A CASE STUDY IN
LIME PRODUCTION
NO.2. IMPROVED TECHNIQUES AT CHENKUMBI, MALAWI.
4 TONNES PER DAY, MIXED FEED, FORCED AIR, VERTICAL SHAFT KILN
Lime has been used in the Malawian building industry for many generations, principally as
the cementing agent in renders and to produce a decorative whitewash.
In more recent years there has also been a demand for high quality lime from the sugar
processing industry and for soil stabilization in road construction.
The Chenkumbi Hills in central southern Malawi, 15 km south of the town of Balaka, is a
traditional lime producing area. It has grown in importance in the 1980s and 90s due to the
large deposits of calcitic marble of a reasonably high chemical purity.
Traditionally lime has been produced at Chenkumbi in large open box kilns (See Malawi lime
case study No 1). The techniques employed, however, were unable to meet the demand for
chemical grade lime required by the sugar processing industry, which had to import lime at
considerable cost.
This case study illustrates the results of
development work of Intermediate Technology
in collaboration with INDEFUND (a Malawian
lending bank promoting small industries) and
the local lime producers.
Raw materials and quarrying
techniques
The Chenkumbi Hills are formed by large
deposits of coarse grained, large crystalline
marble. The deposits vary considerably in
chemical content from almost pure calcium
carbonate to almost pure dolomite.
Only a small portion of the hills has been
geologically mapped in detail but in this
section alone measured reserves with a high
calcium carbonate content amount to 3.7
million tonnes. The Malawian Geological Survey
Department has trained the lime producers in a
simple acid reactivity test which helps select
the high quality deposits with a calcium
carbonate content (CaCO3) above 95%.
Figure 1: The improved kiln design.
Practical Action, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby,
Warwickshire, CV23 9QZ, UK
T +44 (0)1926 634400 | F +44 (0)1926 634401 | E [email protected] | W www.practicalaction.org
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Practical Action is a registered charity and company limited by guarantee.
Company Reg. No. 871954, England | Reg. Charity No.247257 | VAT No. 880 9924 76 |
Patron HRH The Prince of Wales, KG, KT, GCB
Lime production: improved techniques in Malawi Practical Action
Marble is quarried by means of first drilling and blasting with explosives, and then by manual
breaking using hammers to a feed size of between 75 and 125 mm. An experienced blaster
is hired every 3 to 6 months to extract sufficient rock for the period. The rock is then taken to
the kiln site at the nearby town of Balaka by hired truck.
The fuel used is charcoal produced from renewable fast growing plantation reserves planted
by the Government for industrial fuel supply. Alternatively coal or wood could also be used.
The kiln design and firing procedures
The kiln design is of the vertical shaft type, with an effective shaft height of 6m and an
internal diameter of 1.1m, tapering 1m from the top to 800 mm diameter.
The kiln is lined internally with locally produced refractory bricks followed by a 230 mm
thick layer of insulating bricks and a 120 mm skin of ordinary stock bricks. The brickwork is
encased in a 6 mm mild steel casing with a diameter of 2.3m (see figures 1 & 3).
Four discharge points are located at the bottom of the kiln, at 90° to each other and each
fitted with steel fire doors.
The kiln is free standing with a cat ladder providing access to 4 inspection ports and to a
steel platform at the top of the kiln, which facilitates charging.
With this particular kiln a fan forces air through the kiln and thereby helps to control kiln
temperature. The fan is powered by a 5.5 kW motor and air is fed into the kiln through
a cast iron manifold at the centre of the lower section of the kiln (see figure 3).
Marble and charcoal are manually hoisted to the top of the kiln and into a steel charging
hopper on a 24 hour per day continuous basis. In total 5.7 tonnes of marble and 0.8 tonnes
of charcoal are fed into the kiln during every 24 hours.
The kiln temperature is maintained at between 1000 and 1100°C.
The quicklime (predominantly calcium oxide, CaO) is discharged from the kiln once every
hour and-a-half from the four discharge openings by shovel directly into wheelbarrows.
In practice it is the rate of discharge which determines the rate of flow through the kiln and
the quantity of feed required. The rate of discharge is determined by the required period of
calcination and to some extent by the position of the firing zone.
Hydration, sieving and classification
Slaking is carried out in a mechanical
hydrator. This comprises a horizontal U-
shaped trough 2 m long and 800 mm wide,
covered with a lid hinged on one side and a
gate along the bottom for discharge. Agitation
is provided by a rotating internal shaft with a
series of angle sections welded to it
alternately set off at 90°.
Quicklime is charged into the top of the
hydrator in batches of 220 kg. Once the
rotating agitator is turning 60 litres of water
is added through holes in pipes running along
the top of the machine, at a rate of 10 litres
per minute. The time taken to hydrate one Figure 2: Prototype mechanical batch
batch is approximately 12 minutes, after hydrator.
which the hydrated lime is discharged.
2
Lime production: improved techniques in Malawi Practical Action
The slightly moist and hot slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) 2) is then allowed to dry
and cool for a period of 24 hours.
The lime is then sieved into plus or minus 5mm fractions with the latter retained, and about
11 %, being waste material.
The product from sieving is then milled in a hammer mill powered by a diesel engine, of the
type normally used for milling maize. The milling is done in order to produce a fine and
uniform product.
The milled hydrated lime is then bagged by hand.
The quality of the lime produced averages 60% available lime content. (Available lime
content is the measure normally used to compare the quality of limes. It means the amount
of chemically active freelime and is expressed as the calcium oxide or CaO content. In a
hydrated lime the theoretical maximum available lime content is 75%.)
Mechanical and air classification equipment, designed for this particular plant, is currently
being tested.
Mode of operation
The kiln operates on a
continuous 24 hour per day
basis. Although it is possible
to operate a kiln of this type
in fairly short production
runs of a few days,
considerable effort and
energy is wasted every time
the kiln is allowed to cool
down and has to be
restarted.
Production should, therefore,
be continuous with only
occasional shut downs for
maintenance and repair.
The associated activities
such as quarrying, hydrating
and bagging are, in this
particular case, only
undertaken during the day-
time shift.
Figure 3: Technical detail of improved kiln design.
Comments
One of the major issues of this particular lime production unit is its location. It was decided
to site the kiln at the town of Balaka, over 15 km from the quarry site on grounds that the
advantages of being close to power, water supplies and communications would outweigh the
disadvantage of needing to transport marble from the quarry to the kiln site. While this
decision may have been correct in the short term it is likely to prove economically
advantageous to site the kiln close to the quarry once water and power facilities are provided
at Chenkumbi.
3
Lime production: improved techniques in Malawi Practical Action
The kiln's fuel efficiency, calculated at 42% is reasonably good for a kiln of this type.
The loss on ignition is between 36 -37%, meaning that approximately 86% of the calcium
carbonate entering the kiln is converted to calcium oxide. Again, this is a satisfactory
conversion rate for a vertical shaft kiln, particularly considering the difficult calcining
characteristics of coarse grained marble, the raw material used. The quality of the lime
produced is also reasonably good at around 60% available lime content and a particle size
distribution of 70% less than 150 microns. This is acceptable to the sugar processing
industry.
The main technical objectives of this kiln design have been met. These were to produce a
lime hydrate to meet the requirements of the sugar processing industry, negating the need to
import lime, and to utilize renewable fuel sources rather than the traditional use of
indigenous hardwoods, which is both costly and a major contributory factor in deforestation.
The kiln's operation provides employment for 57 people including those employed in
quarrying. This clearly demonstrates the ability of appropriate technologies to combine
labour intensive and technically efficient methods of production, thus maximising the
benefits and advantages of both systems.
Information at a glance
Type of kiln Mixed feed vertical shaft kiln with forced
draft
Capital costs Medium
Mode of production Continuous at 4 tonnes Ca(OH)2
Running costs Medium
Type and quality of limestone Marble, approx. 95% CaCO3
Type and quantity of fuel Charcoal. 30 MJ/Kg. 0.8 tonnes per day
Fuel efficiency 42%
Conversion rate CaCO3 TO CaO 86%
Hydration Mechanical hydrator, 220Kg per batch
Sieving/classification Manual sieving at 5mm. Air classification
system under test
Milling Diesel powered hammer mill
Quality of lime produced Good, 60% available lime content
Principal market Sugar processing and building industries
Number of persons employed (including 57
quarrying)
Person shifts per 100 tonnes Ca(OH)2 1570
produced (including quarrying)
Postscript
This technical brief was originally written in 1991. The Balaka lime plant only continued in
production for a short time afterwards. The need to transport limestone to the kiln from the
Chenkumbi Hills added considerably to the production costs. Also, although the test
production runs indicated that high quality lime could be produced by the plant, the quality
could not be sustained under actual ongoing production conditions. The sugar industries in
Malawi decided not to use the Balaka lime in their processes and continued to use imported
lime.
