3

The design of the problem can be a key to success in using

problem-based learning. This chapter discusses
characteristics of effective problems that will elicit
higher-order thinking among students.

Designing Problems to Promote

Higher-Order Thinking
Renée E. Weiss

A crucial aspect of problem-based learning (PBL) is the actual design of the

problem to be solved (Jonassen, 2000). Without a carefully designed prob-
lem, professors may believe that they are inspiring students to analyze,
research, and solve problems; in reality, though, they may only be using a
simple problem with a well-defined solution, which results in a scavenger
hunt for information from resources that the professor has provided
(White, 2001).
Designing a problem for higher-order thinking may seem like a daunt-
ing task for a professor who is unfamiliar with PBL. However, in this arti-
cle, I describe two stages for designing a PBL problem. In the first stage,
professors must consider the educational purpose of the problem. In the
second stage, professors must design the problem to meet the intended pur-
pose. After discussing these two stages, I offer practical examples of prob-
lems and discuss how they meet the criteria for a well-designed problem.

Determining the Purpose of the Problem

Professors should have a clear purpose in mind when deciding to use PBL.
In other words, professors who use PBL must ask a fundamental question:
“What am I trying to accomplish by assigning this problem?” Unless pro-
fessors address this question, they are likely to end up with problems that
do not serve their intended purpose.
Most basically, PBL should enhance and promote the goals of a course
or program of studies, not serve as a digression in curriculum and pedagogy.
The problem that serves as a basis of PBL activity, then, should promote

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING, no. 95, Fall 2003 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 25
26 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN THE INFORMATION AGE

students’ knowledge and skills that have been clearly defined as intended
course or program outcomes (Barrows, 1996; Drummond-Young and
Mohide, 2001).
Duffy and Cunningham (1996) offer five purposes for implementing
problems: guiding; testing; illustrating principles, concepts, or procedures;
fostering the processing of content; and providing a stimulus for activity.
First, professors might use a problem simply to guide students toward cer-
tain content or approaches. In other words, the problem is designed simply
to focus the students’ attention toward salient course concepts. Second, a
problem may serve as a test. When professors use problems as tests, they are
creating a situation where students must apply course knowledge. Sometimes
these problem-tests are simplistic, such as addressing exercises from the end
of a textbook chapter. Third, a problem can be used to illustrate the princi-
ple, concept, or procedure that is the focus of the problem. In this respect,
professors introduce problems for students to solve as an alternative to lec-
ture. Instead of the professor explaining a principle, defining a concept, or
guiding students through procedures, professors assign problems that will
force students to inductively discover explanations, definitions, and pro-
cesses. Fourth, problems can serve as a vehicle for promoting thoughtfulness
among students. In this case, professors are using problems primarily as a
basis to stimulate and train thinking skills. Fifth, problems may serve as stim-
uli for activity. This fifth purpose is the most ambiguous for assigning prob-
lems to students. The notion of stimulating activity is broad, and students
might engage in a variety of activities to solve the problem. A well-designed
problem that meets this fifth purpose will force students to think on high
levels as they struggle to bring order to the ambiguity.

Designing Problems to Promote Higher Activity

As I have pointed out, PBL problems can serve a variety of purposes. All of
these purposes have some merit, but the highest purpose of PBL in general
is to stimulate student activity and engagement. In this section, I suggest
criteria for a problem that will stimulate activity—and thus higher think-
ing—among students.
Appropriate for Students. A good problem should be based on an
analysis of students’ current content knowledge. If a problem is to serve as
a stimulus for higher-order and critical thinking, students must find the
problem to be challenging (Duch, 2001). Therefore, professors should
assess students’ current knowledge of the content inherent to a problem and
design that problem slightly beyond what students currently know. As a
result, students will not be able to solve the problem without slightly
extending their knowledge base and their skills. This extension will move
students beyond simply regurgitating what they already know; they will
have to develop a deeper (or broader) understanding of the content to solve
the problem at hand (Duch, 2001).
 DESIGNING PROBLEMS TO PROMOTE HIGHER-ORDER THINKING 27

