TECTONOPHYSICS

I IIIII I

ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

Marine climatic responses to Neogene tectonics of the

Pacific Ocean seaways
Ryuichi Tsuchi *
Shizuoka University, Miyatake 1-9-24, Shizuoka 422, Japan
Received 5 July 1996; accepted 25 February 1997

Abstract

Based upon surface marine climatic evolution on both sides of the Pacific Ocean recently revealed by biochronostratig-
raphy in Japan and South America, the tectonics of Pacific Ocean seaways and associated responses of adjacent seas and
ocean currents are discussed. The rapid opening of the Sea of Japan at about 15 Ma in early Middle Miocene time, mainly
by the rotation of the Southwest Japan arc, can be correlated with the abrupt appearance of a cold-water fauna on the
Pacific coast of Northeast Japan beginning ca. 15 Ma and an extensive hiatus along the Pacific coast of southwestern Japan
spanning 15 Ma to 12 Ma. The abrupt and extensive development of biosiliceous lithofacies along the Pacific coast of
Peru beginning about 14 Ma might also represent a response to the tectonic anticlockwise rotation of the Peruvian Block
of the Andean Mountain Range, estimated to have occurred sometime during the Miocene. As the tectonic closing of the
Indonesian seaway would have strongly intensified the warm Kuroshio current in the Northwest Pacific, it is most probable
that this seaway was effectively closed just prior to 15.5 Ma in the earliest Middle Miocene, when tropical marine faunas
were developed in most of the Japanese Islands. The closing of the Central American seaway is estimated to have been
completed at 3.5-3 Ma in Pliocene time. The closure of this seaway would likely have intensified the warm Kuroshio
current, affecting the marine fauna along the Pacific coast of southwestern Japan. It is also possible that a decrease in
surface temperatures at about 3 Ma along the Pacific coast of Ecuador was due to this Pliocene tectonic event.

Keywords: Sea of Japan; Kuroshio current; Indonesian seaway; Central American seaway; Andean Mountains

1. Introduction whole and provide a framework to evaluate geo-

logic events and associated palaeoenvironmental re-
Recent progress in studies on Pacific Neogene sponses in time and space. The opening of the Sea of
stratigraphy has allowed construction of detailed bio- Japan, the oroclinal bending of the Andean Moun-
and chronostratigraphic reference sections along the tains and closures of the Indonesian and Central
Pacific coast of Japan and along the Pacific coast American seaways constitute key Pacific Neogene
of South America (Tsuchi, 1992a,b). These stud- tectonic events. This report focuses on the timing of
ies have also revealed the evolution of a Neogene these major tectonic events around the Pacific margin
surface marine climate in the Pacific region as a and associated responses of adjacent seas and sur-
face currents from the viewpoint of marine climatic
* Fax: +81-54-238-3241; e-mail: vyz01052@[Link] evolution.

0040-1951/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PH S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 1 6 3 - 7
114 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

