姝 Academy of Management Review

2012, Vol. 37, No. 4, 524–546.

[Link]

UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL COMPASSION

IN ORGANIZATIONS: THE ROLE OF
APPRAISALS AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL FLEXIBILITY
PAUL W. B. ATKINS
Australian National University

SHARON K. PARKER
The University of Western Australia

To enhance compassion in organizations, the processes by which compassion can be

enhanced in individuals must be understood. We develop an expanded model of the
components of compassionate responding that includes noticing, appraising, feeling,
and acting. Using this model, we propose that psychological flexibility (mindfulness
combined with values-directed action) contributes to enhancing the perceptual, cog-
nitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of compassion. Specifically, mindfulness
processes support the capacity to be compassionate while values processes motivate
effort to engage in compassionate action. Training in psychological flexibility should
be considered as one element of programs designed to increase organizational
compassion.

I saw that my colleague was upset but I just compassionate support during critical incidents
moved away. . . . I knew that he had been made not only increased commitment but was inter-
redundant and I thought he might blame me
somehow and that he might get really upset. I’m preted as indicating organizational support and
just no good at handling it when people get really thus led to further positive organizational out-
upset. I try and avoid it at all costs (manager’s comes. Caring social networks have also been
explanation for not helping a colleague). associated with improved immunity, lower
Individuals are not always able to respond blood pressure, lower mortality (Boyatzis, Smith,
compassionately. The manager quoted above is & Blaize, 2006), and greater creativity (Zabelina
unable to demonstrate compassion to a work & Robinson, 2010).
colleague and avoids strong emotions “at all One approach to studying compassion in or-
costs.” He appears overwhelmed and is unable ganizations is to focus on how organizational
to let go of his self-focus in order to focus on his culture and practices build compassion (e.g.,
colleague. Sadly, such instances of a lack of Kanov et al., 2004). This approach is critically
compassion can be common in organizations. important. But it is also vital to understand the
For example, Frost (2003) cataloged multiple processes of compassion within individuals.
“toxins” that create pain and suffering in the Otherwise, organizations might waste resources
workplace. putting in place practices when individual staff
Yet compassion in organizations is recognized might be unable, or unready, to experience com-
as vital. Dutton, Lilius, and Kanov observed that passion. Further, evidence on compassion fa-
“as human institutions, organizations are sites tigue in the helping professions suggests that
that inevitably harbor the emotional pain and encouraging people to become more compas-
suffering of their individual members” (2007: sionate, without considering the associated self-
110). These scholars argued that compassion is regulatory demands, can lead to staff burnout or
transformative within organizations: it not only turnover (Boyatzis et al., 2006; Goetz, Keltner, &
promotes healing but builds the quality of rela- Simon-Thomas, 2010; Miller, 2007). Understand-
tionships among organizational members, cre- ing the psychology of individual compassion—
ating relational resources such as trust and our core focus here—is critical for developing
strengthening shared values of interconnected- effective approaches to enhancing compassion
ness. Lilius et al. (2008) described how receiving in organizations.
524
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2012 Atkins and Parker 525

We have two specific aims. First, we extend something, they make us feel like doing some-
previous process models of individual compas- thing” (Gross & Thompson, 2007: 5). From this
sion in organizations by examining the apprais- perspective, compassion is not a single state,
als associated with compassion. Appraisals action, or feeling. Rather, it is a process involv-
have been neglected in prior models of compas- ing both feeling and action.
sion in the workplace. We argue that appraisals It is also useful to distinguish between want-
that the sufferer deserves help and is relevant to ing to help in order to alleviate the suffering of
the self will influence whether or not a person another and wanting to help in order to alleviate
feels compassion. Furthermore, a self-efficacy one’s own suffering in the presence of the other’s
appraisal that the person has the resources to suffering. We use the term empathic concern to
cope influences whether that person experi- refer to the “other-oriented emotional response
ences empathic concern and acts to alleviate elicited by and congruent with the perceived
the other’s suffering or, instead, experiences welfare of a person in need” (Batson & Ahmad,
personal distress and behaves defensively in 2009: 6). By “other-oriented” emotional re-
the presence of suffering. We show how includ- sponses, we mean feelings of empathy, sympa-
ing appraisals as an element of compassion en- thy, and tenderness that prompt action to help
ables a deeper understanding of potential bar- another. In contrast, personal distress is a “self-
riers to compassion in the workplace. focused, aversive reaction to the vicarious expe-
Second, having developed a more comprehen- rience of another’s emotion (e.g. as discomfort or
sive model of individual compassion, we turn to anxiety)” (Eisenberg, 2010: 130). A person may
understanding the psychological determinants notice another’s suffering, but if this activates
of compassion so as to inform how it might be personal distress rather than empathic concern,
enhanced. We make a case for the importance of the individual’s attention and responding will
psychological flexibility—a way of being that be diverted to minimizing his or her own dis-
includes both mindfulness and values-directed tress rather than compassionately responding to
action (Bond, Hayes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2006). We the other.
propose pathways whereby enhanced mindful- Kanov et al. (2004) identified three subpro-
ness is likely to promote more compassionate cesses that collectively define compassion: no-
noticing, appraising, and feeling and whereby ticing, feeling, and responding. Noticing another
enhanced values-directed action is likely to pro- person’s suffering is a critical first step, involv-
mote more compassionate action. We also re- ing becoming aware of the suffering of the other.
view evidence showing that psychological flex- Feeling involves “suffering with” the other per-
ibility can be developed, thereby providing a son or empathizing with his or her hurt, anguish,
leverage point for enhancing compassion that or worry. Responding compassionately involves
has thus far not been considered. We begin by taking actions to ease or eliminate the other
defining what we mean by individual person’s suffering (Frost, Dutton, Worline, & Wil-
compassion. son, 2000). Feeling compassionate does not inev-
itably lead to compassionate responding be-
cause circumstances might sometimes prevent
DEFINING INDIVIDUAL COMPASSION
action. It is also possible that individuals will
Scholars generally agree that compassion in- engage in acts that appear compassionate (e.g.,
volves both feelings and a response, although helping) but arise from motives other than em-
different researchers have emphasized either pathic concern. Importantly, noticing, feeling,
the feeling aspect (Davis, 1983; Goetz et al., 2010) and responding are all necessary for an act to
or the response aspect (Kanov et al., 2004). As be considered compassionate (Kanov et
expressed by Lazarus, “The core relational al., 2004).
theme for compassion . . . is being moved by an- Next we argue that compassion also includes
other’s suffering and wanting to help” (1991: 289). a characteristic set of appraisals, in addition to
The inclusion of responding, or actually helping the three aspects of compassion identified by
the other, as a key element of compassion dif- Kanov et al. (2004). Additionally, we relabel com-
ferentiates it from related concepts like empathy passionate responding as compassionate acting
and aligns with contemporary functional views because noticing, appraising, and feeling can
of emotion: “Emotions not only make us feel also be considered compassionate responses.
526 Academy of Management Review October

IMPORTANCE OF APPRAISAL FOR zano, 1996) describes how an individual’s affect

INDIVIDUAL COMPASSION in any particular moment depends on apprais-
als of transient events in that work environment
We concur that noticing, feeling, and acting
and how different emotions arise from different
are all aspects of compassionate responding.
appraisals.
However, we propose that a more complete
Drawing on ideas from evolutionary psychol-
model of compassion should also include an
ogy, Goetz et al. (2010) argued that compassion-
aspect not mentioned by Kanov et al. (2004)—
namely, the person’s appraisals of the situation. ate responding involves making a kind of cost-
After noticing that another is suffering, a person benefit calculation in which people evaluate
might feel empathic concern (necessary for com- whether the benefits of being compassionate
passion), but he or she might equally feel anger, outweigh the potential costs. In terms of bene-
distress, sadness, coldness, or other emotions fits, individuals make primary appraisals re-
that do not lead to compassion. The specific garding whether the sufferer is self-relevant
emotions that are evoked by noticing suffering and deserving, and in terms of costs, individuals
will depend on the appraisals made. To elabo- make a secondary appraisal regarding their
rate our arguments, we use the term observer to level of resources for responding in a compas-
refer to the person potentially extending com- sionate way. This cost-benefit calculation
passion and the term sufferer to refer to the may not be conscious and does not imply that
target of that compassion. compassion is merely self-interest but, rather,
The specific qualities of an emotion are deter- that any adaptive organism naturally considers
mined by the appraisals an individual applies its own welfare along with the welfare of the
to events, particularly with regard to their impli- other in the process of responding (Lazarus,
cations for the self (Gross & Thompson, 2007; 1991). Next we elaborate how and why these
Lazarus, 1991; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). In other particular primary and secondary appraisals
words, it is not an event per se (noticing anoth- are part of an overall compassionate response
er’s suffering) that gives rise to emotions but (see Figure 1). Our intention with Figure 1 is to
how events are interpreted by the observer (ap- depict the unfolding of the constituent elements
praisals about the sufferer). More specifically, of compassion. Later we propose psychological
cognitive appraisal theory (Folkman, Lazarus, processes that can enhance these elements of
Dunkelschetter, Delongis, & Gruen, 1986; compassion.
Lazarus, 1991) identifies appraisals of both the Noticing another’s suffering leads to feelings
situation (primary appraisals) and one’s own re- of empathic concern when the observer ap-
sources for dealing with the situation (second- praises the sufferer as relevant to his or her self
ary appraisals) as a critical influence on emo- and goals. Appraisal theorists recognize that
tional responses. Primary and secondary goal relevance determines emotion intensity,
appraisals combine to affect whether an ob- with more intense emotions being felt for partic-
server regards the person-environment transac- ularly self-relevant or important events (Scherer,
tion as threatening or benign, which, in turn, 2001). Thus, the more the other’s suffering is in-
influences the observer’s emotions. In a similar congruent with the observer’s broader goals and
vein, affective events theory (Weiss & Cropan- values, and the more closely the other relates to