Ill Structured. Closely allied to this issue of appropriateness for stu-

dents is the issue of problem structure. Jonassen (2000) notes that problems
generally can be characterized as either well structured or ill structured.
Well-structured problems can guide students toward salient processes in a
course and can be effective for demonstrating simple rules, concepts, and
procedures. The solutions to well-structured problems are ones the learn-
ers can find from limited sources.
Ill-structured problems, on the other hand, are messy like the problems
that are faced in everyday life and in professional practice (Delisle, 1997;
Duch, 2001; Jonassen, 2000). Not all the elements of the problem are
known, and ill-structured problems possess several solutions or perhaps no
solution. Ill-structured problems also are not confined by discipline bound-
aries (Stinson and Milter, 1996), so students may need to draw from a num-
ber of different fields to solve the problem.
If the professor’s goal in designing the problem is to foster higher-order
activity among students, then the problem should be relatively ill struc-
tured. The distinction is important because recent research has thrown into
question the assumption that learning to solve well-structured problems will
facilitate the ability to solve ill-structured problems (Jonassen, 2000).
Collaborative. Problems designed to promote higher-order thinking
should require collaboration among students (Gijselaers, 1996). Sometimes
when professors design collaborative assignments, students each complete
a part of the assignment, and then they assemble the parts for submission
to the professor. This puzzle-piecing approach is not sufficient in a PBL
assignment where the problem is designed to foster higher-order thinking
among students (Drummond-Young and Mohide, 2001; Duch, 2001).
Rather, professors should design the problem so that the group must syn-
thesize their ideas and make decisions throughout the course of the PBL
activity.
Allen, Duch, and Groh (1996) go beyond arguing that strong problems
require collaboration. They suggest that viable problems for promoting
higher-order thinking engender controversy among members of the group.
The acts of synthesizing ideas, making decisions, and resolving controversy
will require students to socially negotiate learning issues inherent to the
problem and defend among themselves the feasibility of those solutions
(Duch, 2001).
Authentic. As professors consider authentic slants to problems that
serve as the basis of PBL, they should be aware of two aspects of authentic-
ity. First, in some respects, the problem is authentic only if it is grounded
in students’ experiences. That is, if a problem is too theoretical and out of
touch with students’ experiences and daily lives, they will not be engaged
by the problem (Delisle, 1997; Mayer, 1998).
Second, even if a problem is not based in students’ current experiences,
it may be authentic if it relates to students’ future plans and expected careers
(Delisle, 1997; Stinson and Milter, 1996). PBL problems should be more
28 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN THE INFORMATION AGE

than theoretical exercises. Professors should design problems that require

students to apply content in ways indicative of emerging professionals.
Promotes Lifelong and Self-Directed Learning. To some extent, a
problem that meets the other criteria offered in this section will likely moti-
vate students to become lifelong and self-directed learners. That is, if a prob-
lem is appropriate for learners, authentic, and requires collaboration, then
students will feel empowered and understand the ways that problem-solving
skills can benefit them throughout life.
Examining two of these criteria can provide insights into the connec-
tion among lifelong learning, self-directed learning, and other criteria
offered in this section. A problem that is authentic is likely to encourage
lifelong problem solving and self-directed learning. When students solve a
problem that is of real interest to them, they will probably find their own
solutions to be inadequate. Therefore, they are more likely to become self-
directed learners and pursue further analysis of and alternative solutions to
the problem.
Furthermore, as students work collaboratively, they likely will assimi-
late a variety of approaches toward solving problems. That is, students learn
from each other how to solve problems. Because of this type of assimilation,
each student will learn new and novel—at least to that student—approaches
for acquiring knowledge and solving problems (Barrows, 1996; Gijselaers,
1996). Students can use these new approaches throughout life.

Examples of PBL Problems

Numerous examples of PBL problems might be helpful for promoting a
better understanding of problem design. After each example, I offer an
analysis of the problem in light of characteristics of good problems for
higher-order thinking.
Example Problem One. The following problem might be indicative of
a case-based problem given to first-year ophthalmology students:

A sixty-year-old man complains of murky vision. He also says that when he

reads, he sees only parts of letters. In reviewing the patient’s case, you dis-
cover a history of retinal disease in his family. Also, you discover that he has
had some symptoms of neurological disease, diabetes, and hematological
problems.
Before you leave class tonight, you must address the following questions:
First, from what you have learned about retinal disease, which is most rele-
vant to the goal of correctly diagnosing and treating the patient, the history
of neurological disease, diabetes, or hematological problems? Second, after
your group agrees on one answer in the first question, determine some result-
ing learning issues that need to be researched to diagnose this patient’s prob-
lem.
 DESIGNING PROBLEMS TO PROMOTE HIGHER-ORDER THINKING 29

Based on the decisions that your group makes tonight, you should devise
a plan for researching the various issues. Two weeks from tonight, your group
will present a diagnosis based on the issues that you determined as relevant.
Based on this diagnosis, you will recommend an appropriate form of treat-
ment or further diagnostic tests that you would need to conduct to determine
treatment.

An examination of this problem reveals several characteristics that will

promote higher-order thinking among students. We can assume that the
problem is appropriately ill structured for ophthalmology students because
no one clear path exists toward a diagnosis. In fact, it is unclear that stu-
dents will even have enough information to make a diagnosis, as opposed
to suggesting further testing to determine a diagnosis. Because of this ill
structure, the students in the group must collaboratively make decisions
about the steps for solving this problem. This ill-structured nature of the
problem also gives it an authenticity because ophthalmologists must diag-
nose patients’ disorders and determine regimens for treatment.
Example Problem Two. The following problem might be one given
to students in a first-year undergraduate advertising course.

