Khajuraho Group of

Monuments

The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a

group of Hindu and Jain temples in
Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh, India, about
175 kilometres (109 mi) southeast of
Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World
Heritage Sites in India.[1][2] The temples
are famous for their nagara-style
architectural symbolism and their erotic
sculptures.[3]
Khajuraho Group of Monuments

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Location Chhatarpur, Madhya

Pradesh, India
Criteria Cultural: i, iii
Reference 240
Inscription 1986 (10th Session)
Coordinates 24°51′16″N 79°55′17″E
 Location in
Madhya Pradesh
state of India
Show map of India

Most Khajuraho temples were built

between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela
dynasty.[4][5] Historical records note that
the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples
by the 12th century, spread over 20 square
kilometers Of these, only about 25 temples
have survived, spread over 6 square
kilometers.[2] Of the various surviving
temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
is decorated with a profusion of sculptures
with intricate details, symbolism and
expressiveness of ancient Indian art.[6]

The Khajuraho group of temples were built

together but were dedicated to two
religions, Hinduism and Jainism,
suggesting a tradition of acceptance and
respect for diverse religious views among
Hindus and Jains in the region.[7]

Location
The Khajuraho monuments are located in
the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in
Chhatarpur district, about 620 kilometres
(385 mi) southeast of New Delhi.The
temples are located near a small town
also known as Khajuraho,[8] with a
population of about 20,000 people (2001
Census).

Khajuraho is served by Civil Aerodrome

Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), with services
to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi and Mumbai.[9]
The site is also linked by the Indian
Railways service, with the railway station
located approximately six kilometres from
the entrance to the monuments .

The monuments are about 10 kilometres

off the east-west National Highway 75,
and about 50 kilometres from the city of
Chhatarpur, which is connected to the
state capital Bhopal by the SW-NE running
National Highway 86.

The 10th century Bhand Deva Temple in

Rajasthan was built in the style of the
Khajuraho monuments and is often
referred to as 'Little Khajuraho'.

History
The Khajuraho group of monuments was
built during the rule of the Chandela
dynasty. The building activity started
almost immediately after the rise of their
power, throughout their kingdom to be
later known as Bundelkhand.[10] Most
temples were built during the reigns of the
Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga.
Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by
The Lakshmana Temple. Vishvanatha
temple best highlights King Dhanga's
reign.[11]:22 The largest and currently most
famous surviving temple is Kandariya
Mahadeva built in the reign of King
Vidyadhara.[12] The temple inscriptions
suggest many of the currently surviving
temples were complete between 970 and
1030 CE, with further temples completed
during the following decades.[7]

The Khajuraho temples were built about 35

miles from the medieval city of Mahoba,[13]
the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the
Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval
literature, their kingdom has been referred
to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and
Jejakabhukti.[14]

Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-

Biruni, the Persian historian who
accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his
raid of Kalinjar in 1022 CE; he mentions
Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti.[15]
The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace
accord was reached when the Hindu king
agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of
Ghazni to end the attack and leave.[14]
Khajuraho temples were in active use
through the end of the 12th century. This
changed in the 13th century; after the
army of Delhi Sultanate, under the
command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-
din Aibak, attacked and seized the
Chandela kingdom. About a century later,
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his
memoirs about his stay in India from 1335
to 1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho
temples, calling them "Kajarra"[16][17] as
follows:
Until the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu
kings and featured 85 temples. Central India was
seized by Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. Under
Muslim rule, many temples were destroyed and the
rest left in neglect. Ruins of some old temples (Ghantai
temple above) are still visible.

...near (Khajuraho) temples,

which contain idols that have
been mutilated by the Moslems,
live a number of yogis whose
matted locks have grown as
long as their bodies. And on
account of extreme asceticism
they are all yellow in colour.
 Many Moslems attend these men
in order to take lessons (yoga)
from them.