FIGURE 1
The Elements of Compassionate Responding
2012 Atkins and Parker 527

the observer’s sense of self, the greater the in- the other’s suffering, the observer is likely to
tensity of compassionate feelings experienced experience the other’s suffering as aversive and
by the observer. For example, people are more anxiety provoking (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
likely to extend compassion toward, and hence Faced with such personal distress, the observer
be willing to help, those to whom they feel more is more likely to act defensively rather than
closely related (Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & compassionately.
Neuberg, 1997) or to whom they have similar Consistent with this idea, children and adults
values, preferences, characteristics, or beliefs who report being more able to regulate their
(Eisenberg & Miller, 1987). However, if the ob- emotions are more likely to report feeling com-
server makes an appraisal that the sufferer passion rather than distress in the presence of
is not self-relevant, then he or she is unlikely to another’s suffering (Eisenberg et al., 1994). Fur-
be moved by the suffering of another and ther, a sense of secure attachment, which is re-
thereby will not experience empathic concern liably associated with coping self-efficacy (Mi-
(Batson, Eklund, Chermok, Hoyt, & Ortiz, 2007). kulincer & Shaver, 2003), has been positively
A further primary appraisal is whether the related to the extent to which compassion can
sufferer is deemed to be deserving of help. Al- be induced experimentally (Mikulincer, Shaver,
truistic behaviors such as compassionate re- Gillath, & Nitzberg, 2005). Thus, a person who
sponding produce evolutionary advantages if believes he or she has the necessary skills and
they are directed toward others who are per- resources to regulate his or her own emotions in
ceived to be more altruistic, trustworthy, and a given context (coping self-efficacy) will be
cooperative. Otherwise, there is the risk of being more likely to feel empathy and seek to assist
exploited by those perceived to be competitors others.
(Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981). For example, people We suggest that each of these three apprais-
who are deemed to be responsible for their own als is required to at least some degree for notic-
suffering are more likely to elicit anger in an ing suffering to lead to empathic feelings. Con-
observer than compassionate feelings (Rudolph, sider, for example, a manager who finds herself
Roesch, Greitemeyer, & Weiner, 2004), as are in the situation of having to balance her caring
those who are deemed to be cold, uncooperative, for individual subordinates with the needs of an
or nasty (Batson et al., 2007; Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, organization facing significant staff cuts. If she
& Xu, 2002). Furthermore, in a study of confeder- believes that alleviating the suffering of the
ates playing an economic game and then receiv- staff being downsized is not what her role is
ing pain, the neural responses associated with about (an appraisal of non-self-relevance) or
empathy for the sufferer were modulated (in that those to be laid off brought this decision
men at least) by the degree to which the sufferer upon themselves through poor performance (an
was appraised as being fair in the game (Singer appraisal of nondeservingness), she is unlikely
et al., 2006). to be moved by her staff’s suffering. If the man-
A final critical appraisal is the observer’s be- ager does feel her staff’s pain but believes she is
liefs that he or she can cope with the situation to unable to cope with the situation, the resulting
bring about desired future outcomes or prevent anxiety and personal distress she feels might
undesired outcomes (Roseman & Smith, 2001). prompt defensive reactions that make her feel
We refer to this appraisal as coping self- better yet don’t help her staff, such as avoiding
efficacy. Self-efficacy is an important aspect of subordinates by being busy or trying to mini-
self-regulation “that influences individual mize the seriousness of the situation through
choices, goals, emotional reactions, effort, cop- inappropriate and inauthentic reassurance.
ing and persistence” (Gist & Mitchell, 1992: 186). There are also likely to be individual differ-
Bandura (1988) argued that if individuals lack ences in the dominance of these appraisals. For
self-efficacy to deal with disturbing thoughts example, a person may choose to work in a
and feelings, they will experience high levels of homeless shelter because he or she values ex-
anxiety and engage in avoidant behavior. Thus, tending compassion to all people, irrespective of
if the observer makes an appraisal that the suf- deservingness. Such a decision would involve
ferer is self-relevant and deserving, but the ob- all of the aforementioned appraisals, but the
server lacks the resources or capabilities to threshold for appraisals of deservingness would
manage his or her own emotions in the face of be lower as a result of the self-goal of uncondi-
528 Academy of Management Review October

tional compassion. In this sense the appraisals tional frame theory (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, &
may vary in salience for a given individual, but Roche, 2001). This approach has, in turn, led to a
all are needed to at least some degree for a well-validated, evidence-based approach to im-
compassionate response. It is also important to proving human functioning known as accep-
recognize that appraisals of self-relevance tance and commitment therapy (Hayes, Strosahl,
are not the same as selfish appraisals. An indi- & Wilson, 1999). We commence with a brief over-
vidual with strong prosocial values, for exam- view of relational frame theory (for a compre-
ple, might consider all instances of suffering as hensive introduction see Torneke, 2010) before
relevant to him or her, given his or her commit- defining psychological flexibility in terms of a
ment to others’ welfare. Prosocial values are set of psychological subprocesses. We then sys-
defined as values directed toward preserving tematically examine how each of these poten-
and enhancing the welfare of others rather than tially malleable subprocesses of psychological
benefiting the self. flexibility contributes to enhancing compassion-
It is useful to consider the ordering of the ate responding.
elements of compassion in Figure 1. We base Proponents of relational frame theory view all
our argument that appraisals primarily arise human cognition as the act of relating events or
between noticing and feeling on evidence and experiences (Hayes et al., 2001). Language arises
theory regarding self-regulatory capability. Log- through learning and deriving relations be-
ically, individuals must first notice that another tween words and events, where events are any
is suffering. Once they notice this, there may be experience of the world or of the self. The infi-
rapid and automatic bodily sensations, but ap- nite generativity of human language arises from
praisals appear to precede, or at least coevolve our capacity to infer relations between any-
with, elaborated emotions, such as empathic thing, even arbitrary symbols, and to make use
concern (Lamm, Batson, & Decety, 2007). Accord- of many different types of relations, such as
ing to Gross and Thompson, “There is broad evaluative (better/worse), hierarchical (part of/
agreement that it is . . . appraisals that give rise includes), conditional (causal/if . . . then), and
to emotional responses” (2007: 5). We therefore temporal (before/after) relations. This unique
identify appraisals as intervening between no- human ability to relate arbitrary cues allows us
ticing and empathic feeling in an overall com- to step outside the realm of direct sensory expe-
passionate response. Nevertheless, as depicted rience, formulate a past and a future, and use
by the recursive arrows in Figure 1, we recog- those formulations to create meaning and solve
nize that noticing, appraising, feeling, and act- problems. However, this ability also creates hu-
ing coevolve and interact dynamically such that man suffering because, for example, people re-
each unfolds to some extent alongside the other member unpleasant experiences, compare their
aspects of compassion. For example, while act- situations to those who are better off, and fear-
ing compassionately, people continue to notice fully anticipate possible futures.
the other’s reactions and dynamically update From the perspective of relational frame the-
their appraisals. Likewise, evidence from stud- ory, an individual’s relating can be more or less
ies of self-perception (e.g., Bem, 1967) suggest flexible. Flexibility here refers to the repertoire
that when a person notices he or she is acting of different options for response in a given situ-
compassionately, this is likely to influence the ation. If a particular situation automatically
person’s appraisals and emotions toward evokes only one response, this would be an ex-
the other. ample of reduced flexibility of relating. To the
extent that a person is able to step back from his
or her automatic response and see it in the
PSYCHOLOGICAL FLEXIBILITY
broader context of his or her aims and values,
Having articulated the four elements of com- the individual has more options for action and,
passionate responding, we now explore how thus, more flexibility.
these aspects of compassion might be enhanced The term psychological flexibility refers to be-
via psychological flexibility. Our approach to ing open and curious regarding the present mo-
psychological flexibility is based on a functional- ment and, depending on what the situation af-
contextual (Gifford & Hayes, 1999) account of fords, acting in accordance with one’s chosen
human language and cognition known as rela- values (Bond, Flaxman, & Bunce, 2008; Bond et
2012 Atkins and Parker 529