Smalltown is one of the fastest growing towns in the area. It prides itself on
its new bike trail that includes paved areas and beautifully landscaped natu-
ral settings. According to the Smalltown police chief, the bike trails are the
target of vandals who have painted graffiti on the asphalt trail and on trees in
more scenic and natural parts of the trail. Furthermore, the bike trails are con-
stantly littered with empty water bottles, old tires, broken skateboard wheels,
and rusty bicycle chains. There have even been two arrests for public drunk-
enness on the trail. The chamber of commerce has hired you to launch a local
advertising campaign that will inspire some civic pride in the trail and
develop a sense of community ownership of the trail.
Based on this information, work as a group to reach consensus on the
exact nature of the problem, analyze an audience for the advertising campaign
that you likely could reach, develop criteria for measuring a “good” campaign
for reaching that audience, and develop an outline for three different cam-
paigns that meet your criteria and thus might be successful.

As with the first example problem, this problem requires students to

work collaboratively to reach numerous decisions. This problem also is
authentic because it requires students to develop an advertising campaign
based on careful audience analysis. This problem is ill structured in that
there is no one exactly right advertising campaign, and in fact, advertising
campaigns might not solve the problem at all. Despite this ambiguity,
though, as students work together to define an audience, devise criteria for
a successful campaign, and brainstorm ideas for the campaign, they will be
30 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN THE INFORMATION AGE

engaging in the systematic creative process that they are likely to repeat
numerous times throughout their career in the field of advertising.

Summary
Research on learning and cognition has yielded well-grounded principles
from which to design PBL problems that promote higher-order thinking
among students. In this article, I have discussed some of these principles,
and I have provided example problems that contain these principles. The
bad news is that there is no step-by-step method for developing a good
problem for PBL. The good news is that by paying attention to these char-
acteristics, professors can create problems that are likely to challenge and
motivate students.

References
Allen, D. E., Duch, B. J., and Groh, S. E. “The Power of Problem-Based Learning in
Teaching Introductory Science Courses.” In L. Wilkerson and W. H. Gijselaers (eds.),
Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996, pp. 43– 52.
Barrows, H. “Problem-Based Learning in Medicine and Beyond: A Brief Overview.” In L.
Wilkerson and W. H. Gijselaers (eds.), Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher
Education: Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996, pp. 3–12.
Delisle, R. How to Use Problem-Based Learning in the Classroom. Alexandria, Va.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1997.
Drummond-Young, M., and Mohide, E. A. “Developing Problems for Use in Problem-
Based Learning.” In E. Rideout (ed.), Transforming Nursing Education Through
Problem-Based Learning. Boston, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett, 2001, pp. 165–191.
Duch, B. J. “Writing Problems for Deeper Understanding.” In B. J. Duch, S. E. Groh, and
D. E. Allen (eds.), The Power of Problem-Based Learning: A Practical “How to” for
Teaching Undergraduate Courses in Any Discipline. Sterling, Va.: Stylus, 2001, pp.
47–58.
Duffy, T. M., and Cunningham, D. J. “Constructivism: Implications for the Design and
Delivery of Instruction.” In D. H. Jonassen (ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational
Communications and Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1996, pp.
170–198.
Gijselaers, W. H. “Connecting Problem-Based Practices with Educational Theory.” In L.
Wilkerson and W. H. Gijselaers (eds.), Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher
Education: Theory and Practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 68. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996, pp. 13– 21.
Jonassen, D. “Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving.” Educational Technology
Research and Development, 2000, 48(4), 63– 85.
Mayer, R. E. “Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Motivational Aspects of Problem Solving.”
Instructional Science, 1998, 26, 49– 63.
Stinson, J. E., and Milter, R. G. “Problem-Based Learning in Business Education:
Curriculum Design and Implementation Issues.” In L. Wilkerson and W. H. Gijselaers
 DESIGNING PROBLEMS TO PROMOTE HIGHER-ORDER THINKING 31

(eds.), Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice. New
Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 68. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996, pp.
33–42.
White, H. “Getting Started in Problem-Based Learning.” In B. J. Duch, S. E. Groh, and
D. E. Allen (eds.), The Power of Problem-Based Learning: A Practical “How to” for
Teaching Undergraduate Courses in Any Discipline. Sterling, Va.: Stylus, 2001, pp.
69–78.

RENÉE E. WEISS is assistant professor of instructional technology in the depart-

ment of educational leadership at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville.