Vocabulary Development |1

VOCABULARY

What's so magical about words?

Words, of course, are the coinage of communication,
and they have far reaching effects (Pauk, 1974).

Words are unique and interesting. A limited vocabulary keeps you from expressing your real thoughts and
feelings. A strong vocabulary gives you the right words to use at the right time.

Vocabulary building takes patience and continued effort. Your vocabulary can and should be a reflection of
you. Your vocabulary is you. And like you, your vocabulary should be alive. It should change and grow to
meet your needs.

The Purpose of Vocabulary

Words are great subjects to investigate. When you become a student of language, and delight in
discovering word relationships, and become aware of how you can make words work for you, you are more
likely to stop when you encounter an unfamiliar word and consider its meaning. If you do this, you will
become a master of words and your vocabulary will grow. You must develop strategies to conquer
unfamiliar words when you find them in your college textbooks and in your learning to make words work for
you. (Hennings, p. xvii)

Why Vocabulary Development Counts

• Vocabulary is a basic part of reading comprehension. If you don't know enough words, you are
going to have trouble understanding what you read. An occasional word may not stop you, but if
there are too many words you don't know, comprehension will suffer. The content of textbooks is
often challenging enough; you don't want to work as well on understanding the words that express
that content.
• Vocabulary is a major part of almost every standardized test, including reading achievement tests,
college entrance exams, and armed forces and vocational placement tests. Vocabulary is a key
measure of both one's learning and one's ability to learn. The more words you know, then, the
better you are likely to do on such important tests.
• Studies have indicated that students with strong vocabularies are more successful in school and
that a good vocabulary is an influential factor for people who enjoy successful careers in life.
Words are the tools not just of better reading, but of better writing, speaking, listening,
and thinking as well. The more words you have at your command, the more effective your
communication can be, and the more influence you can have on the people around you.
• In today's world, a good vocabulary counts more than ever. Many jobs provide services or process
information, and the skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking are essential. The keys to
survival and success in the workplace are the abilities to communicate skillfully and learn quickly. a
solid vocabulary is essential for both of these skills (Nist & Mohr).

Improving your Vocabulary

Throughout your college years, new words will be flooding into your consciousness. Many of them are the
keys to ideas and information that will be new to you. When students have trouble in a course, the trouble
can often be traced back to their imperfect comprehension of terms that are essential to an understanding
of subject matter. A first-year science or social science course may introduce you to almost as many new
words as a first course in a foreign language. Then there are also words which may not literally be new to
you, but which have specific meanings within the context of a specific course and therefore must be
learned as if they were new words.

For a college student, a large, wide-ranging vocabulary is a necessary tool for grasping fundamental ideas
and facts. Words are the tools of communication, learning, and thinking, and a student with an inadequate
vocabulary cannot function effectively and efficiently.

Collocations: words that go together

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To collocate is “to group or chunk together” in a certain order or place side by side. Basically, collocation is
an aspect of language that deals with the appropriate combinations of words. An example of collocation
that many learners of English may be familiar with is the different adjectives that are used to describe a
good-looking man and a good-looking woman. We talk of a beautiful woman and of a handsome man, but
rarely of a beautiful man or a handsome woman.

In another familiar example of collocation, we talk of high mountains and tall trees, but not usually of tall
mountains and high trees. Similarly a man can be tall but never high (except in the sense of being
intoxicated!), whereas a ceiling can only be high, not tall. A big house, a large house and a great house
have the same meaning, but a great man is not the same as a big man or a large man. You can make a
big mistake or a great mistake, but you cannot make a large mistake.

Here are some questions to test your knowledge of collocations:

• What is the difference between a high window and a tall window?

• Look at the following pairs of phrases and in each case choose the most usual collocation:
o strong tea / powerful tea
o a strong car / a powerful car
o a strong computer / a powerful computer
o a strong drug /a powerful drug
• Now look at the following words and phrases and decide if we do them or make them. For
example, do we do a mess or make a mess?

a mess a mistake the housework the beds

a noise a wish a test a promise
a job someone a favor your best a speech
the shopping Damage a telephone call your hair (i.e. comb it or make it tidy

Finally, here are some odds and ends. See if you know the correct collocations in answer to the following
questions?

• The opposite of strong tea is weak tea. What is the opposite of strong cigarettes, a strong wind, a
strong smell?
• What is the usual way of describing someone who smokes a lot?
o a big smoker
o a strong smoker
o a hard smoker
o a heavy smoker
o a furious smoker
• Someone can be very tired, but not very awake or very asleep. What do we say instead?
• What is the opposite of sweet wine?
• Which of the following are the usual collocations?
o completely beautiful
o incredibly beautiful
o absolutely beautiful
o extremely beautiful
o totally beautiful
o utterly beautiful
o thoroughly beautiful
• The following collocations are incorrect. Can you sort them out?
o to get in a building
o to get on a car
o to go in a ship

Answers

• A high window is a window that is located a long way from the ground, whereas a tall window
measures a long way from top to bottom.
• We talk of strong tea, a powerful car and a powerful computer. A drug can be both strong and
powerful.