al., 2006). Instead of trying to control inner expe- therapy, mindfulness consists of four interre-
rience, people who are more psychologically lated self-regulatory processes (Hayes & Plumb,
flexible are better able to observe their internal 2007): (1) attending to present moment experi-
experiences as they arise in an open, nonelabo- ence (herein referred to as “present moment con-
rative, noncontrolling, and nonjudgmental man- tact”), (2) recognizing thoughts and feelings as
ner (Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006). passing mental events (“defusion from thoughts
Bond et al. provided evidence that “people with and feelings”), (3) acting from a sense of self as
higher levels of psychological flexibility have a a perspective from which experience is ob-
greater capacity to notice and respond more ef- served rather than a particular set of identity
fectively to goal-related opportunities at work” labels (“observing approach to self”), and (4) be-
(2008: 652). They suggested that this occurred in ing willing to experience any psychological con-
part because fewer attentional resources were tent, even negative aversive content (“accep-
expended in trying to control experience, and tance of unpleasant thoughts and feelings”).
because being less emotionally disturbed by These four processes work interactively to un-
events allowed people to more effectively notice dermine the dominance of verbal relating,
the situation and respond accordingly. In other thereby supporting behavior that is more sensi-
words, individuals who are psychologically tive and responsive to the environment and al-
flexible are more sensitive to context, which al- lowing a larger set of contingencies to be no-
lows for the more effective pursuit of goals (Bond ticed and a broader behavioral repertoire to be
et al., 2008). available (Vilardaga, 2009). Changing the way
Psychological flexibility can be disaggre- individuals relate to their own verbal relating
gated into a hierarchy of subprocesses (Figure 2, provides them with the capability to respond
left-hand side). At a mid level the construct con- more adaptively in a wider range of contexts.
sists of mindfulness and values-directed action. The second midlevel element of psychological
As defined within acceptance and commitment flexibility is values-directed action. Values-

FIGURE 2
How the Subprocesses of Psychological Flexibility Contribute to Enhancing
the Elements of Compassion
530 Academy of Management Review October

directed action involves two subprocesses: (1) this claim we present evidence organized in
values affirmation, where one’s important val- terms of the six subprocesses of psychological
ues are made cognitively accessible (Stapel & flexibility. Figure 2 summarizes the relation-
van der Linde, 2011), such as through a process ships between psychological flexibility and
of articulating one’s important life goals, and (2) compassion for which we believe there is most
commitment to values-consistent action, or the evidence. On the left are the “input” processes
determination to act in line with one’s important associated with psychological flexibility, and on
life goals. We have argued that compassion is the right are the “outcome” processes of com-
more than just a feeling; it is a response that passionate responding. The arrows and inter-
involves action. Psychological flexibility is not vening labels depict possible mediating pro-
only about one’s relationship to inner experi- cesses that explain why psychological
ences but involves purposeful action motivated flexibility increases the likelihood of compas-
by values and goals. In this sense we see mind- sionate responding. We now elaborate the ef-
fulness as primarily about the capability to be fects of each subprocess of psychological flexi-
compassionate, whereas values-directed action bility on each element of compassionate
is primarily about the motivation to be responding. It is important to note that, as we
compassionate. elaborate further in the discussion section, our
Consistent with the above theorizing, studies identification of pathways is necessarily some-
show that psychological flexibility enables indi- what simplified. In other words, we recognize
viduals to pursue their valued goals in ways that the six subprocesses of psychological flex-
that are constructive and healthy. There is con- ibility interact to reinforce each other in much
siderable evidence for the positive impacts of more dynamic and integrative ways than we
psychological flexibility on work-related depen- have scope to articulate here.
dent variables, such as mental health (Flaxman
& Bond, 2010a,b; Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010),
Capability for Compassion: Mindfulness
performance (Bond & Bunce, 2003), physical
well-being (Donaldson-Feilder & Bond, 2004), a Mindfulness can be defined in terms of four
propensity to innovate (Bond & Bunce, 2000), so- elements: (1) present moment contact, (2) defu-
cial and emotional functioning (McCracken & sion from thoughts and feelings, (3) observing
Yang, 2008), and a capacity to thrive under con- approach to self, and (4) acceptance of unpleas-
ditions of greater autonomy (Bond et al., 2008). ant thoughts and feelings (Hayes & Plumb, 2007).
There is also strong evidence that mindfulness In this section we explore how each of these
interventions can have positive consequences aspects of mindfulness contributes to enhancing
for individuals, including increased empathy individual compassion.
(Block-Lerner, Adair, Plumb, Rhatigan, & Orsillo, Present moment contact. Why might a person
2007; Shapiro, Schwartz, & Bonner, 1998), reduced fail to notice another’s suffering? Consider, for
burnout and increased life satisfaction (Macken- example, a manager who is too preoccupied
zie, Poulin, & Seidman-Carlson, 2006), improved with an overdue task to notice that an employee
mental health (Williams, 2006), greater atten- is in distress. In this situation the manager fails
tional performance and cognitive flexibility to notice cues available in the social environ-
(Moore & Malinowski, 2009), improved perfor- ment. If the manager is later asked why he
mance (Shao & Skarlicki, 2009), and higher au- failed to notice, he might respond that his atten-
tonomous motivation and vitality (Brown & tion had been directed toward his own thoughts
Ryan, 2003). To date, however, scholars have not and goals. We propose that present moment
considered how psychological flexibility might contact, which refers to deliberately attending to
enhance compassion. the present moment, is important because it en-
hances the noticing of another’s suffering by
directing attention to what is actually happen-
INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
ing in the situation, rather than attending only
FLEXIBILITY ON COMPASSION
to one’s own plans, memories, and judgments.
Our primary claim in this section is that psy- A key element of effective compassion is no-
chological flexibility will lead to enhanced indi- ticing one’s own and others’ emotional cues
vidual compassion in organizations. To support available in the present moment. Recall our ear-
2012 Atkins and Parker 531