2. Neogene marine climates on both sides of the of South America were initiated in 1985 in collab-
Pacific Ocean oration with the 1GCP-246 national working groups
of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile, and the An-
2.1. The Pacific coast of central Japan dean study group of Shizuoka University (Tsuchi,
1992a). A recently completed chronostratigraphic
Neogene marine strata occupy extensive areas in correlation chart of Neogene marine sequences along
the Japanese Islands. At the present time, along the the Pacific coast of South America is presented in
Pacific coast, the warm Kuroshio current effectively Fig. 3. The correlation and age-assignments in the
influences southwestern Japan and the cold Oyashio chart were mainly made by means of planktonic
current affects northeastern Japan. Open, shallow- foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton, and ad-
water assemblages in the Neogene and Recent shal- ditionally by diatoms. The remarkably extensive de-
low marine molluscan faunas of Japan can be sep- position of Neogene biosiliceous sediments along
arated clearly into warm- and cold-water species the coast of Peru beginning ca. 14 Ma suggests
groups in southern and northern Japan (Figs. 1 and strong coastal upwelling during the period (Fig. 3).
2). In particular, warm-water faunas on the Pacific Neogene variations in the ratio of warm-water plank-
coast of southwestern Japan can be divided into five tonic foraminifera to the total planktonic assemblage
phases, from older to younger: (1) Late Oligocene- on the Pacific coast of northern South America are
Early Miocene warm-temperate Ashiya fauna, (2) shown in Fig. 4, based on data from the Esmeraldas
earliest Middle Miocene tropical Kadonosawa fauna, section in Ecuador, the Camana section in southern
(3) Middle Miocene-Early Pliocene subtropical Peru and the Caleta Herradura de Mejillones section
Sagara fauna, (4) the Late Pliocene-Early Pleis- near Antofagasta in northern Chile.
tocene subtropical Kakegawa fauna, and 5) the Re-
cent warm-temperate Kuroshio current fauna. 2.3. Marine climatic evolution on both sides of the
The Ashiya fauna originally was typified by as- Pacific Ocean
semblages found along northern Kyushu on the Sea
of Japan side, and thus, those on the Pacific coast of Comparison of the chronologic distribution of the
southwestern Japan are considered to have more sub- ratio of warm water planktonic foraminifera on the
tropical elements. The 2nd, 3rd and 4th faunas noted Pacific coast of central Japan in the Northwest Pa-
above have their acmes at about 15.5 Ma, 5.7 Ma and cific with that on the Pacific coast of northern South
3 Ma, respectively. Each of them can be regarded as America in the Southeast Pacific (Fig. 5), reveals
an expression of a marine warm climatic event be- three marine warm climatic events in Japan at about
cause of their increasing warm elements and/or their 15.5 Ma, 5.7 Ma and 3 Ma, and three warm events in
northward migration. The Neogene marine warm cli- South America around 15.5 Ma, 11 Ma and 5.7 Ma,
matic events are also dated by associated planktonic respectively. In South America, the three Neogene
foraminifers, as shown in Fig. 2. The major ma- warm episodes correspond to horizons containing
rine warm climatic event occurring about 15.5 Ma tropical larger foraminifera in the Camana section
is termed the 'Mid-Neogene climatic optimum' be- in Peru (Ibaraki, 1992a), to the horizon of rich cal-
cause of its prominence and its Pacific-wide scale careous intercalations in mostly biosiliceous facies
(Tsuchi, 1992b). of Peru, and to horizons of the subtropical mol-
lusc-bearing Navidad fauna in central Chile (Ibaraki,
2.2. The Pacific coast of South America 1992b), respectively. In South America, Zone N7
faunas seem to indicate a warm climatic event at
On the Pacific coast of South America, marine about 17 Ma. However, the reference section in
Cenozoic strata are scattered widely (Fig. 4). At the Ecuador is located in the equatorial area and no data
present time, the coast along the Pacific Ocean is are available from other Lower and Middle Miocene
strongly influenced by the cold Peru (or Humboldt) horizons as yet. In contrast, similar data from
current from Chile to most of Ecuador. Neogene bio- Japanese reference sections indicate that the period
and chronostratigraphic studies on the Pacific coast about 11.5 Ma was not a markedly warm interval.
 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124 115

~°N+
130" E 135"
+ /
/ 14o°
+
"~
/
HOKKAIDO

~ -//
/
/
125 ° / l~ o

+
I
SEA OF J A P A N
HONSHU
I.s

j~ ,,k ,

35*-/-

Kakegawa

e/ 30"-~
+
SHI K O K U

+ -~

o-

,j m PACIFIC OCEAN

OKINAWA
•,- 2s* + + +

Fig. 1. Areal distribution of Neogene marine strata in Japan (in black) and Recent paths of the warm Kuroshio and cold Oyashio currents.
116 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

Molluscan Faunas
Warm Ma
1OO%_
$ ,,i JAPANESE ISLANDS %' N Marine Climatic Events
~c~t K ~ ~ Re©~t Oy~h~o ~ a (C)