• These are the usual collocations with make or do:

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make a mess make a mistake do the housework make or do the beds

make a noise make a wish do a test make a promise
do a job do someone a favor do your best make a speech
do your hair (i.e. comb it or
do the shopping do damage make a telephone call
make it tidy
• Odds and ends. Here are the usual collocations:
o mild cigarettes, a light wind, a faint smell
o a heavy smoker
o wide awake; sound asleep or fast asleep
o dry wine
o to get in a car; to get on a ship; to go in a building
o incredibly beautiful; extremely beautiful (and possibly: utterly beautiful)

Cline: graded sequence of word

Cline refers to a list of words dealing with the same concept, arranged in order of intensity. For example a
list could be made with words like "freezing", "cold", "cool", "tepid", "warm", "hot", and "scorching".

Cline is derived from the Greek word “klino” meaning “to slope”. Words in a cline would fit into the same
statement, but each would have a different meaning. Say, “The water is freezing.” (cold, cool, tepid, warm,
hot, scorching).

The positive terms must be on top of the cline.

1. ecstatic, furious, very pleased, angry, annoyed, pleased, rather pleased, displeased, indifferent.

(ecstatic – overjoyed; very pleased; pleased; rather pleased; indifferent – no emotion; displeased;
annoyed; angry; furious – violently angry)

2. zero, acute, obtuse, perigon, right, straight

3. girl, woman, lady

4. more, most, much, lesser, least, less

5. hot, warm, boiling

Clusters: group of similar or related things

A cluster is a group of similar words or related things. Such words may not be clined because it is not easy
to show a sequential degree of meaning. Thus, they may be written around a word which serves as cover
term. The words may be related because they are similar in meaning; they belong to the same
classification; they have some peculiar common characteristics; or they are evoked when the cover term is
mentioned.

skill: dexterity, mastery, ability, competence, expertise, versatility, proficiency, talent

mammals: cattle, cheetah, cat, camel, chimpanzee, coyote
philosophers: Plato, Aristotle, Carl Jung, Karl Marx,
library: books, shelves, librarian, theses, gallery, reserved

Configuration: arrangement of parts

Configuration is the arrangement of the parts of something. It refers to the information given through the
size and shape of the letters as well as through the length or the number of letters there are in the word.

Creativity: originality of thought

To create is to cause or to come into existence. This study technique is characterized by originality of
thought or by the use of the imagination.

a. Neologisms. These are newly coined words or phrases or familiar words used in a new
sense. For instance, a new invention or discovery will mean a new term or name to identify it.

bad tongue day, noun

A day in which a person frequently mispronounces words and stumbles over sentences.
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awkword, noun
A word that is difficult to pronounce.
hasbian, noun
A former lesbian who is now in a heterosexual relationship. Also known as a wasbian.
inloviduals, noun
Lovers who maintain their independence and individuality. The writers Michael Holroyd and
Margaret Drabble, who for the first 15 years of their marriage lived in separate houses, provide
the archetype.
intexticated, adj.
Preoccupied by reading or sending text messages, particularly while driving a car.
weisure, n.
Free time spent doing work or work-related tasks. [Blend of work and leisure.]

b. Eponyms. Many words tell interesting tales about their origins. Wittingly or unwittingly, few
people and places have left their names for posterity through words that were coined after them.
These words are derived from the names of real, fictional, mythical or spurious persons, places or
characters, although many of these Eponyms come from the persons surnames.

b.1. Names from literature. The names of literary characters, places, and events are the
sources of many words. These include myths, legends, and Bible stories.