lier example of a manager who has to lay off a pening. The evidence suggests that deliberately
staff member to reduce costs. To respond com- directing attention in this way is likely to in-
passionately in a lay-off interview with a staff crease the degree to which the observer notices
member, the manager needs to notice not only emotional, physical, and verbal cues regarding
what the staff member is saying but also how the other’s suffering and also the observer’s own
the person is saying it, including emotional tone emotional reactions.
and bodily gestures that might indicate suffer-
Proposition 1: Present moment contact
ing. She also needs to correctly interpret staff
enhances compassionate noticing by
member behaviors, such as withdrawal or ag-
directing attention to immediate so-
gression. Such noticing requires a deliberate al-
cial and emotional cues regarding an-
location of attentional resources to what is ac-
other’s suffering and one’s own
tually happening in the present situation—
reactions.
directing attention to immediate cues, rather
than being lost in one’s judgments and verbal Defusion from thoughts and feelings. Earlier
constructions of the past or future. Active listen- we argued that primary appraisals of self-
ing, if done well (Jentz, 2007), is an example of relevance and deservingness influence the de-
deliberately attending to the present moment as gree to which an observer experiences compas-
the listener strives to pay close attention to what sion. Additionally, we suggested that the
is actually said, and the way in which it is said, observer must also believe he or she has the
to accurately understand the meaning and in- resources to manage his or her emotions in the
tent of the utterance. It is impossible to take the face of the other’s suffering; otherwise, the ob-
perspective of another when preoccupied with server is likely to experience personal distress
verbal representations of the past or future, such and engage in defensive behaviors. The way
as task goals or preexisting beliefs about the people make sense of their experience and of
person, rather than attending to the actuality of their selves is, in our view, a critically important
what is said or done. but somewhat neglected aspect of compassion.
There is a growing body of evidence to indi- From the perspective of relational frame theory,
cate that mindfulness training enhances the ca- appraising can be understood as the act of
pacity to attend to cues available in the present evaluatively relating one event to another. Ap-
moment. For example, McHugh, Simpson, and praisals of deservingness or coping self-effi-
Reed (2010) showed that a brief mindfulness in- cacy, for example, involve comparisons between
tervention reduced stimulus overselectivity in perceived events and ideal standards. Here we
elderly adults. Participants in the mindfulness propose that, to the extent that people are able
condition were less likely to selectively exclude to “step back from” their thoughts and feelings
pertinent information. Moore and Malinowski regarding self and others and see those
(2009) showed that mindfulness predicted perfor- thoughts and feelings in context (defusion), they
mance on a concentration and attentional en- will be less automatically reactive to negative
durance test, which measured the capacity to evaluative judgments of self and others and
direct and sustain attention to the details of therefore will be more likely to respond compas-
experience, as well as the Stroop task, which sionately. We elaborate this process next.
measured the capacity to suppress automati- A key aspect of psychological flexibility is
cally interfering information. Those who were defusion from thoughts and feelings, or the ca-
more mindful were better able to direct their pability to step back from one’s own thoughts
attention and less likely to react automatically and feelings and see them in context. Defusion
to linguistic stimuli. Similarly, Jha, Krompinger, is “the recognition of thoughts, feelings and
and Baime (2007) showed that meditators were bodily sensations as passing events without
less susceptible to distraction than nonmedita- buying into the literal content of the temporal
tors. Almost all approaches to mindfulness and evaluative language that accompanies
training emphasize attending to stimuli occur- these experiences” (Fletcher, Schoendorff, &
ring in the present moment (e.g., bodily sensa- Hayes, 2010: 43). Subjectively, the experience of
tions, sounds, etc.) and noticing what is actually defusion feels like “having” thoughts and feel-
happening, as opposed to getting lost in ings rather than “being” them. Metaphorically, a
thoughts or feelings in response to what is hap- gap is created between the thinker and the con-
532 Academy of Management Review October

tents of thinking, and in this gap there is the but also showed that the psychological flexibil-
possibility of more effective noticing and more ity intervention was most effective in reducing
deliberate choice of response. The opposite of stigmatization for those participants who were
defusion is fusion. “Fusion is the process experientially avoidant or fused with their judg-
whereby certain verbal functions of events exert mental thoughts. Such a process appears to be
strong stimulus control over responding to the implicated in the lack of compassion arising
exclusion of other directly and indirectly avail- from stereotyping. Masuda et al. (2007) sug-
able psychological functions” (Wilson & Du- gested that, to the extent that a person is fused
frene, 2008: 55). So, for example, recall the situ- with his or her categorizations and evaluations
ation of a manager who has to lay somebody off. of other human beings, he or she loses contact
If she is fused with thoughts, evaluations, and with the individual, unique, and dynamic qual-
feelings regarding herself, the other, and/or the ities of those others available in the present
situation, she will struggle to see those thoughts moment and sees them instead in terms of gen-
and feelings as just one possible response to the eralizations (Hayes, Niccolls, Masuda, & Rye,
situation and, thus, will be more likely to react 2002: 298). This process appears to be similar to
automatically to negative evaluations. the depersonalization of others described by
To elaborate this process further, in the pres- self-categorization theory (Hogg, 2001).
ence of others, people continually make rapid
and automatic evaluations, and these can inter- Proposition 2: Defusion from thoughts
fere with noticing and interpreting available and feelings enhances compassionate
cues regarding self and others. However, appraisals by lessening automatic re-
thoughts are abstractions of reality, not the re- activity to negative evaluative judg-
ality itself. When thoughts, such as appraisals ments regarding self and others.
of self and others, control responding, the capac-
Observing approach to self. People can also
ity to question the veracity and usefulness of
be more or less fused with their thoughts con-
those thoughts is lost. In contrast, when a person
cerning their identity. People often see them-
is not identified with his or her thoughts and
selves in terms of relatively rigid roles and cat-
feelings, that person is less likely to react auto-
egories, some of which will determine whether
matically to them. For example, if managers are
or not they are likely to extend compassion to
able to notice themselves judging another as
another. For example, a person may believe, “I
undeserving of compassion, they may choose
am not the sort of person who is good at han-
not to react immediately to that thought but may
instead seek additional information to decide dling other people’s pain,” or “I am an engineer,
whether the thought is justified. Alternatively, in not a therapist.” While such conceptualizations
situations where there is a conflict between a of self provide a stable sense of identity, their
negative appraisal of the other and an intrinsic rigidity can interfere with flexibly responding to
desire to help, defusion from the negative ap- the situation.
praisal will lessen its impact on behavior, in- An alternative way of relating to self involves
creasing the likelihood of responding in line seeing oneself as an observer of experience.
with the intrinsic desire to help. Whereas defusion involves noticing one’s ongo-
Consistent with our arguments above, there is ing flow of emotions, thoughts, and sensations
evidence to suggest that promoting defusion (e.g., “I am having the thought that this is going
from thoughts and feelings reduces reactivity to to be hard to listen to”), one might also self-
automatic evaluations regarding ourselves and reflexively notice the perspective from which
others. Hayes, Bissett, Roget, et al. (2004) showed that awareness arises (e.g., “I notice there is a
that, relative to a control group that received perspective from which I experience all
multicultural training, a psychological flexibil- thoughts and feelings”). From the perspective of
ity intervention for a group of alcohol and drug relational frame theory, this can be understood
counselors reduced stigmatizing attitudes to- as constructing a sense of self as an observer,
ward clients and burnout at three-month follow- with thinking being just another aspect of the
up. Thus, the intervention appeared to work to flow of experience. This subprocess of psycho-
assist in both self-care and also caring for oth- logical flexibility is what we call, in Figure 2, an
ers. Masuda et al. (2007) reported similar results “observing approach to self.”
2012 Atkins and Parker 533

We propose that an observing approach to and anxiety provoking (Lazarus & Folkman,
self is likely to enhance compassion by reducing 1984). Further, if the person has less need to
threats to self in the presence of another’s suf- defend a particular self-conceptualization, he or
fering. To the extent that a manager identifies she has more resources available for managing
with a particular self-categorization, or with the situation. So, for example, a manager who is
achieving a particular goal, any threat to that able to notice his or her feelings of discomfort in
categorization or goal will be experienced as a the presence of someone crying, but can simply
threat to self (Petriglieri, 2011). Being in the pres- notice those feelings of discomfort from the per-
ence of someone suffering can easily threaten spective of an observing approach to self, is
identity. Consider, for example, a manager who likely to experience the situation as less de-
strongly identifies with always being a “suc- manding or threatening than a manager who
cessful” manager—always able to provide solu- feels he or she has to resolve or avoid the prob-
tions to problems. Faced with another’s suffer- lem. Thus, an observing approach to self can
ing that he cannot easily alleviate, the manager enhance coping self-efficacy through reducing
is brought into contact with his own inability to the demands of the situation and freeing re-
fix the problem, potentially threatening his con- sources from continual efforts to protect identity
ceptualized sense of self as successful. Alterna- (Bond et al., 2008).
tively, a manager may identify herself and well-
Proposition 3: An observing approach
being with always being in control of her
to self enhances compassionate ap-
emotions. Such a manager may find that being
praising by reducing the demands of
in the presence of suffering threatens this sense
the situation (in the form of threats to
of being in control and, thus, threatens the co-
identity), thereby enhancing apprais-
herence of her picture of herself.
als of coping self-efficacy.
Identifying oneself with being an observer of
experience rather than the contents of experi- Acceptance of unpleasant thoughts and feel-
ence reduces perceptions of threat. This phe- ings. Acceptance of unpleasant thoughts and
nomenon is widely utilized in therapy to help feelings refers to allowing “thoughts and feel-
clients relate more effectively to difficult psy- ings to be as they are without trying to change
chological content, such as memories, images, their content, form or frequency” (Fletcher et al.,
self-talk, or feelings (Hayes et al., 1999). Whereas 2010: 43). Acceptance is at the core of modern
it is easy to evaluate the content of experience behavioral and cognitive therapies, where the
as good or bad, the self as an observer is beyond emphasis is on helping people change their re-
such evaluations. It is simply the awareness of lationship to their experience rather than the
experience and, as such, provides a stable content, form, or frequency of particular
sense of self irrespective of the content of expe- thoughts or feelings (Hayes, Villatte, Levin, &
rience. Seeing one’s experience in context in this Hildebrandt, 2011). It is now increasingly recog-
way provides individuals with a sense of iden- nized that aversive or unpleasant content is an
tity (“I am an observer of my experience”) while inevitable aspect of experience, and it is what
allowing them to relate to the contents of their people do in response to their experience (i.e.,
experience more flexibly (Torneke, 2010). the function of psychological events) rather than
Why should contacting a stable sense of self the content of particular psychological experi-
beyond threat enhance compassion? Earlier we ences that determines long-term well-being and
argued that a coping self-efficacy appraisal can effectiveness (Hayes et al., 2011). From a rela-
be seen as a balance of the emotional demands tional frame theory perspective, this change in
of the situation against the skills and resources emphasis from changing the content of experi-
the person believes he or she has to manage the ence to changing the function of experience
situation. An observing approach to self ap- makes good sense. In brief, proponents of rela-
pears to reduce the perceived demands of the tional frame theory argue that changes to verbal
situation, thereby enhancing coping self-effi- networks occur by the addition of new relations
cacy. To the extent that a person identifies with to the relational network, not through subtrac-
a stable sense of self beyond threat, that person tion. Therefore, attempts to control experience
is less likely to experience another’s suffering by further thinking (e.g., by rumination) simply
as demanding in the sense that it is aversive lead to expanded relational networks that be-
534 Academy of Management Review October