I < •
Phased dropping
' Kakegawa Fauna IF~ i ,c~
(w) ]l t.n "" 4 ~ Warm episode

I
,~lBII Warm episode

101
Sagara Fauna(W] 7-
tn
Shiobara-Yama Fauna(C)
~7
ro

ro

< Abrupt
• cooling
15;
Fmma Fro(C) 4~BII Climatic optimum

~7

20

E
~" Ashlya Fauna (W) Asagai-Poronai Fauna(C)
O
"E

al

25

°g
"° "~
rr
~
~__ Key stratigraphlc sections
Planktonic foraminiferal zones

Fig. 2. Neogene marine molluscan faunas in Japan and their distribution in time and space, and chronostratigraphic positions of
key stratigraphic sections. (W) and (C) indicate warm- and cold-water faunas, respectively. Chronologic calibrations of planktonic
foraminiferal zones are those of Berggren et al. (1995a,b). The ratio of warm-water planktonic foraminifera to the total planktonic fauna
examined in reference sections of central Japan (Ibaraki, 1990) is illustrated on the left-hand side of the figure. The histogram is based
mainly on the Kakegawa section (black) and additionally on the Tomioka section in the western Kanto region (striped), both on the
Pacific side of central Japan.
 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124 117

o o
,~ o
• ' ' I I . . . . . . . . I ' ' I 0
i
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I
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; - - ....... F, i [ i

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118 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

I ) I " "

(Q

z-~4
¢-
._=-= =
~.~

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o = E
oS
C
(O
~o E g._=
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.... ,,,, ....... , ......

~O
o
"= ~

•-~ ~
I~{i{i{!iii{i!i[ii!!ii{{!i{ii{!il
r~ ,,,, .,~ =
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 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124 119

NW Pacific SE Pacific
Mollusca Marine climatic event
0 W a r m 100% 0 a A B W a r m 100%
Warm temp. Kuroshio fauna i
co
~ N22

b
~ -
Subtrop. Kakegawa fauna
N21 A cool episode in NW Ecuador
uJ

N19

JSubtrop. Navidad fauna in Chile

N17
uJ
Subtropical Sagara fauna
0 .
$
w.i
<~ N16
11) .-I

~15 A warm episode

M'IA
~ N 13
~ !2.
III ~ | |

NIO
UJ
15
Tropical Kadonosawa fauna N8 Miog'ypsina-bearing

Camana fauna in Peru

N7

Warm temperate Ashiya fauna N6

III . . . .
C)
20
N5

C~ -
<
Lu
A: E p o c h
N4
B: Planktonic foraminiferal z o n e s

Fig. 5. Correlation of Neogene climatic events interpreted from molluscan and planktonic foraminiferal trends in Japan and South
America. (Symbols as in Figs. 2 and 4).
120 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

3. Major tectonics and associated responses as revealed by recent palaeomagnetic studies (Oto-
fuji et al., 1985; Hirooka, 1992) (Fig. 6). This event
3.1. Openingof the Sea of Japan affected the direction of the warm Kuroshio cur-
rent along the Pacific coast of Japan and associated
About 15.5 Ma during the Mid-Neogene climatic marine faunas on the Pacific coast of Japan at that
optimum, the Sea of Japan had initially opened as a time.
narrow seaway (Tsuchi, 1992b). Subsequently, the On the Pacific coast of Northeast Japan, cold
sea opened rapidly, mainly due to abrupt clockwise molluscan faunas abruptly appeared at ca. 15 Ma
rotation of the Southwest Japan arc at about 15 Ma, (Fig. 2), while on the Pacific coast of southwestern

:.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:
..........•,.,.
.:.-.-.-.-.1.:.:.
............... i::i::iii! ,)

Conl

-7,_;
:a ::i:i:i:~:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:ili:...~ \ l - /" ll,psf -

(;
,. I'•.i I
.....