— Ibn Battuta, about 1335

CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah,
Translated by Arthur
Cotterell[18]

Central Indian region, where Khajuraho

temples are, remained in the control of
many different Muslim dynasties from the
13th century through the 18th century. In
this period, some temples were
desecrated, followed by a long period
when they were left in neglect.[7][10] In
1495 CE, for example, Sikandar Lodi’s
campaign of temple destruction included
Khajuraho.[19] The remoteness and
isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu
and Jain temples from continued
destruction by Muslims.[20][21] Over the
centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew,
took over the temples.

In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British

surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they
were thus rediscovered by the global
audience.[22] Alexander Cunningham later
reported, few years after the rediscovery,
that the temples were secretly in use by
yogis and thousands of Hindus would
arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri
celebrated annually in February or March
based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey
prepared earliest drawings of the
Khajuraho temples.[23]

Nomenclature

The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, is

derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura,
खजूर means date palm,[24] and vāhaka,
वाहक means "one who carries" or
bearer[25]). Local legends state that the
temples had two golden date-palm trees
as their gate (missing when they were
rediscovered). Desai states that
Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion
bearer, which is another symbolic name
for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and
scorpion garlands in his fierce form).[26]

Cunningham’s nomenclature and

systematic documentation work in 1850s
and 1860s have been widely adopted and
continue to be in use.[23] He grouped the
temples into the Western group around
Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri,
and Southern group around Duladeva.[27]

Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites

linked to deity Shiva (the other three are
Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and
design is a subject of scholarly studies.
Shobita Punja[28] has proposed that the
temple’s origin reflect the Hindu mythology
in which Khajuraho is the place where
Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha
verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring
‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.

Description

Sections and orientation of Khajuraho temples.

The temple site is within Vindhya
mountain range in central India. An ancient
local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva
and other gods enjoyed visiting the
dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area.[27]
The center of this region is Khajuraho, set
midst local hills and rivers. The temple
complex reflects the ancient Hindu
tradition of building temples where gods
love to pray.[27][29]

The temples are clustered near water,

another typical feature of Hindu temples.
The current water bodies include Sib
Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal)
and Khudar Nadi (river).[30] The local
legends state that the temple complex had
64 water bodies, of which 56 have been
physically identified by archeologists so
far.[27][31]

All temples, except[27] one (Chaturbhuja)

face sunrise - another symbolic feature
that is predominant in Hindu temples. The
relative layout of temples integrate
masculine and feminine deities and
symbols highlight the interdependence.[28]
The art work symbolically highlight the
four goals of life considered necessary
and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama,
artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated
to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and
his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3
to Jain Tirthankars.[27] For some ruins,
there is insufficient evidence to assign the
temple to specific deities with confidence.

An overall examination of site suggests

that the Hindu symbolic mandala design
principle of square and circles is present
each temple plan and design.[32] Further,
the territory is laid out in three triangles
that converge to form a pentagon.
Scholars suggest that this reflects the
Hindu symbolism for three realms or
trilokinatha, and five cosmic substances or
panchbhuteshvara.[27] The temple site
highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and
recycles life, thereby controlling the
cosmic dance of time, evolution and
dissolution.[28]

The temples have a rich display of

intricately carved statues. While they are
famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual
themes cover less than 10% of the temple
sculpture.[33] Further, most erotic scene
panels are neither prominent nor
emphasized at the expense of the rest,
rather they are in proportional balance with
the non-sexual images.[34] The viewer has
to look closely to find them, or be directed
by a guide.[35] The arts cover numerous
aspects of human life and values
considered important in Hindu pantheon.
Further, the images are arranged in a
configuration to express central ideas of
Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas
are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples -
Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.[36]

The Beejamandal temple is under

excavation. It has been identified with the
Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the
Grahpati Kokalla inscription.[37]

Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple

remains an active site of worship.[28] It is
another square grid temple, with a large
2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres
(3.6 ft) diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6
metres (25 ft) diameter platform.[27]

The most visited temple, Kandariya

Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500
square feet and a shikhara (spire) that
rises 116 feet.[10][27]

Jain temples

The Jain temples are located on east-

southeast region of Khajuraho
monuments.[38] Chausath jogini temple
features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple
features bells sculptured on its pillars.
Architecture of the temples

