. 2004; low quality evidence).

Committee discussions on antibiotic dosing and course length

Based on evidence, the committee was aware that a range of doses and course lengths were
used for daily antibiotic prophylaxis. The committee agreed that usual BNF doses for daily
prophylaxis should be used. The duration of treatment needs to be determined on an
individual basis with a review of treatment success within 6 months, to include discussion of
a trial of stopping antibiotic prophylaxis as appropriate.

The committee discussed the evidence for using single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis
(including post-coital single-dose antibiotics) in non-pregnant women. The committee
agreed that the single dose used when exposed to an identifiable trigger would be the same
as a single treatment dose for a UTI.

Based on evidence, their experience and antimicrobial resistance data, the committee
agreed that single-dose prophylaxis was as effective as continuous prophylaxis, with fewer
adverse effects in non-pregnant women with an identifiable trigger, and should be
considered as the first option for antibiotic prophylaxis in this group of women. Prophylaxis
needs to be tailored to an individual woman's personal triggers, and advice given about how
to use the antibiotic. Antibiotics for single-dose prophylaxis would be kept at home to avoid
unnecessary GP and pharmacy visits.

No evidence from systematic reviews and RCTs was identified for using a course of
antibiotics to keep at home for treating an acute UTI in people with recurrent UTIs (also
known as stand-by antibiotics). The use of stand-by antibiotics could potentially lead to
inappropriate antibiotic overuse in the absence of medical supervision, which would not
reflect the principles of antimicrobial stewardship. Therefore, while the committee
recognised that they may have a role in some specialist cases, they were not able to make a
recommendation on their use.

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 31 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32
Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing (NG112)

Other consider
considerations
ations

Medicines adherence

Medicines adherence may be a problem for some people with medicines that require regular dosing
or longer treatment duration (for example, continuous antibiotic prophylaxis). See the NICE
guideline on medicines adherence.

Resource implications

Recommended antibiotics are available as generic formulations, see Drug Tariff for costs.

Nitrofurantoin 25 mg/5 ml oral suspension is more expensive than other oral suspensions, such as
trimethoprim 50 mg/5 ml. The cost of a 300-ml bottle of nitrofurantoin is £446.95 compared with
£4.87 for a 100-ml bottle of trimethoprim (Drug Tariff, September 2018).

ISBN: 978-1-4731-3126-2

Accreditation

© NICE 2018. All rights reserved. Subject to Notice of rights (https://www.nice.org.uk/terms-and- Page 32 of
conditions#notice-of-rights). 32