Aegis - Protection, sponsorship. The shield or buckler belonging to Zeus, supposedly made by
Hephaestus, decorated with golden tassels and containing the head of Medusa in the center. From
Greek mythology.
Ambrosia - Something extremely pleasing to taste or smell. A food or drink of the gods from Greek
mythology.
Aphrodisiac (Aphrodite) - An agent (as a food or drug) that arouses or is held to arouse sexual desire.
From Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, lust, beauty, and sexuality.
Atlas - A bound collection of maps often including illustrations, informative tables, or textual matter.
From Atlas, one of the primordial Titans in Greek mythology, whose punishment was to hold the sky
upon his shoulders.
Aurora - Dawn. From Aurora, the Roman goddess of dawn.
Berserk - Frenzied, crazed. From the Norse Berserkers, who were warriors that fought while in an
"uncontrollable rage or trance of fury".
Cereal (Ceres) - Relating to grain or to the plants that produce it. Derived from Ceres, the Roman
goddess of agriculture.
Echo - The repetition of a sound caused by reflection of sound waves. A repetition or imitation of
another. Perhaps from Greek mythology, a mountain nymph who was punished by Hera to repeat only
the last words of other people's sentences. She also fell in love with Narcissus.
Friday (Frige) - The fifth or sixth day of the week. Derived from Frige, the love goddess of Norse
mythology, and also the wife of Odin.
Hades - Used as a synonym for "hell" by some (not sure if this one should count). The Greek god and
personification of the underworld.
Hell - A nether world in which the dead continue to exist. Possibly named after Hel, the queen of the
Norse underworld. This is, of course, not certain.
Hermaphrodite (Hermaphroditus) - An animal or plant having both male and female reproductive
organs. Something that is a combination of diverse elements. From Greek mythology, a child of Hermes
and Aphrodite, who was turned into a hermaphrodite when the nymph Salmacis attempted to rape him
[Hermaphroditus] and then called out to the gods requesting that they never part.
January (Janus) - The first month of the Gregorian calendar. Named after Janus, the Roman god of
gates, doorways, beginnings, and endings.
June (Juno) - The sixth month of the Gregorian calendar. Possibly named after Juno, the queen of the
gods in Roman mythology.
March (Mars) - The third month of the Gregorian calendar. Named after Mars, the Roman god of war.
Martial (Mars) - Of, relating to, or suited for war or a warrior. Relating to an army or to military life. From
Mars, the Roman god of war.
May (Maia) - The fifth month of the Gregorian calendar. Possibly from the Roman goddess Maia, wife of
Vulcan.
Monday (Mani) - The first or second day of the week. Its name is from the Moon, which is derived from
the Norse god of the moon, Mani, who would pull the moon through the sky every night while being
chased by Hati.
Morphine (Morpheus) - An analgesic and sedative. From Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams.
Narcissism/Narcissist (Narcissus) - Love of or sexual desire for one's own body. Egoism, egocentrism.
From Greek mythology, a beautiful youth who fell in love with his own reflection (how this happened
depends on the story, as there a few different versions).
Ocean (Oceanus) - The whole body of salt water that covers nearly three fourths of the surface of the
earth. From Greek mythology, Oceanus was believed to be a large river that encircled the earth.
Oceanus was also the personification of this "river".
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Odyssey - A long wandering or voyage usually marked by many changes of fortune. An ancient Greek
epic by Homer, mostly starring Odysseus during his journey after the fall of Troy.
Siren - A woman who sings with enchanting sweetness. A device often electrically operated for
producing a penetrating warning sound. From the Greek sea nymph Siren, whose singing would lure
sailors to their destruction.
Titanic (Titan) - Having great magnitude, force, or power. From the Titans of Greek mythology.
Tuesday (Tyr) - The second or third day of the week. Derived from Tyr, the Norse god of war.
Vestal (Vesta) - Chaste. From the Roman virgin goddess Vesta, who was the goddess of home, hearth,
and family.
Volcano (Vulcan) - A vent in the crust of the earth or another planet or a moon from which usually
molten or hot rock and steam issue. From the Roman god of fire, Vulcan.
Wednesday (Odin) - The third or fourth day of the week. Derived from the head God of the Norse
pantheon, Odin.
Zephyr (Zephyrus) - A breeze from the west, or a gentle breeze. The Greek god of the west wind, who
was the most gentle of the winds.

b.2. Names of persons/places. Terms in English may come from the names of persons and
places associated with the things they describe.

Word Person
America Amerigo Vespucci
ampere Andre Ampere
Boycott Captain Charles Boycott
braille Louis Braille
Celsius Anders Celsius
Chauvinism Nicolas Chauvin
Dahlia Anders Dahl
diesel Rudolf Diesel
Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit
guy Guy Fawkes
herculean Hercules
macadam John McAdam
martinet Jean Martinet
maverick Samuel Maverick
nicotine Jean Nicot
ohm Georg Simon Ohm
pasteurize Louis Pasteur
poinsettia Joel Poinsett
quixotic Don Quixote
sandwich Earl of Sandwich
saxophone Antoine Sax
sideburns Ambrose Burnside
silhouette Etienne de Silhouette
spoonerism Reverend William Spooner
volt Count Alessandro Volta
watt James Watt
Count Ferdinand von
zeppelin
Zeppelin

Valentine from St. Valentine who sent the first valentine greeting
tuxedo from Tuxedo park, a country club near Tuxedo Lake in NY
Uranium from the name of the planet Uranus
cologne from an industrial city and river port in West Germany where a perfumed liquid or a solid
made fragrant essential oils and alcohol were first made
boycott from Capt. Boycott, Irish land agent with whom people refused to have dealings because
he refused to reduce his rents
hamburger from a city in Germany, Hamburg
watt from James Watt, a Scottish inventor of the steam engine
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c. Loan words. A loanword is a word borrowed directly from another language to express
something which has no accurate word in English. A loanword can also be called a borrowing.
The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source
language into their native language. Clipping: shortening of words

This refers to the shortening of words which can be achieved through these processes:

a. Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts.
Clipping is also known as "truncation" or "shortening."

