INTRODUCTION

TO SCIENCE

What is a science?
*Science is a systematic study of nature and its effects on us and the environment.
Careers in science

Vetenarian Computer programmer

Careers in science Doctor Doctor

Chemist Doctor

Pharmacist Engineer
Areas of Study

Biology
Biochemistry
Pysics

Meteorology
Areas of Study
Chemistry

Geology Astronomy

A Science Laboratory
1.It is a room or building where scientific investigations are carried out.
2.We must obey safety rules and precautions when working in a science laboratory.

Rules and safety precautions in the laboratory.

 Never enter the laboratory unless a teacher is present.
 Do not eat,drink or taste any chemicals.
 Always follow the teacher’s instruction.
 Never touch chemicals with your bare hands.Use a spatula.
 Read the label on a reagent bottle before using its content.
 Turn of the bunsen Burner after use.
 Do not pure back any unused chemical into its bottle.
 Do not throw solid wastes into the sinks.
 Wash and keep all apparatus after use.
 Do not run or play in science laboratory.
 Do not taste anything without the teachers permission.
 Report any breakages to the teacher.
 Keep the bench clean and tidy.
General laboratory apparatus.

Beaker Bell jar

Test tube Gas jar

Boiling tube Flat bottomed flask

Filter funnel Conical flask

Hazard warning symbols and examples.

Corrosive
Examples:
Concentrated,hydrocholoric acid,sodium,hydroxide

Highly flammable
Examples:
Ethanol,petrol

Explosive
Examples:
Sodium,potassioum

Poisonous
Examples:
Lead,mercury

Irritant
Examples:
Cholorine,choloroform

Radio active
Examples:
Uronium,plutonium
The steps in a scientific inventigations

1)Identifying the problem

2)Forming a hypothesis
3)Planning the experiment
4)Controlling variables
5)Collecting data
6)Analysing and interpreting data
7)Drawing a conclusion
8)Writing a report

Prefix Symbol Numerical value

Giga g 1 000 000 000
Mega m 1 000 000
Kilo k 1 000
Deca da 10
Deci d 0.1
Centi c 0.01
Mili m 0.001
Micro µ 0.000 001
Nano n 0.000 000 001
Pico p 0.000 000 000 001

Prefixs are useful in expressing physical quantities that are

either very big or very small.

Pysical quantity SI Units Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin k A physical quantity is a
Electric current ampere A quantity that can be measured.
 CELL AS A UNIT
OF LIFE

1.What is a cell?
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 It’s function is to carry out life processes.

Cell

Protoplasm Cell membrane

Nucleus Cytoplasm

2.There are two types of cells,the animal cell and the plant cell.

1)Animal cell
2)Plant cell

3.Main differences between structure of animal cells and plant cells:

Animal cells Plant cells

Irregular in shape Regular in shape

No cell wall Have cell wall

No chloroplasts Have chloroplasts

Mostly no vacuoles Have large vacuoles

4.The functions of cell structures.

Structure Function
Nucleus Controls all cell activities

Cytoplasm A place where chemical

Processes take place

Cell membrane Controls flow of materials

In and out of cell
Cell wall Gives shape to the cell

Chroplast Carries out photosynthesis

Vacuoles Stores water and dissolved

materials
5.A microscop is used to study the general structure of a cell.

Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms.

1)A unicellular organism has one cell only.

A)

Pleurococcus

B)

Amoeba
C)

Chlamydomonas
D)
 Paramecium
E)

Euglena
F)

Yeast

2)A multicellular organism has many cells.

A)

Chondrus
B)

Hydra
C)

Spirogyra

Cell Organisation in the Human Body.

1)Organisation of cell:

Cell (Simple)

Tissue

Organ

System

Organism(Complex)
2)Examples of cell:
a.

Nerve cell
b.

Red blood cell

c.

Epithelial cell
d.

Bone cell
3)Examples of tissue:

a.

Connective tissue

b.

Muscle tissue
c.

Nerve tissue
d.

Ephithelial tissue
4)Examples of system:

a.

Lungs

b.

Stomach
c.

Eye
d.

Tongue
5)Examples of system:

Respiratory system

Excretory system

Endocrine system
 Matter

What is matter?
 Matter is everything that has mass and occupies space.
 Examples of matter wood , air , water , soil and living things.