.'.:~

Mangrove swa
: ,,,LI~ Cora 1 reef
•:....,

LepidocycliJ
C~ Land Miogyps ina
(~ Lake Vicarya
-~ Sea Te lescop iun
(b Ge lo ina
I I I
Fig. 6. Palaeogeographic map of the Japanese Islands at the Mid-Neogene climatic optimum at about 15.5 Ma, with locations of tropical
coastal floras and faunas•
 R. TsuchilTectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124 121

Japan an extensive hiatus was developed during 15 and rapidity of the oroclinal bending of the Andean
Ma to 12 Ma. As a result of this hiatus, the initial Mountains are not yet known, the abrupt and ex-
phase of the subtropical Sagara fauna has not yet tensive development of biosiliceous lithofacies along
been elucidated. These events collectively represent the Peruvian coast beginning ca. 14 Ma (Fig. 3) may
clear responses to the rapid opening of the Sea of have been due in part to the anticlockwise rotation of
Japan. the Peruvian Block of the Andean Mountain Range.

3.2. Oroclinal bending of the Andean Mountains

3.3. Closing of the Indonesian seaway
An anticlockwise bending of the central part
of the Andean Mountain Range recently has been Referring to a palaeogeographic map of the Pa-
estimated to have occurred sometime during the cific Ocean around 17 Ma in the Early Miocene (T-
Miocene based upon palaeomagnetic studies (Heki suchi and Ingle, 1992) and a sketch map of the main
et al., 1983; Kono, 1986) (Fig. 7). This event would Pacific Ocean currents at the present time (Fig. 8),
also have shifted the direction of the Peruvian coast it is believed that the Indonesian seaway and the
and affected ocean currents and coastal upwelling, Central American seaway were both open in Early
especially along the Pacific coast of Peru in north- Miocene time. Under these conditions, the north-
ern South America. Although the precise timing ern Equatorial current, flowing through the Central
American seaway and across the Pacific Ocean from
O*W
the Caribbean Sea, would slowly flow into the Indian
Ocean passing through the Indonesian seaway (also
known as the Pacific-Indian Ocean gateway).
The Indonesian seaway has been estimated to
have closed sometime during the Middle Miocene
based on biogeographic and palaeoceanographic ev-
0" idence (Kennett et al., 1985). Nishimura (1992) es-
timated that the closure occurred about 17-15 Ma
from the viewpoint of neotectonic evolution of the
Indonesian arcs. According to Kennett et al. (1985),
the closing of the Indonesian seaway strongly would
0 .... 1.000~ intensify both Pacific gyral circulation and the warm
Kuroshio current at that time, in turn affecting the
marine fauna along the Pacific coast of southwestern
Japan.
Based upon marine climatic events recognized in
Japan in the Northwest Pacific, it is most proba-
ble that the closing of the Indonesian seaway oc-
curred just prior to the earliest Middle Miocene
warm event around 15.5 Ma, representing the Mid-
Neogene climatic optimum. The flourishing of the
tropical Kadonosawa fauna on most coasts of the
Japanese Islands at this time was due to intensifica-
I -: tion of the warm Kuroshio current caused by closure
s I of the Indonesian seaway. A Late Miocene warm
Fig. 7. Anticlockwise rotation of the Peruvian Block of the An- episode at about 5.7 Ma possibly was due to the
dean Mountain Range deduced from palaeomagnetic directions additional effect of a final phase in the closure of the
(Heki et al., 1983). Recent paths of the cold Peru current are also
Indonesian seaway.
given.
t22 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

+90" ±180 °

+40" +40"

0° NINIII II I 0°

.,.x -40"

m,
)

,4-180" .DO e
+gO"

+gO. ±180"
[ ..../ ]

~-.-.~: ...~ ~'~.~ i .......

/~'" ....i?..~ ".. /
~. ~ ~.-~.

\)
• ..--3-.