According to Marchand (1969), clippings are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of
a language. They originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession,
etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example, exam(ination),
math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in school slang; spec(ulation) and tick(et = credit) in stock-
exchange slang; and vet(eran) and cap(tain) in army slang. While clipping terms of some influential groups
can pass into common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a socially unimportant class
or group will remain group slang.

Clipping mainly consists of the following types:

1. Back clipping
2. Fore-clipping
3. Middle clipping
4. Complex clipping

Back clipping
Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped
original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc
(doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo
(memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music).

Fore-clipping
Fore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. Examples: chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator
(alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university).

Middle clipping
In middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), jams or
jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective).

Complex clipping
Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact.
Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut
(linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In
these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a
blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983), the easiest
way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped
compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom,
Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.

b. A blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not
always, morphemes.

Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:

1. The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other (see portmanteau word). For example,
brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch.
o motor (2) + hotel (2) → motel (2)
o simultaneous (5) + broadcast (2) → simulcast (3, exception)
o smoke (1) + fog (1) → smog (1)
o spoon (1) + fork (1) → spork (1)
o stagnation (3) + inflation (3) → stagflation (3)
2. The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend of cybernetic and
organism.
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3. Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the word
Californication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of California and fornication.
4. Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds'
order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. An example of this is the word
slithy, a blend of lithe and slimy. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of
Carroll's verbal wit.

When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word rather than a
blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.

*According to the new edition of Webster’s International Unabridged Dictionary, the longest-word in English
language is:

Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis meaning a lung disease caused by inhaling dust like

silicon and volcanic ash particles so minute that in order to see them a microscope which exceeds the
ordinary is needed.

Portmanteau words are the ones that blend the sounds and the meanings of two words. The word
Portmanteau is derived from the French word portmanteau, combined from porter (to carry) and
manteau (mantle). While these words originated in 16th century, Lewis Carroll is credited with
coining this word (in Through the Looking Glass) based on the fact that portmanteau bag is one that
opens into two equal parts.

Here is the complete list of Portmanteau words that the visitors could use in their communication.

The meanings of all such words are apparent from the combination. Most of these words will not be found
in standard dictionaries. But, the learners can use their grey cells in putting the meanings of the two and
two together to deduce the meaning of these words.

Absatively = absolutely + positively

1. Adflation = advertising + inflation 27. Jaywalk= jay + walk

2. Beautility = beauty + utility 28. Jerkwater = jerk + water
3. Bit = binary + digit 29. Joypad= joystick + pad
4. Bitini = bitsy + bikini 30. Laundromat = laundry + automat
5. Bonk= bang + conk 31. Manimal = man + animal
6. Brunch = breakfast + lunch 32. Medevac = medical + evacuation
7. Camcorder = camera + recorder 33. Medicare = medical + care
8. Chortle = chuckle + snort 34. Mobike= motor + bike
9. Cremains = cremated + remains 35. Moped= motor + pedal
10. Chunnel= channel + tunnel 36. Motel= motor + hotel
11. Diplonomics=diplomacy + economics 37. Motorcade= motorcar + cavalcade
12. E-commerce = electronic + commerce 38. Newscast = news + broadcast
13. Email= electronic + mail 39. Oxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge
14. Faction= fact + fiction 40. Paratroop = parachute + troop
15. Fantabulous= fantastic+ fabulous 41. Sci-Fi= science + fiction
16. Fanzine= fanatic + magazine 42. Sexploitation= sex+ exploitation
17. Feminar= feminine + seminar 43. Shamateur= sham+ amateur
18. Frarority= fraternity + sorority 44. Smog = smoke + fog
19. Gasohol= gasoline + alcohol 45. Splurge= splash+ surge
20. Ginormous= gigantic + enormous 46. Telecast= television + broadcast
21. Guestimate= guess + estimate 47. Telecom = telephone + conversation
22. Hi-tech= high + technology 48. Televangelist= television + evangelist
23. Heliport + helicopter + airport 49. Transistor= transfer + resistor
24. Internet = international + network 50. Vash= volcanic + ash
25. Interpol- international + police 51. Workfar= work + welfare
26. Jackpot= jack + pot

Acronyms. A few English words are made by combining the first letters of words in a phrase. These
shortened words formed from initial letters are called acronyms. Knowing what group of words
underlies each acronym can be a help to spellers.

AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome

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AWOL absent without leave

Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Radar radio detecting and ranging
Scuba self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
Snafu situation normal, all fouled up
Sonar sound navigation ranging
SWAT (team) special weapons action team
ZIP (code) zone improvement plan

Etymology: origin of words

Words, like facts, are difficult to remember out of context. Remembering is greatly facilitated when you
have a body of information with which to associate either a word or a fact. For words, interesting origins or
histories will help provide a context. For example, a hippopotamus is a "river horse," from the Greek
hippos, meaning "horse," and potamos, meaning "river."

Indiana is called the Hoosier state, and its people Hoosiers. Why? In the early days, the pioneers were
gruff in manner; when someone knocked at the front door, a pioneer's voice would often boom, "Who's
yere?"

If you were offered a Hobson's choice, would you know what was meant? Thomas Hobson owned a livery
stable in seventeenth-century England. He loved his horses, and to prevent any one horse from being
overworked, he hired them out in turn, beginning with stall number one. Customers had to take the horses
they were given. Thus Hobson's choice means no choice at all. (Pauk, p. 314)

Etymology is the study of the origins of words. The English language is living and growing. Although many
of our words have been part of our language for many years, new words are added all the time. Following
are various ways our language is influenced.

• Derived from Foreign Words - English, in many cases, has been commonly expanded by
incorporating foreign words into it. Most of our language has ancient Anglo-Saxon or Latin origins.
Other languages have also added to our vocabularies.
• Additions through Technology & Products - Our words often reflect current interests, trends, and
innovations. One of the most recent contributors to our language has been computer technology,
which has created words such as bytes, monitor, and disk.
Another way new words come into our language is through the development of products. Some
examples include: Kleenex, Walkman, Scotch tape, Xerox, and Linoleum.
• People's Names - sometimes when a person invents or introduces something, that thing becomes
associated with the person's name. The person, through time, is forgotten while the name lives on
in our language. Examples include:
o mesmerize - F.A. Mesmer, an Austrian doctor and hypnotist.
o sideburns - an American English alteration of burnsides, Ambrose E. Burnside, a Union
general.
• Words from Letters - The initials for the names of things may actually come to replace the names.
The initials become the words that represent the thing, concept, or group. The following are
examples of words that have developed from initials.
o TV - TeleVision
o DWI - Driving While Intoxicated
o COD - Cash On Delivery
o ZIP - Zone Improvement Plan
• Word Histories - Some words also have interesting histories. Learning the stories behind the
meanings is a good way to learn those words. The following examples will give you an idea of how
history can affect language.
o footman - It was once thought to bring bad luck if a person stepped on the door threshold
when entering a house. Rich people hired a servant to stand at their doors. His job was to
guard against a guest's stepping on the threshold. The guard became known as a footman.
o hooker - A synonym for prostitute. The term became popular during the Civil War. The
women involved were camp followers. General "Fighting Joe" Hooker approved their
presence in order to boost the morale of his men.
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Structural Analysis

The Greeks and Romans came up with a system for creating words by putting together smaller word parts. They
used three types of word parts: prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Pre means "before," and so it makes sense that a
prefix comes before the main part of a word. Suf means "after," and so a suffix comes at the end of a word. A
root word is the main part of a word, and usually comes in the middle. Many English words are composed of at
least one root, and many have one or more prefixes and suffixes.

Word parts contribute to the total meaning of a word. Each part has its own meaning. The meaning of an
unknown word often is a combination of its parts. Splitting words into parts to discover the meaning of unknown
words is called structural analysis.
Parts of words provide the essential meanings. Studying the parts of words can tell you many things. The base
of a word gives you an overall meaning for the unknown word. Affixes affect the base's meaning. Some affixes
provide general meanings. Others identify the subject area of the unknown word. Affixes also help determine the
part of speech of the unknown word.

Recognizing Word Roots and Prefixes

While using the dictionary is an excellent way to increase your vocabulary one word at a time, if you would like
to learn whole clusters of words in one stroke, you should get to know the most common roots and prefixes in
English.

It has been estimated that 60 percent of the English words in common use are made up partly or entirely of
prefixes or roots derived from Latin and Greek. The value of learning prefixes and roots is that they illustrate the
way much of our language is constructed. Once learned, they can help you recognize and understand many
words without resorting to a dictionary. With one well-understood root word as the center, an entire
"constellation" of words can be built up.

Although knowing the meanings of prefixes and roots can unlock the meanings of unfamiliar words, this
knowledge should supplement, not replace, your dictionary use. Over the centuries, many prefixes have
changed in both meaning and spelling. While some prefixes have a single and fairly invariant meaning, most
prefixes have more than one meaning each.

For example, the prefix de- means "of' or "from"; yet the dictionary lists four different meanings for it. So learn as
many of the common prefixes and roots as you can, but learn them for better and more precise understanding of
words you already know and words that you have yet to look up in the dictionary. When you go to the dictionary,
make sure that you spend some time on the prefixes and roots that make up each word. You will soon become
convinced that a word is not an assemblage of letters put together like an anagram, but the true and natural
outcome of. evolution (Pauk).

Common Word Roots

Root Meaning Example Definition
Agri Field agronomy field-crop production and soil management
anthropo Man anthropology the study of man
Astro Star astronaut one who travels in interplanetary space
Bio Life biology the study of life
Cardio Heart cardiac pertaining to the heart
Cede Go precede to go before
Chromo Color chromatology the science of colors
Demos People democracy government by the people
Derma Skin epidermis the outer layer of skin
Dyna Power dynamic characterized by power and energy
Geo Earth geology the study of the earth
Helio Sun heliotrope any plant that turns toward the sun
Hydro Water hydroponics growing of plants in water reinforced with nutrients
Hypno Sleep hypnosis a state of sleep induced by suggestion
Ject Throw eject to throw out
Magni great, big magnify to enlarge, to make bigger
man(u) Hand manuscript written by hand
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Mono One monoplane airplane with one wing

Ortho Straight orthodox right, true, straight opinion
Pod Foot pseudopod false foot
Psycho Mind psychology study of the mind in any of its aspects
Pyro Fire pyrometer an instrument for measuring temperatures
Script Write manuscript hand written
Terra Earth terrace a raised platform of earth
Thermo Heat thermometer instrument for measuring heat
Zoo Animal zoology the study of animals
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Common Prefixes
ante- Before antebellum before the war
anti- Against antifreeze liquid used to guard against freezing
auto- Self automatic self-acting or self-regulating
bene- Good benefit an act of kindness; a gift
circum- Around circumscribe to draw a line around; to encircle
contra- Against contradict to speak against
de- reverse, remove defoliate remove the leaves from a tree
dis- Apart dislocate to unlodge
dys- Bad dysfunctional not functioning
ecto- Outside ectoparasite parasite living on the exterior of animals
endo- Within endogamy marriage within the tribe
ex- out excavate to dig out
equi- Equal equidistant equal distance
extra- Beyond extraterrestrial beyond the earth
hyper- Over hypertension high blood pressure
hypo- Under hypotension low blood pressure
in- In interim in between
inter- Between intervene come between
intra- Within intramural within bounds of a school
intro- in, into introspect to look within, as one's own mind
macro- Large macroscopic large enough to be observed by the naked eye
mal- Bad maladjusted badly adjusted
micro- Small microscopic so small that one needs a microscope to observe
multi- Many multimillionaire one having two or more million dollars
neo- New neolithic new stone age
non- Not nonconformist one who does not conform
pan- All pantheon a temple dedicated to all gods
poly- Many polygonal having many sides
post- After postgraduate after graduating
pre- Before precede to go before
pro- For proponent a supporter
proto- First prototype first or original model
pseudo- False pseudonym false name; esp., an author's pen-name
re-, red- back again rejuvenate to make young
re-, red- Together reconnect to put together again
retro- Backward retrospect a looking back on things
semi- Half semicircle half a circle
sub- Under submerge to put under water
super- Above superfine extra fine
tele- Far telescope seeing or viewing afar
trans- Across transalpine across the Alps

Number prefixes
uni- one tetra- four oct- eight
mono- one quint- five nov- nine
bi- two pent- five dec- ten
duo- two sex- six lat- side
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di- two hex- six ped- foot

tri- three sept- seven pod- foot
quad- four hept- seven

Math & Science Affixes and Roots

Root or Affix Example
aqua (water) aquarium
hydro (water) hydroplane
hemi (half) hemisphere
semi (half) semicircle
equi (equal) equivalent
tele (far off) telescope
micro (small) microfilm
onomy (science of) Astronomy
ology (study of) Geology
uni (one) Universe
bi (two) Bicycle
tri (three) Triangle
octa (eight) Octagon
dec (ten) Decade
centi (hundred) Centimeter
milli (thousand) Millimeter
bio (life) Biology
astro (star) Astronaut
thermo (heat) Thermodynamic
meter (measure) Diameter
ped (foot) Pedestrian
pod (foot) Tripod

Prefixes that mean "no": a- de- dis-, in- non- un-, contra

Examples: disqualify, nondescript, unscrupulous, contradict, inadvertent

Prefix Meaning Examples

a-, an- without, not asexual, atypical, amoral, anarchy
de- reverse action, away defrost, demystify, desensitize, deduct
dis-, dif-, di- not, apart dissatisfied, disorganized, different, divert
in-, il-, it-, im- Not inappropriate, invisible, illegal, impossible
non- Not nonproductive, nonessential, nonsense
un- Not unlikely, unnoticeable, unreliable
contra-, counter- Against contrary, contradict, counterproductive

Prefixes that indicate "when," "where," or "more": pre-, post-, ante-, inter-, infra-, traps-, sub-,
circum-, ultra

Examples: premature, postscript, anteroom, intervene, transformation

Prefix Meaning Examples

pre-, pro- Before pre-dinner, preliminary, previous, prologue
post- After postwar, postoperative, postpone
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ante- Before antecedent, antechamber

inter- between, among interstate, intercept, interfere
intra- Within intramural, intrastate, intravenous
trans- Across transcontinental, transparent, transaction
sub- Under submarine, submerge, subjugate
circum- Around circumnavigate, circumference
ultra- beyond, on the far side of, excessive ultrasonic, ultraviolet, ultraconservative

a. Inflectional endings. These are suffixes added to the root and to which no other suffix is
added.

Common inflectional endings:

-s (sing), -es (plural), -er (comparative), -est (superlative), -d, -ed (past forms), -ing
(progressive), -y (adjective), -ly (adverb)

Compound words. Words that are made up of two or more words, which may be hyphenated or
separated.
Derivatives. Words that contain a root word and one or more affixes to which another affix may still be
added. Ex: disgrace, graceful, disgraceful, gracious, graciously, gracelessness

Word Relationships

Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonyms, Analogies

In some ways words are like families. Just as there are different relationships among members of the same
family, there are different relationships among words. Picture your own family. You probably have relatives
who like to do the same things you do. But they may look nothing like you. You may have relatives who are
from another city. They might have unusual accents and all "sound alike." There are probably still others
who are rebels. They always want the opposite of what everyone else in the family wants.

There are similar relationships between words. Words that mean the same thing but look different are
called synonyms. Their meanings are very similar (e.g., pretty/cute). An antonym is a word that has the
opposite meaning of another word (e.g., pretty/ugly). A homonym is a word that sounds like another word
but has a different meaning (e.g., there/their).

Because these terms are often confused, here is an easy way to keep them straight.

Heard alike Same meaning An opposite

O Y N
M N T
O O O
N N N
Y Y Y
M M M

Words are related in many other ways as well. When thinking about the relationship between two words,
you must examine those words for ways in which they are different, alike, or related to each other.

Understanding how words fit together helps you expand and network frameworks. As an active reader, this
skill enables you to analyze and synthesize information. Such knowledge is useful in building your
vocabulary. This, in turn, gives you more skill in using the context (see figure below).
V o c a b u l a r y D e v e l o p m e n t | 14
 V o c a b u l a r y D e v e l o p m e n t | 15

Using Word Relationships

Many kinds of word relationships are possible. When looking at relationships the order of the words is
important. Changing the order changes the relationship. In word relationships, the colon (:) is an
abbreviation of the phrase "is to." For example, instead of "white is to black," "white: black" is written. Like
all abbreviations, this one saves space and time. Again, remember that there are countless kinds of
relationships that can be constructed.

Common Word Relationships

Relationship Definition Examples
Synonym Two words have the same or nearly the same dirty : nasty
meaning worn: used
calm: peaceful
Antonym One word means the opposite of another hot: cold
late: early
new : old
Homonym Two words sound alike blue: blew
lie: lye
here: hear
Part to whole A piece or portion of something is related to the total toe: foot
object sole: shoe
leaf : plant
wall: room
Whole to part The whole is related to one of its parts tree : trunk
house: room
coat: sleeve
Age or size An animate (living) or inanimate (nonliving) object is fawn: deer
related to a younger or older object of the same type freshman: senior
calf: cow
mother: child
Rhyme Although items do not begin with the same goat: boat
sound/letter, the ending sounds are the same trouble: bubble
slow : toe
light: kite
Person to location A person is related to the place with which he is sailor : ship
associated criminal : jail
President: White House
Object to use Something is related to its function oven: bake
soap: clean
broom: sweep
Source to object The place from which an item is taken and the item pound: stray dog
are compared bakery : cookies
mind: thought

Analogies

An analogy is an implied (unstated) relationship between two pairs of objects. Because the relationship is
implied, the first thing you must decide is what kind of relationship exists between each pair (i.e.,
synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, part-to-whole, time, place, age, etc.). This relationship can be any of the
associations you have already studied.

An analogy deals with the relationship between two pairs of words. The two pairs are usually dissimilar (not
the same), although the relationships between each pair are similar. Because analogies require you to
identify similar relationships between dissimilar objects, understanding analogies is one of the highest
levels of thinking.

Analogies are usually written in one of two forms:

Up is to down as fast is to slow or Up : Down :: Fast : Slow

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The colon (:) in the second example means "is to." The pair of colons (::) means "as."

Homophones: words with the same sounds

Homophones present many problems for spellers because these word partners sound similar, even though
their meanings and spellings are different. Some common homophones are listed below.

Homophone Triads
aisle/I'll/isle flew/flu/flue rain/reign/rein

aye/eye/I for/fore/four raise/rays/raze

buy/by/bye gnu/knew/new right/rite/write

cent/scent/sent heal/heel/he'll road/rode/rowed

Chile/chili/chill
main/Maine/mane to/too/two
y

cite/sight/site meat/meet/mete vain/vane/vein

ware/wear/wher
dew/do/due oar/or/ore
e

ewe/yew/you pair/pare/pear

Owed to My Spell Checker Hour spelling mite decline,

And if were lacks or have a laps,
I have a spelling checker. We wood be maid to wine.
It came with my PC.
It plane lee marks four my revue Butt now bee cause my spelling
Miss steaks aye can knot sea. Is checked with such grate flare,
Their are know faults within my cite,
Eye ran this poem threw it, Of none eye am a wear.
Your sure reel glad two no.
Its vary polished in it's weigh, Now spelling does knot phase me,
My checker tolled me sew. It does knot bring a tier.
My pay purrs awl due glad den
A checker is a bless sing, With wrapped words fare as hear.
It freeze yew lodes of thyme.
It helps me right awl stiles two reed, To rite with care is quite a feet
And aides me when aye rime. Of witch won should be proud.
And wee mussed dew the best wee can,
Each frays come posed up on my screen Sew flaws are knot aloud.
Eye trussed to bee a joule
The checker poured o'er every word Sow ewe can sea why aye dew prays
To cheque sum spelling rule. Such soft ware for pea seas,
And why I brake in two averse
Be fore a veiling checkers When righting what eye pleas.
(Author Unknown)

Generic and Specific Terms

Generic terms are words that are general or applicable to a whole class or group.
Specific terms are words relating to one particular thing

Example: mathematics: geometry, algebra, statistics, trigonometry

Denotation/Connotation

Words are not limited to one single meaning. Most words have multiple meanings, which are categorized
as either denotative or connotative. The denotation of a word is its explicit definition as listed in a
dictionary. Let’s use the word “home” as an example. The denotative or literal meaning of “home” is “a
place where one lives; a residence.” The expressiveness of language, however, comes from the other type
 V o c a b u l a r y D e v e l o p m e n t | 17

of word meaning—connotation, or the association or set of associations that a word usually brings
to mind. The connotative meaning of “home” is a place of security, comfort, and family. When Dorothy in
The Wizard of Oz says, “There’s no place like home,” she’s not referring to its denotation, but the emotions
“home” evokes for her and most people.

Connotation Determines Use

The connotative and denotative meanings of words are both correct, but a word’s connotation determines
when it is used. By definition, synonyms have the same denotation or literal meaning, but almost always
have different connotations, or shades of meaning. For example, the synonyms of “boat” include ship,
yacht, dinghy, and ferry. All these words refer to the same thing, but each elicits a different association in
the reader's mind.

Notice how the sentence meaning shifts when the underlined word is changed:
Positive: Sally was an enthusiastic member of her sorority.
Neutral: Sally was an active member of her sorority.
Negative: Sally was a fanatical member of her sorority.

Idiomatic Expressions: peculiar to language

Idiom may be defined as expression peculiar to a language. It plays an important part in all languages.
Idioms are expressions which are not readily understandable from their grammatical constructions and
from the meaning of their separate elements.

Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or by adverbs, acquire an idiomatic sense.

Example:

He backed up his friends’ claim.

In this sentence, the verb ‘back’ has been paired with the preposition ‘up’ and is giving the meaning
‘supporting’. Whereas the verb ‘back’ means another meaning.

He supported his friends’ claim.

This kind of expression is called Idiomatic expression.

Examples: In the following sentences the idioms are underlined and their meanings are given in the bracket.

• The present disturbances will soon blow over. (Pass off)

• The police produced the evidences to bear out the charge of murder. (Substantiate)
• You must not build your hopes upon his promises. (Rely upon)
• The matter has been cleared up. (Explained)
• I readily closed with his offer. (Accepted)
• He is ready to dispose off his car. (Sell)
• Rust has eaten away the plate. (Corroded)
• They fixed upon him to do the work. (Chose)
• My good behavior so far gained on my father. (Won the favor of)
• Please hear me out . (Hear me to the end)

Now, let us see how few verbs get their idiomatic formations when they are paired with the prepositions.

Here is the list of idioms with the keyword Break.

• He broke down in the middle of his speech. (Failed)
• He broke off in the middle of the story. (Stopped suddenly)
• I gave him no cause to break with me. (Quarrel with)
• The burglars broke into the house. (Entered by force)

Here is the list of idioms with the keyword Pull.

• Unless we pull together, we can not succeed. (Co-operate)
• My cousin pulled through the examinations. (Passed with difficulty)
• The doctors said that the patient would pull through. (Recover from illness)
• It is far easier to pull down than to build up. (Demolish)
• He was pulled up by the president. (Scolded)

The Importance of Reading

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There is probably no surer or sounder way to improve your reading permanently than by building a strong,
precise vocabulary, and the only way to build your vocabulary is by reading a lot. In a precise vocabulary,
every word is learned as a concept. You know its ancestry, its principal definition as well as several
secondary definitions, its synonyms and the subtle differences among them, and its antonyms. Then, when
you encounter it in your reading, this vast store of knowledge flashes before you, illuminating the sentence,
the paragraph, and the idea the author is trying to convey (Pauk).