come increasingly difficult to control or avoid We propose two pathways by which accep-
and, consequently, to a reduced behavioral rep- tance of unpleasant thoughts and feelings influ-
ertoire. In contrast, dropping efforts to change ences compassion. The first operates via
the content, form, or frequency of internal expe- changed appraisals of coping self-efficacy
rience (acceptance) enables the flexible choice (Proposition 4), whereas the second involves
of responses that are more effective in the long changes in empathic concern (Proposition 5).
run. Importantly, from the perspective of effec- However, before describing these two pathways
tive action, acceptance of unpleasant thoughts in detail, we must first establish why being in
and feelings does not mean resignation. An in- the presence of someone who is suffering can be
dividual may accept that something is happen- demanding, uncomfortable, and aversive.
ing in this moment while simultaneously seek- Imagine what might happen in a meeting be-
ing to initiate change so that similar tween a manager and a subordinate who is
experiences do not occur in the future. about to be laid off. The subordinate’s distress
Acceptance is essentially the opposite of ex- can cause the manager to automatically mirror
periential avoidance (Fletcher et al., 2010), that distress (Iacoboni, 2009) and, if not inhib-
which is defined as “deliberate efforts to avoid ited, can create distress-associated autonomic
and/or escape from private events such as af- and somatic responses (Preston & de Waal,
fects, thoughts, memories and bodily sensations 2002). The manager might remember similar
which are experienced as aversive” (Ruiz, 2010: times when she has been rejected, generating
127). Experiential avoidance is a learned re- feelings of sadness. The manager might be un-
sponse that has been negatively reinforced by sure what to do, generating uncertainty, and she
repeated experience of short-term diminishment might be fearful of an aggressive reaction by the
of discomfort. But, in the long term, there is now subordinate. In the absence of a belief that she
a great deal of evidence to suggest that efforts to can cope with all these unpleasant thoughts
control, suppress, and avoid unpleasant and feelings, she is less likely to take the sub-
thoughts and feelings do not work and can even ordinate’s perspective, feel empathy, or engage
accentuate long-term suffering (for a review see in prosocial behavior such as caring and help-
Wegner, 2009). ing (Alessandri, Caprara, Eisenberg, & Steca,
There is emerging evidence to suggest that, to 2009; Eisenberg et al., 1994; Eisenberg & Okun,
the extent that a manager is able to accept his or 1996; Okun, Shepard, & Eisenberg, 2000).
her unpleasant thoughts and feelings, he or she We propose that repeated experience of ac-
is more able to extend compassion to another. ceptance rather than experiential avoidance in
For example, McCracken and Yang (2008), in a the context of unpleasant thoughts and feelings
study of rehabilitation workers, found that ac- leads to enhanced coping self-efficacy beliefs.
ceptance of unpleasant thoughts and feelings The most potent source of self-efficacy informa-
was negatively associated with stress and pos- tion is enactive self-mastery, which occurs when
itively associated with vitality and social and a person repeatedly experiences success in a
emotional functioning. Additionally, rehabilita- given context (Bandura, 1997). Acceptance of un-
tion workers with higher levels of acceptance pleasant thoughts and feelings is a demonstra-
were less likely to avoid situations in which bly effective self-regulatory strategy (Hayes,
they might encounter the suffering of their cli- Follette, & Linehan, 2004; Hayes et al., 2006; Ruiz,
ents. Viladarga et al. (in press) similarly found 2010). Through accepting negative thoughts and
that mindfulness predicted levels of burnout feelings and not avoiding the situation or the
(Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) among addic- responses evoked, the individual will accumu-
tion counselors. When fused with negative ap- late positive experiences of being able to effec-
praisals concerning their clients (previous sec- tively manage his or her own unpleasant
tion), and when unable to accept difficult thoughts and feelings while not avoiding the
thoughts and feelings (this section), counselors other’s distress, thereby increasing the individ-
believed they were less able to cope, less sen- ual’s longer-term coping self-efficacy. As dis-
sitive toward their clients, and less able to ef- cussed earlier, coping self-efficacy is a critical
fectively help their clients (Vilardaga et al., appraisal in the process of compassionate
in press). responding.
2012 Atkins and Parker 535

Proposition 4: Accepting unpleasant providing resources for compassionate

thoughts and feelings enhances ap- feelings (empathic concern) for another.
praisals of coping self-efficacy by en-
abling the observer to repeatedly self-
Motivation for Compassion:
regulate effectively in the presence of
Values-Directed Action
another’s distress.
Thus far we have argued that the subpro-
Acceptance of unpleasant thoughts and feel-
cesses of mindfulness contribute to more com-
ings also appears to be associated with en-
passionate noticing, appraising, and feeling in
hanced empathic concern and reduced personal
response to another’s suffering (Figure 2). How-
distress. As mentioned earlier, personal distress
ever, compassion also includes acting to ame-
is a “self-focused, aversive reaction to the vicar-
liorate the suffering of the other (Lazarus, 1991).
ious experience of another’s emotion (e.g. as dis-
Thus, while psychological flexibility expands
comfort or anxiety)” (Eisenberg, 2010: 130). A per-
individual capability to notice suffering, make
son may notice another’s suffering, but if this
more compassionate appraisals, and feel em-
activates personal distress, the person’s atten-
pathic concern, we have not yet addressed what
tion and concern will be diverted toward him/
motivates an individual to actually engage in
herself rather than the other, and the person will
compassionate action. Here we argue that the
be more focused on minimizing his or her per-
elements of mindfulness help one act in line
sonal distress rather than responding compas-
with one’s values. That is, “acceptance, defu-
sionately (Eisenberg, 2010). In contrast, allowing
sion, being present, and so on are not ends in
thoughts and feelings to be as they are, without
themselves; rather they clear the path for a more
trying to change their content, form, or fre-
vital, values consistent life” (Hayes et al., 2006:
quency, is reliably associated with reduced per-
9). For example, above we argued that cultivat-
severative efforts to regulate negative emotion
ing defusion from thoughts and feelings ap-
and control personal distress.
pears to lessen automatic reactivity to negative
Over many studies, Eisenberg and her col-
evaluations. Here we argue that defusion and its
leagues generally found that enhanced self-
associated consequences (as well as the other
regulatory capability is associated with en-
elements of mindfulness and their associated
hanced empathic concern for the other and
consequences) pave the way for deliberate re-
lower levels of personal distress in the presence
sponding in line with one’s values. We define
of another’s suffering (Eisenberg, 2010). For ex-
values as “verbally constructed, globally-
ample, children and adults who believe they are
desired life directions” (Wilson, Hayes, Gregg, &
better able to regulate their emotions are more
Zettle, 2001: 235).
likely to report feeling other-oriented concern
Psychological flexibility includes two impor-
rather than personal distress in the presence of
tant elements with respect to values-directed
another’s suffering (Eisenberg et al., 1994). When
action: (1) values affirmation and (2) commit-
individuals accept negative thoughts and feel-
ment to values-directed action. In this section
ings, they do not direct energy toward efforts to
we argue that values affirmation reduces defen-
control or avoid the primary experience of dis-
sive responses to situations involving suffering
tress, and this then provides more resources and
and thereby increases the likelihood of compas-
energy to focus on the other and the other’s
sionate action. We additionally suggest that
suffering. Returning to a manager who has to
commitment to values-directed action can result
lay off employees, acceptance will not diminish
in individuals’ effective self-regulation to act in
the objective difficulty of the situation—which
accordance with their values, thereby enhanc-
will remain unpleasant— but is likely to reduce
ing their compassionate action. We propose this
the manager’s personal distress, enabling a
latter pathway is moderated by an individual’s
greater willingness to engage with the others
prosocial values (the stronger an individual’s
and providing more emotional resources for ex-
prosocial values, the more that commitment to
tending empathic concern.
values-directed action will lead to compassion-
Proposition 5: Accepting unpleasant ate action) and the work context (for individuals
thoughts and feelings reduces the with prosocial values, the effect of goal regula-
likelihood of personal distress, thereby tion on compassionate action will be further
536 Academy of Management Review October

strengthened by a prosocial work climate). We siveness (Sherman & Cohen, 2006). Values affir-
elaborate the thinking behind these proposi- mation enhances one’s clarity about one’s self
tions next. (knowing who I am), and therefore one is more
Values affirmation. Values affirmation (or resilient to information that might otherwise
“contact with values,” as it is referred to in the threaten the self (Stapel & van der Linde, 2011).
psychological flexibility literature) occurs when There are many studies that show how values
one’s personally important values are made affirmation reduces defensiveness. For exam-
cognitively accessible (Stapel & van der Linde, ple, when heavy alcohol consumers write about
2011), such as through a process of identifying important values, they are more receptive to
when one feels most vital and alive. Values af- self-threatening information linking alcohol use
firmation is important because theory suggests to negative health outcomes (Harris & Napper,
that values will only influence behavior if they 2005). Likewise, values affirmation has been
are accessible in the moment of action. For ex- linked to reduced prejudice toward others (Fein
ample, Schwartz argued that “values affect be- & Spencer, 1997). Because people feel better
havior only if they are activated and if, at some about themselves as a result of values affirma-
level of awareness, they are experienced as rel- tion, they are less likely to try to boost their
evant in the context” (2010: 230). There are many self-worth by derogating outgroup members. In
ways in which values affirmation can be the context of compassion, values affirmation
brought about. For example, in social psycho- means that individuals will better know “who
logical studies it is typically achieved by asking they are” and have a stronger sense of self-
individuals to rank values and then write about worth; hence, they will be less threatened and
why their most important value is important. overwhelmed by another’s suffering and
Likewise, psychological flexibility interventions thereby less defensive and experientially
such as acceptance and commitment therapy avoidant.
often encourage individuals to identify and A second way in which values affirmation re-
elaborate their core values, making them more duces defensive behavior is through a process
readily accessible as a guide to behavior in any of self-transcendence. Crocker et al. (2008) rea-
given moment. soned that when individuals reflect on and write
We propose that values affirmation contrib- about important values, this reminds them of
utes to compassion because it reduces the ten- what they care about beyond themselves,
dency to behave defensively in emotionally thereby inducing other-directed feelings and,
difficult situations (Crocker, Niiya, & Misch- hence, greater openness to potentially self-
kowski, 2008; Sherman & Cohen, 2006). We see threatening information. In two studies Crocker
defensive behavior as the outward expression et al. (2008) had participants write for ten min-
of attempts to control and minimize aversive utes about their most important value and why
private experience, defined earlier as experi- it was important and meaningful for them. They
ential avoidance. When individuals behave de- then asked participants to rate their experience
fensively in the face of another’s suffering, they of a range of positive or negative emotions. Par-
avoid the other’s emotional experience and, ticipants who reflected on important values
thus, are unlikely to reach out to help the other. were far more likely to report positive, loving
In contrast, when an individual is not feeling feelings than those in a control condition who
threatened and overwhelmed by another’s suf- reflected on unimportant values, regardless of
fering, the individual is less inclined to avoid the content of the particular value that they
the situation by, for example, walking away, chose. The relative enhancement of positive
denying suffering is occurring, or derogating the feelings was larger for other-directed than for
sufferer and, instead, is more likely to help the self-directed positive emotions, suggesting that
sufferer. values affirmation specifically enhances proso-
There are two key theoretical ways in which cial emotions. Further, the relationship between
values affirmation reduces defensive behavior. values affirmation and acceptance of a poten-
One way is through self-affirmation. That is, tially threatening stimulus was mediated by the
affirming one’s important values enhances intensity of loving feeling, leading Crocker et al.
one’s self-integrity and self-worth, which leads to conclude that “values-affirmation manipula-
to lower perceived threat and reduced defen- tions remind participants of people or things
2012 Atkins and Parker 537

beyond themselves that they care about and Moderating Role of Individual Prosocial Values
that are more important than temporary feelings and Prosocial Work Climate
of self-threat” (2008: 746). From a compassion
We propose that the link between commit-
perspective, this suggests that values affirma- ment to values-direction action and compas-
tion will remind individuals of aspects beyond sionate action is moderated by an individual’s
themselves and, through this self-transcen- strength of prosocial values, which is, in turn,
dence, will reduce experiential avoidance and further moderated by aspects of the work cli-
thereby increase the likelihood a person will mate. Specifically, we suggest that to the extent
engage compassionately with suffering. an individual holds prosocial values, there will
Proposition 6: Values affirmation en- be a positive effect of commitment to values-
hances compassionate action through directed action on compassion. Likewise, we ar-
self-affirmation and self-transcendent gue that work contexts vary in the extent to
processes that reduce defensiveness which they support prosocial behavior and that
in response to another’s suffering. a prosocial work climate will, in turn, facilitate
the enactment of prosocial values, leading to
Commitment to values-directed action. Com- greater compassion.
mitment to values-directed action refers to indi- Prosocial values. Individuals vary in the rela-
viduals’ commitment to engage in “larger pat- tive importance of different values. Schwartz
terns of effective action linked to chosen values” (2010) identified ten universal values, applicable
(Hayes et al., 2006: 9). Whereas values affirma- to all individuals, of which “universalism” and
tion involves knowing what one’s values are “benevolence” are two that are particularly di-
and having them consciously accessible, com- rected toward preserving and enhancing the
mitment to values-directed action involves a welfare of others. Universalism values (such as
strong sense of determination to act in value- understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and
consistent ways. The construct has parallels protection) are directed toward all people and
with that of goal commitment, defined as deter- nature, whereas benevolence values (such as
mination to reach a goal (Locke, Latham, & Erez, forgiveness) are directed toward benefiting oth-
1988), but whereas goal commitment refers to a ers with whom one is in frequent contact. While
specific and focused goal, commitment to val- Schwartz (2010) called these “self-transcendence
ues-directed action is about one’s determination values,” we have used the term prosocial values
to act in ways congruent with broader life prin- to emphasize their other-directed nature.
ciples. In acceptance and commitment therapy a We propose that the link between commit-
ment to values-directed action and compassion-
range of behavior change methods are used to
ate action will be stronger for individuals who
enhance commitment to values-directed action,
identify prosocial values as relatively more im-
such as goal setting and anticipating strategies
portant to them than self-enhancement values
to overcome potential barriers to action (Hayes
(Schwartz, 2010). When engaging in self-regula-
et al., 1999). Drawing on self-regulation theory
tion processes to act in a values-consistent way
(Bandura, 1991), we expect that if individuals are (e.g., goal setting), individuals with more proso-
committed to values-direction action, they will cial values will be inclined to set, and strive to
allocate more effort and will persist and engage achieve, other-oriented goals. In essence, they
in more strategies to enact their values through will be more motivated to respond in a caring
their day-to-day actions. A great deal of evi- way to another’s suffering than individuals who
dence suggests that goal commitment predicts also are trying to act in values-directed ways
superior performance on goals, especially if but whose values are more self-serving. Echoing
those goals are difficult (see, for example, Klein, our earlier discussion of the importance of cop-
Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge, 1999). In applying ing self-efficacy, Caprara and Steca argued that
this prediction to compassion, however, one “both personal values and self-efficacy beliefs
needs to also consider the content of an individ- . . . are needed to enact actions that may carry
ual’s values and the work context in which the sacrifices and loss. Assigning priority to others’
individual operates, issues to which we welfare, as assessed by endorsement of self-
now turn. transcendence values, set [sic] the goals to be
538 Academy of Management Review October

achieved” (2007: 234). Consistent with this, sev- nizational structures and practices reinforce “re-
eral studies suggest that individuals with more lational” identity orientations, in which “indi-
prosocial values are motivated to pursue more viduals are primarily motivated to procure
prosocial goals and, indeed, appear to experi- benefit for the other” (2000: 85). Dense networks
ence positive affect if they are able to fulfill their that are integrated across levels and functions,
prosocial values (Schwartz, 2010). Prosocial val- dyadic task structures, and rewards for rela-
ues correlate positively with empathic concern tional work (e.g., work directed toward the wel-
and perspective taking (Silfver, Helkama, Lonn- fare of others) are example practices that pro-
qvist, & Verkasalo, 2008) and with prosocial re- mote a relational orientation. Work designs can
sponding (Caprara & Steca, 2007). also cultivate prosocial motivation, such as job
Our argument is that when engaging in self- designs with task significance and feedback
regulation processes to act in a values-consis- from beneficiaries (Grant, 2007). Thus, work con-
tent way (such as via goal setting), individuals texts vary in the extent to which they actively
with more prosocial values will be inclined to promote, support, and reinforce other-oriented
set and strive to achieve other-oriented goals, behaviors between members. This is what we
such as helping colleagues. Goals direct energy refer to as a prosocial work climate.
and attention, stimulate strategies for goal at- There is considerable evidence that individu-
tainment, enhance self-regulation, and promote als in the workplace try to act in ways that are
persistence in the face of obstacles (Latham & congruent with wider organizational values
Locke, 1991). For example, when an individual is (Meglino & Ravlin, 1998). We therefore expect
aiming to achieve other-oriented goals, he or that individuals seeking to enact more prosocial
she is more likely to seek out and attend to values will do so more readily in a climate that
information in the environment that is relevant is conducive to such action. A prosocial work
to others (Verplanken & Holland, 2002), such as climate likely will strengthen the link between
by listening more attentively to the sufferer. commitment to values-directed action and goal
regulation, as well as the link between effective
Proposition 7: For individuals with
goal regulation and compassionate action. For
prosocial values, commitment to val-
example, if a manager has committed to being
ues-consistent action will enhance
more other oriented (commitment to values-
compassionate action by driving ef-
directed action plus prosocial values), and this
fective self-regulatory action (e.g.,
manager is also operating in a context that en-
goal setting).
courages and supports prosocial behaviors, he
Prosocial work climate. Whether an individ- or she is likely to want to reach out and help an
ual acts in accordance with his or her values is individual who is suffering. If, however, an in-
also likely to be a function of the social environ- dividual who has committed to acting on proso-
ment in which the individual operates. People cial values finds him/herself in a highly compet-
learn to act in ways that are appropriate within itive and unsupportive work context, he or she is
their environment (Biglan, 2009; Rokeach, 1973), likely to be more cautious about helping some-
and work contexts vary in the degree to which one who is suffering, fearing possible negative
their practices and structures support and rein- sanctions from peers or managers.
force prosocial behaviors. Dutton et al. (2007)
Proposition 8: For individuals with
argued that through interpersonal acts of com-
prosocial values, the effect of commit-
passion that generate relational resources,
ment to values-consistent action on
shared values and beliefs, and interpersonal
compassionate action in the work-
skills, organizations can achieve a capacity for
place will be enhanced by a prosocial
cooperation. For example, organizations de-
work climate.
velop shared other-focused values through in-
formal acts, such as story telling about compas-
sionate incidents (Dutton et al., 2007), or through
DISCUSSION AND FURTHER DIRECTIONS
formal policies, such as the need for the CEO to
be informed immediately in the event of an em- Compassionate behavior in organizations is
ployee death or serious illness (Kanov et al., associated with increased helping, trust, sup-
2004). Likewise, Brickson argued that some orga- port, and cooperation. But individuals can be too
2012 Atkins and Parker 539

preoccupied, or too emotionally unregulated, to have identified the importance of psychological

even notice the suffering of another, let alone flexibility—the combination of mindfulness and
respond effectively to it. In this article we have values-directed action—as a facilitator of com-
proposed an elaborated model of the elements passionate responses, with mindfulness serving
of individual compassion, and we have explored as a key capability and values-directed action
how compassion might be increased through serving to motivate action. We suggested that
interventions to enhance psychological present moment contact increases the likelihood
flexibility. of noticing another’s suffering. Likewise, defu-
sion from thoughts and feelings creates a gap
Theoretical Contributions between the experience and one’s thoughts and
feelings regarding the experience, thereby less-
The inclusion of appraisal as an element of ening reactivity to automatic evaluations.
compassion recognizes the importance of cogni- Adopting an observing approach to self de-
tion in compassion and clearly distinguishes creases the likelihood of being lost in self-
compassion from the unregulated vicarious absorption and seeking to defend the self in
emotions of personal distress. Our model high- ways that may interfere with compassion. Ac-
lights that compassion is a regulated response ceptance of unpleasant thoughts and feelings
involving cognition. Compassionate responses helps to enhance coping self-efficacy appraisals
do not automatically follow from noticing anoth- and also reduces personal distress, allowing
er’s suffering. Rather, the observer must identify more empathic concern. In terms of motivation
the sufferer as in some way relevant and deserv- to be compassionate, values affirmation reduces
ing of help, and the observer must make a judg-
defensive behaviors aimed at avoiding suffer-
ment that he or she is capable of coping. The
ing, and commitment to values-directed action
inclusion of appraisals in an individual model
enables individuals with prosocial values to
of compassion builds on well-established theory
step out of immediate reactivity and pursue
linking cognition to affect and highlights how
goals in line with those values. As noted earlier,
individual compassion should be thought of as
from the perspective adopted in this article,
a process that involves thinking as well as feel-
mindfulness is not an end in itself but, rather, a
ing. Furthermore, we have briefly discussed
“a method of increasing values-based action”
how relational frame theory conceptualizes the
(Hayes et al., 2006: 8). Overall, psychological
thinking involved in appraising as verbal
relating. flexibility loosens the grip of verbal relating
Recognizing the role of these appraisals also processes that underpin experiential avoidance
links studies of individual compassion at work associated with noncompassionate defensive
to a richer empirical and theoretical base than behaviors, and it supports awareness, learning,
is currently the case. For example, recognizing and resilience to enable individuals to be more
the role of appraisals of self-relevance in the compassionate, even in stressful environments.
compassion process enables one to better un- In our view, psychological flexibility provides
derstand the effects of social identities (e.g., or- a way of bridging the apparent tension between
ganizational role, gender; Ashforth & Mael, 1989) distancing and connection— distancing so that
on compassion. Also, reducing reactivity to ap- one does not become absorbed in another’s suf-
praisals of deservingness and increasing accep- fering and one can place it in context, and con-
tance may reduce attributional biases, such as nection so that one cares. In relational frame
when people make more benevolent attributions theory terms, psychological flexibility can be
to themselves than to others (Regan & Totten, understood as the development of increasingly
1975). Including deservingness appraisals in subtle and complex relations of distinction and
compassionate responding highlights the im- similarity between aspects of self and emo-
portance of promoting perspective taking in or- tional experience. “Detached concern” (Miller,
ganizations, not only through training but also 2007) is not about a sense of self that is indepen-
through work redesign and associated practices dent of others but a sense of self that is both
(Parker, Atkins, & Axtell, 2008). differentiated from and integrated with others
Beyond the consideration of appraisals, a sec- (Kegan, 1994). Similarly, Labouvie-Vief de-
ond key contribution of our article is that we scribed how
540 Academy of Management Review October

mature empathic responses are based on much self-report summary measures are not ideal for
more complex representations in which individ- investigating processes that are dynamic, rapid,
uals are able to inhibit their own personal dis-
tress response and instead experience an emo- and often unconscious. We therefore also recom-
tion of compassion that is targeted at the mend laboratory-based investigations in which
situation and specific needs of the suffering per- elements of the process are systematically ma-
son (2009: 4 –5). nipulated and experience-sampling approaches
Emotional differentiation helps people become that go beyond between-person average differ-
less overwhelmed by negative emotions (Leary, ences to explore when and why a particular
Tate, Adams, Batts Allen, & Hancock, 2007). In individual responds with compassion.
sum, developing psychological flexibility is a While the evidence suggests that psychologi-
way of achieving more complex differentiation cal flexibility is beneficial in many, perhaps
and integration of the self and emotions, ulti- most, contexts, further research is obviously re-
mately enabling a focus on others that at the quired to delineate the elements of context (such
same time preserves a distinct sense of self. as individual histories and job roles) that may
Our exposition of psychological flexibility has moderate the impact of psychological flexibility
focused on separate subprocesses because we on compassionate responding. It is possible that
wish to generate propositions for further re- psychological flexibility might not be helpful in
search, as well as point to strategies for enhanc- some specific situations. For example, Mitmans-
ing individual compassion. But we recognize gruber, Beck, and Schussler (2008) found that,
that the subprocesses of psychological flexibil- contrary to the usual finding, paramedics ap-
ity are deeply interrelated. For example, it is peared to experience better well-being if they
hard to imagine how one can step back and take were not accepting of their thoughts and feel-
a perspective on thoughts without also accept- ings and instead made use of control-based
ing the presence of those thoughts in the sense strategies to minimize negative emotions. Para-
that one is willing to have them. Conversely, medics operate in an extreme context, with 15 to
acceptance of a thought cannot occur without 22 percent experiencing posttraumatic stress
awareness that one is having the thought. Ulti- disorder (Lowery & Stokes, 2005). Further re-
mately, we see both psychological flexibility search is required to explore whether, under
and compassion as functions of a whole organ- such extreme circumstances, psychological flex-
ism responding in context. ibility might interfere with compassionate re-
sponding in limited circumstances in the same
way that it may interfere with well-being.
Although we have kept the capability and mo-
Implications for Further Research
tivational elements of our model discrete in the
Further research investigating the relation- interests of clarity, there are opportunities for
ships between each of the elements of psycho- research investigating reciprocal relationships
logical flexibility and compassion is clearly between mindfulness and valuing processes. As
warranted. We recommend a triangulation of people notice their own and other’s experiences
methodologies. Qualitative accounts of why in- more deeply through mindfulness, they also no-
dividuals choose to help someone (or not) could tice more clearly what matters to them (values
be used to explore the role of appraisals and affirmation). Conversely, Verplanken and Hol-
psychological flexibility in compassion, such as land’s (2002) proposal that values affirmation
indicated by the quote that we referenced at the helps individual define and interpret situations,
beginning of the article. In addition, a survey attend to value-relevant information, and differ-
measure of psychological flexibility exists (Bond entially weight such information, together with
et al., 2011; Hayes, Strosahl, Wilson, et al., 2004), the claim by Crocker et al. that “values affirma-
an earlier version of which has been shown to tion enables people to transcend the self” (2008:
predict mental health and behavioral outcomes 746), suggests that values work may enable peo-
in longitudinal studies (Bond & Bunce, 2003). ple to be more mindful and take a more systemic
More research is required using this and other and long-term perspective. This, in turn, may
measures to explore associations between psy- potentially reduce the incidence of inappropri-
chological flexibility and compassionate re- ate actions to alleviate suffering—what Bud-
sponding as perceived by individuals. However, dhists sometimes call “idiot compassion.” For
2012 Atkins and Parker 541

example, a manager might try to “sugar coat” a fering, thereby leading to greater managerial
subordinate’s bad performance review or delay compassion.
a redundancy that is inevitable, both of which In this vein, one of the key advantages of a
will exacerbate problems in the long run. Again, focus on psychological flexibility over and
this is likely to be a defensive reaction born out above other individual-level constructs that are
of an immediate need to avoid suffering, rather potentially also associated with individual com-
than choosing to respond in accordance with passion (such as attachment security, self-
one’s longer term prosocial values. For example, esteem, or adult development) is that psycholog-
sometimes acting compassionately may involve ical flexibility is malleable and can be
withholding help and allowing the person to developed. In the context of work and perfor-
take responsibility for his or her own responses, mance improvement, acceptance and commit-
or a compassionate response might involve em- ment therapy-based training often begins with
pathic presence rather than jumping in to solve exercises to connect with one’s values and to
the other’s problem. Contacting prosocial values identify what matters most, and then moves
may also guide information processing to create through a variety of experiential exercises to
more effective compassionate action. enhance aspects of mindfulness. For example,
Finally, our analysis has implications for to cultivate a capacity to observe thoughts
thinking and research regarding organization- rather than be absorbed by them, people can be
al-level responses to enhance compassion. trained to regard their thoughts as if they were
Kanov et al. (2004) highlighted the way in which leaves drifting by on a stream. As another ex-
organizations can be designed to enhance col- ample, the “passengers on the bus” metaphor
lective noticing, feeling, and responding. Orga- (Hayes et al., 1999: 157–158) invites participants
nizational compassion also clearly involves col- to imagine they are driving a bus containing
lective appraisal processes. For example, what scary and undesirable passengers (representing
is supported as goal or identity relevant, who is aversive thoughts and feelings). The metaphor
seen as deserving, and what are the stories that is used to illustrate the ways in which attempt-
reflect and bolster coping self-efficacy? Weick ing to control difficult thoughts can lead to a
and Roberts’ (1993) notion of “heedful interrelat- constricted life, while at the same time illustrat-
ing” bears interesting similarities and differ- ing the power of acceptance to facilitate com-
ences to the construct of mindfulness as used mitted action in the direction of values. Al-
here. This exploration would, in a sense, answer though it is beyond the scope of this article to
Weick, Sutcliffe, and Obstfeld’s (2005) call to fur- elaborate the specific details of approaches to
ther explore the relations between organiza- enhancing psychological flexibility, Flaxman
tional sensemaking and emotion. and Bond (2006) provide illustrative protocols for
typical group-based workshops in an organiza-
tional setting (see also Gardner & Moore, 2007,
Practical Contributions
and Harris, 2009).
Organizations can take various steps to en- Given that such intensive interventions are
hance compassion, such as those put forward by likely to be costly, they might be targeted to
Dutton et al. (2007). However, our analysis sug- situations in which compassionate responding
gests these efforts might be wasted if one is most important, such as for those in care-
does not consider the capability and motivation giving roles or for those managing processes
of individuals to engage in compassion. For ex- like downsizing or other changes likely to cause
ample, recognizing the role of self-relevance ap- uncertainty and suffering among staff. Another
praisals highlights the need to ensure that indi- context where psychological flexibility training
viduals see caring and helping others as part of could be particularly powerful is in organiza-
their role, which, in turn, might be affected by tions or teams with diverse members where ap-
their work design (Parker, Wall, & Jackson, 1997). praisals of self-relevance and deservingness
Likewise, increasing managers’ coping self- may be less likely. In terms of roles, we have
efficacy through structured mastery opportuni- implied throughout this article that displaying
ties (Bandura, 1997) will likely promote more reg- compassion is likely to be especially important
ulated feelings of empathic concern, rather than for managers and leaders. This group is typi-
unregulated personal distress in the face of suf- cally responsible for performance management,
542 Academy of Management Review October

identifying and monitoring signs of staff stress Bandura, A. 1991. Social cognitive theory of self-regulation.
and suffering, and modeling compassion Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Pro-
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through their own actions (Dutton et al., 2007). At
the same time, leaders and managers often Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New
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have high workload pressures, making it chal-
lenging for them to contact the present moment Batson, C. D., & Ahmad, N. Y. 2009. Empathy-induced altru-
and “notice” suffering or to respond appropri- ism: A threat to the collective good. Altruism and Proso-
cial Behavior in Groups, 26: 1–23.
ately. Since these interventions can have other
positive consequences, including promoting Batson, C. D., Eklund, J. H., Chermok, V. L., Hoyt, J. L., & Ortiz,
B. G. 2007. An additional antecedent of empathic con-
better well-being and innovation, their positive
cern: Valuing the welfare of the person in need. Journal
implications for managers and leaders will of Personality and Social Psychology, 93: 65–74.
likely transcend enhancing compassion.
Bem, D. J. 1967. Self-perception: An alternative interpretation
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compassion, attention should be paid to the way
Block-Lerner, J., Adair, C., Plumb, J. C., Rhatigan, D. L., &
people make sense of their social experiences. Orsillo, S. M. 2007. The case for mindfulness-based ap-
Once this is done, recent advances in the under- proaches in the cultivation of empathy: Does nonjudg-
standing of cognition and emotions can be mental, present-moment awareness increase capacity
drawn upon to help develop both the capability for perspective-taking and empathic concern? Journal of
and the motivation to be compassionate. The Marital and Family Therapy, 33: 501–516.
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psychological flexibility on work redesign: Mediated
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space can be made for people to express and
Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Gue-
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Paul W. B. Atkins ([Link]@[Link]) is an associate professor in leadership

and organizational behavior at the Crawford School of Economics and Government,
Australian National University, Canberra. He received his Ph.D. in psychology from
Cambridge University. His research interests include perspective taking, empathy,
defensiveness, identity, self-determination, and mindfulness effects on engagement,
well-being, and performance.

Sharon K. Parker ([Link]@[Link]) is a Winthrop Professor in Organiza-

tional Behavior at the Business School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, and
an Australian Research Council Future Fellow. She received her Ph.D. from the
University of Sheffield. Her research interests include proactivity, work design, team-
work, organizational change, self-efficacy, perspective taking, and well-being.