The Status of Matter.

1.Matter exists in three states:solid , liquid and gas.
2.Matter changes its state when it is heated or cooled.
3.The kinetic theory of matter states that matter consists of tiny and discrete particals.
4.Characteristics of state matter.

Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Closely Further apart Very far apart

particles packed

Spaces between Very small Large Very large

particales

Movement of No free movement, Movement freely, Move freely,very

particles vibrate about a collide with one rapidly and randomly
fixed position another

Density High Medium Low

Shape Definite shape No definite shape No definite shape

Volume Definite volume Definite volume No definite volume

Examples Solid,wood,most Water mercury (a Air

metals type of metal)
The Concept of Density
1)Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance.

Density = Mass
Volume

2)The unit of density is gram per cubic centimetre(g/cm3).

3)The buoyancy of a substance is affected by its density.
4)Buoyancy (or flotation ) refers to the ability of a substance to float or sink in another substance.
5)A lower density substance will float on a higher density liquid.
6)On the other hand, a higher density substance will sink in a lower density liquid.
 THE VARIETY OF RESOURCES ON EARTH

1)The basic resources needed for life on earth are:

Basic resource Importance Useful substances

Air Needed for respiration and Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon

combustion dioxide

Carbon dioxide is needed

for photosynthesis

Water Needed to support the Fresh water

The functions of the body
systems

Soil Contains air, water, minerals Humus

and organic substances
which are needed to support
living things.

Minerals Minerals such as metals are Metals

used to make useful products
and construct buildings

Fossil fuel Used to produce energy in Coal, petroleum, natural

power plants, factories, gases
vehicles, machines and to make
plastics.

Living things They are sources of food, Meat, skin, carcasses, silk,
buildings, materials, clothes milk
and fuel
Element can be divided into :

Metals( Logam )
 All metal element in solidform but except formercury which exist in liquid.
 Example of metalCalcium, copper, gold,lead, magnesium,platinum, potassium,silver, sodium.

Non-metals(bukan logam)
 Non-metal elements existin all state. Solid, liquidand gas at room temperature.
 Example of non-metalSulphur, carbon, bromine,oxygen, neon, hydrogen.
Cobalt chloride indicator

Dry Moist/Damp
Gas tests

Hydrogen
What you will observe:
-Your light splint(Popsicle stick) will “POP”POP”
Why does this happen:
-Hydrogen gas is very flammable and in the presence of heat or fire it will explode at a certain
temperature.

Oxygen
What you will observe:

-Your glowing splint will re-light

What does that mean:

-This happened because Oxygen is part of the fire triangle. The fire triangle is composed of three
things: Fuel, Heat energy source and Oxygen.
Mixture

Nasi lemak Ice kacang

Sugar solution Paint

Iced milo Brass

Example of variety type of mixture and its components

Formation of compound

In chemical reactions the chemical identities of substances change. Here, a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen under goes a chemical change to form water.
The differences between compounds and mixture.

Preservation and Conservation

Preservation
Is the effort to maintain natural resources in their original state.

Conservation
Is the careful use and management of natural resources so asto minimize loss, wastage and damage.
Preservation and conservation of natural resources are very important to prevent:
a)Destruction to the natural environment
b)The extinction of animals and plants
c)The loss of economic resources
d)Pollution of air, water and soil
e)Health problems
f)Natural disasters
Effects of pollution
1.Air pollution causes green house effect and acid rain.
2.Water pollution reduces sources of clean water and threatens the habitats of aquatic life.
3.Soil pollution results in the infertility of the soil and natural habitats of living things being damaged.
Ways to reduce pollution on Earth’s resources
1.Recycle waste materials.
2.Use recycle papers.
3.Practice reforestation.
4.Practice selective logging.
5.Use unleaded petrol.
6.Use biodegradable substances.
7.Fix filters to factory chimneys in order to filter poisonous gases.
What Is The Composition Of Air ?
Air is a mixture of different gases. The pie chart shows the composition of air by percentage.

Properties of Carbon Dioxide

 is a colourless and odourless gas at room temperature.
 is slightly more soluble in water than oxygen.
 Does not burn nor support combustion.
 Is needed by plant to make food during photosynthesis.
 is produced when living things respire, when carbon or carbon compounds such as
hydrocarbons and carbonates are burnt and when carbohydrates such as sugars and starch
are fermented.
 Dissolves in water to form weak acids.

Properties of Oxygen
 is a colourless and odourless gas at room temperature.
 is soluble in water.
 is very active as it readily combines chemically with many substances to form new substances.
 supports combustion as burning will not occur without oxygen.
 is needed for respiration by living things.
 Is produced by green plants during photosynthesis.
Oxygen is needed for respiration.
1.Oxygen is needed for respiration to produce energy.
2.The composition for inhaled and exhaled air:

Composition(%)
Gas
Inhaled air Exhaled air

Nitrogen 78 78

Oxygen 21 16

Carbon dioxide 0.03 4

Inert gases 0.97 0.97

Water vapour Less More

Oxygen is needed for combustion.

1.Combustion is a process that requires oxygen, heat and fuel.
2.Combustion of carbon (such as charcoal):

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide

3.Combustion of hydrocarbon (such as kerosene):

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbondioxide+ Water

Air Pollution
1.Air pollution is caused by the pollutants in the air.
2.Air pollutants are hurmful substances that are added to the air.
3.The effects of air pollutions on human beings:
 Lung cancer
 brain damage in children
 Bronchitis, pneumonia
  Death
4.The effects of air pollutions on the environment:

 Acid rain
 Causes damage to the ozone layer.
 green house effect
 Haze

Steps to prevent air pollution.

 Limit the use of CFC in industry
 Encourage the use of solar energy
 Encourage the use of biodiesel in cars
 Factories of chimneysare built to a certain height
CHAPTER 6 :- SOURCES OF
ENERGY

1.What is Energy?
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

2.Forms of energy: Potential, electric, kinetic, chemical, heat, nuclear, light, mechanical and sound.

Various Forms Of Energy

1. LIGHT ENERGY
 Energy which enables us to see
2. KINETIC ENERGY
 Energy possessed by a moving object
3. POTENTIAL ENERGY
 Energy stored in a body due to its condition or position
4. SOUND ENERGY
 The energy produced by vibrating object
 Sound energy can be detected by our ears.
 Sound energy is important because it enables us to communicate and have
entertainment.Sound is also used to alert people of something.
5. HEAT ENERGY
 We know from our experience in daily life that the condition shown in these pictures feels hot.
 We say that the objects have heat energy.Heat energy can be detected by our skin.
6. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 Energy caused by the flow of electrical current.
7. CHEMICAL ENERGY
 Energy stored in a substance.
8. NUCLEAR ENERGY
 Released from fission or fusion reactions which occur in atomic nuclear.

Sources of energy
1. Fossil Fuels
 Coals, petroleum, natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.
 Burning of fossil fuels produces heat and light.
 They are used for cooking, generating electrical energy, heating homes during winter, etc.
2.Wind
 Moving air
 To move a sailboat
3.Water
 Rain fall
 To generate hydroelectricity
4.Sun
 The sun
 To enable photosynthesis in green plants.
5.Radioactive substances
 Uranium, plutonium
 To produce nuclear energy
6.Geothermal
 Geysers
 Hot spring
 Volcanoes

Energy Changes
1.Iron
Electrical Heat

2.Solar panel
Solar Electrical

3.A lighted candle

Chemical light heat

4.Lawn mower
Chemical kinetic

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Energy that can be replaced when they have been used.
MEANS : the supply of these energy sources will not be used up
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Energy that cannot be replaced and will finally be used up.
ENERGY SOURCES ON EARTH
RENEWABLE
 Wind
 Geothermal
 Sun
 Waves
 Biomass
 Water
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
 Petroleum
 Natural gas
 Coal
 Plutonium
 Uranium
CHAPTER 7 :- HEAT

1. The Sun Gives Out Heat

Heat is a form of energy.
The Sun is the primary source of heat energy.

2.Other Sources of Heat Energy

 Electricity
 Fossil fuel
 Radioactive metals
 Friction, when two objects rub against each other.

3. The Uses Of Heat In Our Daily Life.

 Cooking
 Food drying
 Boiling water
 Drying clothes
 Providing warmth

4.HEAT FLOW AND ITS EFFECTS

 When a substance is heated, its particles receive more energy and move faster.
 This causes the substance to expand (get bigger).
 When a hot substance cools down, it contracts (get smaller) and goes back to its original size.
HEAT FLOW
 Heat can flow from one place to another.
 It can travel in three different ways:
By conduction through solids
By convection through liquids and gases
By radiation Through empty space
a. CONDUCTION
1. When one end of a metal rod is heated by a Bunsen flame, the particles of the metal
rod near the flame get extra heat energy from the flame.
2. The particles vibrate more vigorously, knocking into neighbours particles and
transferring energy to them.
3. The neighbouring particles, in turn, knock their neighbours and pass energy to them.
4. Thus, heat is carried along the rod from the hot end to the cold end.

b. CONVECTION
1. When air is heated, it expand.
2. The hot air becomes less dense than the cooler air around it.
3. Thus, the hot air rises.
4. As the hot air rises, cooler air rushes in to take its place.
5. Soon, an air current is formed.
6. When the hot air rises, heat energy is carried from one place to another.
7. Convection is the transfer of heat energy from one place to another by the movement of
the material itself.

c. RADIATION
1. Heat travels through empty space (vacuum) as radiation, or heat rays.
2. Heat rays are electromagnetic waves.
3. They travel very fast through space.
4. Eg : Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth.

HEAT FLOW IN NATURAL PHENOMENA

A. LAND BREEZE
1. Land breeze blows during the night from land to sea.
2. During night time, the land becomes cool faster than the sea.
3. The air above the sea becomes less dense and rises.
4. Cool air from the land moves in to take its place.
5. The convection current that forms is known as land breeze.

B. SEA BREEZE
1. Sea breezes blow during the day.
2. During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea.
3. As a result, the air on land becomes less dense and rises.
4. The cooler air over the sea which is denser (cooler) flows in to take the place of the warm
air, causing what is known as a sea breeze.

C. THE WARMING OF THE EARTH BY THE SUN

1. The heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation through a vacuum in space (no
medium)
2. The radiant heat which is absorbed heats up the earth.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

The application of the principle of expansion and contraction of matter in daily life.

Mercury in glass thermometer

1. A mercury in glass thermometer works on the expansion and contraction of mercury in
the bulb of the thermometer.
2. When the thermometer is used to measure the temperature of a hot object, the mercury in
the bulb expands and forces the mercury in the glass tube to go up.
3. When the thermometer is used to measure the temperature of a cold object, the mercury
in the bulb contracts and the mercury in the glass tube goes down.

Bimetallic Strip in Fire Alarm

1. A bimetallic strip is made of two different metal strip, such us copper and iron.
2. Copper expands faster than iron when heated.
3. The forces that arise due to en equal expansion of the two metals cause the bimetallic
strip to bend.
4. Bimetallic strips are used as automatic switches in fire alarms and as thermostats in
electrical appliances such as iron, air-conditioners, rice cookers and refrigerators to keep the
temperature in these appliances constant.

Gaps In Railway Tracks

1. Gaps are left in between sections of rails to allow for the expansion of the rails during very
hot weather.
2. Concrete roads are built with expansion gaps to allow for the expansion of the concrete
during hot weather.
Rollers in concrete and steel bridges
1. Concrete bridges and steel bridges have rollers on one end to allow for expansion on hot
days and cold days.

The use of the principle of expansion and contraction of matter in solving simple problems
a. Opening a tight cap
1. The cap can be removed easily by dipping it into hot water for a few minutes. This is
because the cap expands when it is heated by the hot water and became loose.

DARK, DULL OBJECTS ABSORB AND GIVE OUT HEAT BETTER

1. Dark and dull objects :
a. absorb heat better than white, shiny objects.
b. give out (transmit) heat better than white shiny objects.
2. A white, shiny surface is a poor absorber and poor radiator of heat.
3. The ability of an object to absorb and give out heat depends on :
a. the surrounding temperature
b. the surface properly of an object.
4. White and shiny objects reflects heat better than dark and dull objects.

THE BENEFIT OF HEAT FLOW

1. We apply the principle of heat flow by :
a. Installing air-conditioners in houses
b. Opening up the windows of houses
c. Having ventilation holes in houses.
d. Installing exhaust fans in houses.
e. Cooking food in metal utensils
f. Storing food in the refrigeration
g. Drying up clothes in the open area.