4
Lime production: improved techniques in Malawi Practical Action
Another lower cost continuously operated kiln that did not incorporate a steel shell or electric
fan was built at the Chenkumbi Hills. This operated for a number of years but was forced to
close due to economic problems and a shrinking market for lime in Malawi as well as
production difficulties.
References and further reading
Lime: An Introduction Practical Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=210
Hydraulic Lime: An Introduction Practical Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=242
Lime Kiln Designs: Small-to-medium scale oil fired lime kilns Practical Action
Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=243
Methods of Testing Lime in the Field Practical Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=193
How to Calculate the Energy Efficiency of Your Lime Burning Process Practical Action
Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=231
A Case Study in Lime Production: A traditional kiln at Bounoura, Algeria, Practical
Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=244
A Small Lime Kiln for Batch and Continuous Firing, Chris Stevens, Practical Action
Technical Brief, 1999
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=207
A Case Study in Lime Production No.1: Traditional batch techniques at Chenkumbi,
Malawi, Practical Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=246
A Case Study in Lime Production: Improved design of a lime kiln in Sri Lanka,
Practical Action Technical Brief
A Case Study in Lime Production: Traditional techniques in Sri Lanka , Practical
Action Technical Brief
How to Build a Small Vertical Shaft Lime Kiln: An example of a continuous
production, mixed feed kiln from Zimbabwe, Kelvin Mason, Practical Action
Technical Brief, 1999
A Case Study in Lime Production: Traditional batch techniques in Patarrá, Costa
Rica, Practical Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=245
A Case Study in Lime Production: Improved techniques at Nicoya Costa Rica, 29
tonnes per batch, fuelwood kiln, Practical Action Technical Brief
*
The Small-scale Vertical Shaft Lime Kiln: A Practical Guide to Design, Construction
and operation, Kelvin Mason, Practical Action Publishing ISBN 1 85339 465 3,
1999
Order online from Development Bookshop
http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?cPath=8&products_id=442
*
Lime and Alternative Binders in East Africa Elijah Agevi et al, Practical Action
Publishing, 1995
Order online from Development Bookshop
http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?cPath=8&products_id=317
5
Lime production: improved techniques in Malawi Practical Action
*
Lime and Other Alternative Cements Neville Hill Stafford Holmes David Mather,
Practical Action Publishing, ISBN 1 85339 178 6, 1992
Order online from Development Bookshop
http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?cPath=8&products_id=45
Small Scale Production of Lime for Building John Spiropoulos GATE/GTZ, 1985
ISBN 3 528 02016 4, 1985
http://80.237.211.43/basin/publications/books/lime.pdf
*
Building with Lime: A Practical Introduction Stafford Holmes & Michael Wingate,
Practical Action Publishing, ISBN 9781 85339 5475 (Revised Edition),
Order online from Development Bookshop
http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?cPath=8&products_id=537
*
Small-scale Lime Burning: A Practical Introduction, Wingate, M. and others, IT
Publications, London, 1985
Appropriate Vertical Shaft Lime Kilns in Indonesia, UNDP / UNIDO Building
Materials Project in Indonesia, Bandung, 1983
Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, R. Boynton, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., 1980
*
These publications can also be ordered from:
Practical Action Publishing,
The Schumacher Centre for Technology & Development,
Bourton-on-Dunsmore,
Warwickshire
CV23 9QZ,
United Kingdom
Tel +44 (0)1926 634501
Fax +44 (0)1926 634502
[email protected]
http://www.developmentbookshop.com/
This technical brief was originally prepared for basin, Building Advisory Service
and Information Network.
Practical Action
The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development
Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Warwickshire
CV23 9QZ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1926 634400
Fax: +44 (0)1926 634401
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/
This Technical Brief is possible thanks to the collaboration of DFID-UK and The Tony
Bullard Trust.
Practical Action is a development charity with a difference. We know the simplest ideas can have the
most profound, life-changing effect on poor people across the world. For over 40 years, we have been
working closely with some of the world’s poorest people - using simple technology to fight poverty and
transform their lives for the better. We currently work in 15 countries in Africa, South Asia and Latin
America.