The layout plan of Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. It

uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho
temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.[39]

Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu

temple designs, follow a grid geometrical
design called vastu-purusha-mandala.[40]
This design plan has three important
components - Mandala means circle,
Purusha is universal essence at the core of
Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the
dwelling structure.[41]

The design lays out a Hindu temple in a

symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-
repeating structure around the core of the
temple called garbhagriya, where the
abstract principle Purusha and the primary
deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or
spire, of the temple rises above the
garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure
in design is derived from central beliefs,
myths, cardinality and mathematical
principles.[42]
The circle of mandala circumscribe the
square. The square is considered divine
for its perfection and as a symbolic
product of knowledge and human thought,
while circle is considered earthly, human
and observed in everyday life (moon, sun,
horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each
supports the other.[29] The square is
divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called
padas.[40]

Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8

(64) padas grid Manduka
Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala
the square grid incorporated in the design
of the spires.[39] The primary deity or
lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma
padas.

Khajuraho temples use the 8x8 (64)

Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left)
found in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma
padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises
symmetrically above the central core, typically in a
circles and turning-squares concentric layering design
(right) that flows from one to the other as it rises
( g )
towards the sky.[29][43]

The architecture is symbolic and reflects

the central Hindu beliefs through its form,
structure and arrangement of its parts.[44]
The mandapas as well as the arts are
arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a
symmetric repeating patterns, even though
each image or sculpture is distinctive in its
own way. The relative placement of the
images are not random but together they
express ideas, just like connected words
form sentences and paragraphs to
compose ideas.[45] This fractal pattern that
is common in Hindu temples.[46] Various
statues and panels have inscriptions.
Many of the inscriptions on the temple
walls are poems with double meanings,
something that the complex structure of
Sanskrit allows in creative
compositions.[26]

All Khajuraho temples, except one, face

sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee
is this east side.
An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Shikhara,
Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-
squares principle. Four spires (left) are shown above,
while the inside view of one Shikara ceiling (right)
shows the symmetric layout.

Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each

temple is a superstructure with a dome
called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire).[41]
Variations in spire design come from
variation in degrees turned for the
squares. The temple Shikhara, in some
literature, is linked to mount Kailash or
Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.[29]
In each temple, the central space typically
is surrounded by an ambulatory for the
pilgrim to walk around and ritually
circumambulate the Purusa and the main
deity.[29] The pillars, walls and ceilings
around the space, as well as outside have
highly ornate carvings or images of the
four just and necessary pursuits of life -
kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This
clockwise walk around is called
pradakshina.[41]

Larger Khajuraho temples also have

pillared halls called mandapa. One near
the entrance, on the east side, serves as
the waiting room for pilgrims and
devotees. The mandapas are also
arranged by principles of symmetry, grids
and mathematical precision. This use of
same underlying architectural principle is
common in Hindu temples found all over
India.[47] Each Khajuraho temple is
distinctly carved yet also repeating the
central common principles in almost all
Hindu temples, one which Susan
Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of
repeating cells".[48]

Construction
The temples are grouped into three
geographical divisions: western, eastern
and southern.

The Khajuraho temples are made of

sandstone, with a granite foundation that
is almost concealed from view.[49] The
builders didn't use mortar: the stones were
put together with mortise and tenon joints
and they were held in place by gravity. This
form of construction requires very precise
joints. The columns and architraves were
built with megaliths that weighed up to 20
tons.[50] Some repair work in the 19th
Century was done with brick and mortar;
however these have aged faster than
original materials and darkened with time,
thereby seeming out of place.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home
to superior quality of sandstone, which can
be precision carved. The surviving
sculpture reflect fine details such as
strands of hair, manicured nails and
intricate jewelry.

While recording the television show Lost

Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho,
Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture
under 4 feet that took about 60 days to
carve in an attempt to develop a rough
idea how much work must have been
involved.[51] Roger Hopkins and Mark
Lehner also conducted experiments to
quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen
22 days to quarry about 400 tons of
stone.[52] They concluded that these
temples would have required hundreds of
highly trained sculptors.

Western side.

Chronology
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to
Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism
school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a
third each. Archaeological studies suggest
all three types of temples were under
construction at about the same time in the
late 10th century, and in use
simultaneously. Will Durant states that this
aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates
the tolerance and respect for different
religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain
traditions.[53] In each group of Khajuraho
temples, there were major temples
surrounded by smaller temples - a grid
style that is observed to varying degrees in
Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran
and South India.
The largest surviving Saiva temple is
Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest
surviving Vaishnava group includes
Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft

in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above
ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The
central padas are surrounded by three
rows of sculptured figures, with over 870
statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3
feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal
structure.

Temples, religious affiliations and

consecration years
 Completed
Sequence Modern Temple name Religion Deity by Image
(CE)[27][54]

1 Chausath Yogini Hinduism Devi, 64 Yoginis 885

2 Lalgun Mahadev Hinduism Shiva 900

3 Brahma Hinduism Vishnu 925

4 Lakshmana Hinduism Vaikuntha Vishnu 939

5 Varaha Hinduism Vishnu 950

6 Parshvanatha Jainism Parshvanatha 954

7 Ghantai Jainism Adinatha 960

8 Mahishasuramardini Hinduism Mahishasuramardini 995

9 Vishvanatha Hinduism Shiva 999

10 Matangeshwar Hinduism Shiva 1000

11 Vishnu-Garuda Hinduism Vishnu 1000

12 Ganesha Hinduism Shiva 1000

13 Devi Jagadambi Hinduism Devi, Parvati 1023

14 Chitragupta Hinduism Sun, Chitragupta 1023

15 Adinath Temple Jainism Adinatha 1027

16 Shantinatha temple Jainism Shantinatha 1027

Kandariya Mahadeva (Largest

 Kandariya Mahadeva (Largest
17 Hinduism Shiva 1029
temple)

18 Vamana Hinduism Vamana 1062

19 Javeri Hinduism Vishnu 1090

20 Chaturbhuja Hinduism Vishnu 1110

21 Duladeo (Duladeva) Hinduism Shiva 1125

Arts and sculpture

Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic arts.
These constitute about 10% of total art displayed at
the monuments.

Erotic sculptures

The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of

art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic
art outside and inside the temples. Some
of the temples that have two layers of
walls have small erotic carvings on the
outside of the inner wall. Some scholars
suggest these to be tantric sexual
practices.[55] Other scholars state that the
erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of
treating kama as an essential and proper
part of human life, and its symbolic or
explicit display is common in Hindu
temples.[6][56] James McConnachie, in his
history of the Kamasutra, describes the
sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as
"the apogee of erotic art":

"Twisting, broad-hipped and

high breasted nymphs display
their generously contoured and
bejewelled bodies on exquisitely
worked exterior wall panels.
These fleshy apsaras run riot
across the surface of the stone,
putting on make-up, washing
their hair, playing games,
dancing, and endlessly knotting
and unknotting their
girdles....Beside the heavenly
nymphs are serried ranks of
griffins, guardian deities and,
most notoriously, extravagantly
interlocked maithunas, or
lovemaking couples."
Over 90% of the art work at the temple is about daily
life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture.

The temples have several thousand

statues and art works, with Kandarya
Mahadeva Temple alone decorated with
over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic
carvings contain sexual themes and
various sexual poses. A common
misconception is that, since the old
structures with carvings in Khajuraho are
temples, the carvings depict sex between
deities;[57] however the kama arts
represent diverse sexual expressions of
different human beings.[58] The vast
majority of arts depict various aspects the
everyday life, mythical stories as well as
symbolic display of various secular and
spiritual values important in Hindu
tradition.[2][6] For example, depictions
show women putting on makeup,
musicians making music, potters, farmers,
and other folks in their daily life during the
medieval era.[59] These scenes are in the
outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.
There is iconographic symbolism
embedded in the arts displayed in
Khajuraho temples.[6] Core Hindu values
are expressed in multitude of ways. Even
the Kama scenes, when seen in
combination of sculptures that precede
and follow, depict the spiritual themes
such as moksha. In the words of Stella
Kramrisch,

This state which is “like a man

and woman in close embrace” is
a symbol of moksa, final release
or reunion of two principles, the
 essence (Purusha) and the
nature (Prakriti).