4-60"

PACIFIC OCEAN

-- O"

i~ ~i~¸ (:
\..

iii~,~ ~.....
-4O"

i I
÷90" ~180 °
 R. Tsuchi / Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124 123

3.4. Closing of the Central American seaway 4. Conclusion

On the closing of the Central American seaway, Based upon recently established Neogene bio-
constricting processes have so far been estimated as and chronostratigraphies along the Pacific coasts of
follows: the free and active water circulation between Japan and South America, timing of tectonic opening
the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea had been and closing and of bending of major Pacific Ocean
maintained before the Middle Miocene. The initial seaways can be correlated with faunal and climatic
uplift of the Panama sill changed water circulation in responses in adjacent seas and ocean currents.
both the Pacific and Caribbean coastal areas north- The rapid opening of the Sea of Japan around 15
west of South America in Middle Miocene time, Ma through the clockwise rotation of the Southwest
when seawater communications would likely be made Japan arc likely caused the abrupt appearance of
through archipelagic seaways (Duque-C., 1990). cold-water faunas in northeast Japan, beginning ca.
The constricting seaway stimulated the evolution of 15 Ma, and the development of an extensive hiatus
Caribbean reef corals and benthic foraminifera in Late throughout the Pacific coast of southwestern Japan
Miocene time (Collins et al., 1996b). In the vicinity of between 15 Ma and 12 Ma.
the Panama Canal basin a palaeobiogeographic bar- An abrupt and extensive development of bio-
rier was temporally formed at ca. 8 Ma and a deep- siliceous lithofacies on the Pacific coast of Peru
ening occurred again at ca. 6 Ma, followed by the beginning at about 14 Ma may have been due in part
above-mentioned constriction (Collins et al., 1996a); to the anticlockwise rotation of the Peruvian Block
the seawater connections were completely severed at of the Andean Mountain Range, which occurred
3.5-3 Ma (Keigwyn, 1982; Coates et al., 1992). sometime during the Miocene.
Similar to events triggered by the closing of the The effective closing of the Indonesian seaway (or
Indonesian seaway, the closing of the Central Amer- Pacific-Indian Ocean gateway) probably occurred
ican seaway would likely have intensified Pacific just prior to the marine warm climatic event of 15.5
gyral circulation, including the Kuroshio current, so Ma, the so-called Mid-Neogene climatic optimum.
again affecting marine faunas along the Pacific coast Abundant tropical marine faunas throughout most of
of southwestern Japan. An ocean circulation model the Japanese Islands around 15.5 Ma are thought
presented by Maier-Reimer et al. (1990) also sug- to be a response to the intensification of the warm
gests a strengthening of the Kuroshio current by Kuroshio current caused by the closing of the In-
an increase in the surface elevation of the tropical donesian seaway. A warm climatic episode at about
West Pacific or an increase in the east-west slope 5.7 Ma in the Late Miocene may also represent an
of the Pacific Ocean due to the control of the closed oceanographic and climatic response to an additional
Central American seaway (Hay and Brock, 1992). tectonic event in the Indonesian seaway.
The warm episode at about 3 Ma during the early The closing of the Central American seaway,
phase of the subtropical Kakegawa molluscan fauna estimated to have been completed at 3.5-3 Ma,
on the Pacific coast of southwestern Japan (Fig. 2) may also have aided intensification of the Kuroshio
was likely due to the strengthened warm Kuroshio current and brought about a flourishing subtropical
current at this time, linked to the closing of the marine fauna on the Pacific coast of southwesernt
Central American seaway. In South America, on the Japan at about 3 Ma. In contrast, a decrease in
other hand, a decrease in surface seawater tempera- surface seawater temperature at about 3 Ma has
tures along the Pacific coast of northwestern Ecuador been recognized on the Pacific coast of northwestern
at about 3 Ma (Fig. 5) is probable evidence of in- Ecuador, probably due to increased coastal upwelling
creased coastal upwelling, caused by the closing of caused by the final closing of the Central American
the Central American seaway. seaway.

Fig. 8. Schematic maps illustrating the patterns of principal surface currents in the Pacific Ocean in modern times (top) and during the
Early Miocene (ca. 17 Ma); modified from Tsuchi and Ingle (1992).
124 R. Tsuchi/Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 113-124

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