— Stella Kramrisch, 1976[29]

The Khajuraho temples represent one

expression of many forms of arts that
flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India
from 8th through 10th century CE. For
example, contemporary with Khajuraho
were the publications of poems and drama
such as Prabodhacandrodaya,
Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and
Kavyamimansa.[60] Some of the themes
expressed in these literary works are
carved as sculpture in Khajuraho
temples.[26][61] Some sculptures at the
Khajuraho monuments dedicated to
Vishnu include the Vyalas, which are hybrid
imaginary animals with lions body, and are
found in other Indian temples.[62] Some of
these hybrid mythical art work include Vrik
Vyala (hybrid of wolf and lion) and Gaja
Vyala (hybrid of elephant and lion). These
Vyalas may represent syncretic, creative
combination of powers innate in the
two.[63]

Tourism and cultural events

Temples layout map – Khajuraho Group of
Monuments.

The temples in Khajuraho are broadly

divided into three parts : the Eastern group,
the Southern Group and the Western group
of temples of which the Western group
alone has the facility of an Audio guided
tour wherein the tourists are guided
through the seven eight temples. There is
also an audio guided tour developed by the
Archaeological Survey of India which
includes a narration of the temple history
and architecture.[64]

The Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every

year in February.[65] It features various
classical Indian dances set against the
backdrop of the Chitragupta or
Vishwanath Temples.

The Khajuraho temple complex offers a

light and sound show every evening. The
first show is in English language and the
second one in Hindi. It is held in the open
lawns in the temple complex, and has
received mixed reviews.
The temples are believed to celebrate the
marriage of Shiva and Parvathi. Maha
Shivaratri is celebrated in all the temples
during which verses of Rudram are
chanted, while the priests enact the divine
marriage of Shiva and Parvathi.[66] The
Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development
has set up kiosks at the Khajuraho railway
station, with tourist officers to provide
information for Khajuraho visitors.

See also
List of megalithic sites
Jain temples of Khajuraho
Ajanta Caves
 Badami Chalukya architecture
Western Chalukya architecture
Hindu temple
Madan Kamdev
Hemvati
Kama Sutra
Kamashastra
Khajuraho travel guide from
Wikivoyage

References
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in India" .
2. Khajuraho Group of Monuments
UNESCO World Heritage Site
3. Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People,
Place, Culture and History, ISBN 978-
1405329040, pp 352-353
4. Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed.
India through the ages. Publication Division,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Government of India. p. 179.
5. "Khajuraho Group of Monuments" .
6. Devangana Desai (2005), Khajuraho,
Oxford University Press, Sixth Print,
ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
7. James Fergusson, Northern or Indo-
Aryan Style - Khajuraho History of Indian
and Eastern Architecture, Updated by
James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910),
Volume II, John Murray, London
8. "Census of India 2001: Data from the
2001 Census, including cities, villages and
towns (Provisional)" . Census Commission
of India. Archived from the original on
2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
9. Khajuraho airport Archived 8 July 2015
at the Wayback Machine. AAI, Govt of India
10. G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture,
ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005,
pp 19-24
11. Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of
Medieval Indian History. Primus Books.
ISBN 9789380607344.
12. Devangana Desai 2005, p. 10.
13. also called Erakana
14. Mitra (1977), The early rulers of
Khajuraho, ISBN 978-8120819979
15. J. Banerjea (1960), Khajuraho, Journal
of the Asiatic Society, Vol. 2-3, pp 43-47
16. phonetically translated from Arabic
sometimes as "Kajwara"
17. Director General of Archaeology in India
(1959), Archaeological Survey of India,
Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46
(Archived: University of Michigan)
18. Arthur Cotterell (2011), Asia: A Concise
History, Wiley, ISBN 978-0470825044, pp
184-185
19. Michael D. Willis, An Introduction to the
Historical Geography of Gopakṣetra,
Daśārṇa, and Jejākadeśa, Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London, Vol. 51, No. 2 (1988),
pp. 271-278; See also K.R. Qanungo (1965),
Sher Shah and his times, Orient Longmans,
OCLC 175212 , pp 423-427
20. Trudy King et al., Asia and Oceania:
International Dictionary of Historic Places,
ISBN 978-1884964046, Routledge, pp 468-
470
21. Alain Daniélou (2011), A Brief History of
India, ISBN 978-1594770296, pp 221-227
22. Louise Nicholson (2007), India, National
Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426201448,
see Chapter on Khajuraho
23. Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of
Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaeological
Survey of India, New Delhi
24. kharjUra Sanskrit English Dictionary,
Koeln University, Germany
25. vAhaka Sanskrit English Dictionary,
Koeln University, Germany
26. Devangana Desai (1996), Chapter 7 -
Puns and Enigmatic Language in Sculpture
in The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho,
Project for Indian Cultural Studies,
Columbia University Archives
27. Rana Singh (2007), Landscape of
sacred territory of Khajuraho, in City Society
and Planning (Editors: Thakur, Pomeroy, et
al), Volume 2, ISBN 978-8180694585,
Chapter 18
28. Shobita Punja (1992), Divine Ecstasy -
The Story of Khajuraho, Viking, New Delhi,
ISBN 978-0670840274
29. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol
1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-
0222-3
30. Ibn Battuta in his 1335 CE memoirs on
Delhi Sultanate mentioned the temples to
be near a mile long lake, modern water
bodies are much smaller and separate
lagoons; Director General of Archaeology in
India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India,
Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46
(Archived: University of Michigan)
31. The number 64 is considered sacred in
Hindu temple design and very common
design basis; it is symbolic as it is both a
square of 8 and a cube of 4.
32. Brahma temple is 19 feet square;
Kandariya Mahadev has a four fused square
grid; Matangeshvara temple is a 64 grid
square; etc. See G.S. Ghurye, Rajput
Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint
Year: 2005, pp 19-25; and V.A. Smith (1879),
"Observations on some Chandel
Antiquities", Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol.
48, Part 1, pp 291-297
33. D Desai (1996), The religious imagery of
Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural
Studies, ISBN 978-8190018418
34. Desai states that Khajuraho and Orissa
Hindu temples are distinctive in giving
erotic kama images the same weight as
others and by assigning important
architectural position; in contrast, surviving
sculpture from temples of Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Mysore show that there
kama and sexual images were assigned to
insignificant parts of the temple; Meister
suggests that this aspect of eroticism in
temple design and equal weight reflects
evolution of design ideas among Hindu
artisans, with temples built in later medieval
centuries placing equal weight and balance
to kama; see Meister, Michael (1979).
"Juncture and Conjunction: Punning and
Temple Architecture". Artibus Asiae. 41 (2–
3): 226–234. doi:10.2307/3249517 .
JSTOR 3249517 .
35. Edmund Leach, The Harvey Lecture
Series. The Gatekeepers of Heaven:
Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose
Architecture, Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp
243-264
36. Bettina Bäumer, A review, Artibus Asiae,
Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1999), pp. 138-140
37. Cunningham, Alexander (1880). Report
of Tours in Bundelkhand and Malwa in
1874-75 and 1876-77 . 8 Hastings Street,
Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of
Government Printing. p. 22. Retrieved 8 May
2017.
38. James Fergusson, Jaina Architecture -
Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern
Architecture, Updated by James Burgess
and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John
Murray, London
39. Meister, Michael W. (April–June 1979).
"Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara
Architecture in North India". Journal of the
American Oriental Society. 99 (2): 204–219.
doi:10.2307/602657 . JSTOR 602657 .
40. Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and
Measure in Indian Temple Plans:
Rectangular Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44
(4): 266–296. doi:10.2307/3249613 .
JSTOR 3249613 .
41. Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple
in South India, in Buildings and Society:
Essays on the Social Development of the
Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor),
ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69
42. Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu
Temple Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
43. Meister, Michael W. (March 2006).
"Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains:
Masrur". Journal of the Society of
Architectural Historians. 65 (1): 26–49.
doi:10.2307/25068237 . JSTOR 25068237 .
44. Meister, Michael W. (Autumn 1986). "On
the Development of a Morphology for a
Symbolic Architecture: India". RES:
Anthropology and Aesthetics. Peabody
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology
(12): 33–50. JSTOR 20166752 .
45. Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, Oxford
University Press Paperback (Sixth
impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
46. Rian et al (2007), Fractal geometry as
the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in
Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho,
Building and Environment, Vol 42, Issue 12,
pp 4093-4107,
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
47. Trivedi, K. (1989). Hindu temples:
models of a fractal universe. The Visual
Computer, 5(4), 243-258
48. Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple
in South India, in Buildings and Society:
Essays on the Social Development of the
Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor),
ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter
4
49. V.A. Smith, "Observations on some
Chandel Antiquities", Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, Volume 48, pp 290-291
50. "Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History
channel
51. "Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History
Channel
52. Lehner, Mark (1997) The Complete
Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225
53. Will Durant (1976), Our Oriental Heritage
- The Story of Civilization, ISBN 978-
0671548001, Simon & Schuster
54. From inscription or estimated from
other evidence
55. Rabe (2000), Secret Yantras and Erotic
Display for Hindu Temples, Tantra in
Practice (Editor: David White), ISBN 978-
8120817784, Chapter 25, pp 434-446
56. See:
Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and
the Religious Arts, ISBN 978-
0304707393, Bloomsbury;
Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple,
Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pp 92-
96;
Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu
Temple: Deification of Eroticism,
ISBN 978-0892818549, pp 101-119
57. "Khajuraho" . Liveindia.com. Retrieved
on 2014-07-14.
58. Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu
Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-
0892818549
59. George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An
Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms,
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-
0226532301, pp 117-123 and pp 56-58
60. L. H. Gray, Journal of American Society,
Vol. 27
61. H.M. Woodward (1989), The Lakṣmaṇa
Temple, Khajuraho, and Its Meanings, Ars
Orientalis, Vol. 19, pp. 27-48
62. Smith, David (1 January 2013).
"Monstrous Animals on Hindu Temples,
with Special Reference to Khajuraho" : 27–
43. doi:10.1558/rosa.v7i1-3.27 . Retrieved
9 February 2015.
63. The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho, and
Its Meanings, Hiram W. Woodward, Jr., Ars
Orientalis, Vol. 19, (1989), pp. 27-48
64. Tourists to Khajuraho will now have an
audio compass The Times of India (25
August 2011)
65. Khajuraho Festival of Dances
66. Ramakrishna, Lalitha (September 2018).
"Grand temples of Madhya Pradesh".
Tattvaloka. Sringeri: Sri Abhinava
Vidyatheertha Mahaswamigal Eductional
Trust. XLI (6): 47–52. ISSN 0970-8901 .

Further reading
M.R. Anand and Stella Kramrisch,
Homage to Khajuraho, OCLC 562891704
Alain Daniélou, The Hindu Temple:
Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-
0892818549
Prasenjit Dasgupta, Khajuraho,
Patralekha, Kolkata, 2014
Devangana Desai, The Religious Imagery
of Khajuraho, Franco-Indian Research P.
Ltd. (1996) ISBN 81-900184-1-8
 Devangana Desai (2005). Khajuraho
(Sixth impression ed.). Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565391-5.
Phani Kant Mishra, Khajuraho: With
Latest Discoveries, Sundeep Prakashan
(2001) ISBN 81-7574-101-5
L. A. Narain, Khajuraho: Temples of
Ecstasy. New Delhi: Lustre Press (1986)

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Khajuraho group of monuments.

Khajuraho travel guide from Wikivoyage

 Khajuraho Group of Monuments
UNESCO
Archaeological Survey of India, Bhopal
Division
R. Nath Mughal Architecture Image
Collection, Images of Khajuraho -
University of Washington Digital
Collection

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