SESAM
Photovoltaic for Professionals
Contents
Monday:
- Energy supplies – today and in the future
- The sun’s limitless energy
- Photovoltaic effect – conversion of solar energy into electricity
Tuesday:
- Grid-tied photovoltaic systems – components and design
Wednesday:
- Stand-alone photovoltaic systems – components and design
Thursday:
- Installation and commissioning
- Open discussion and questions, preparation of the klausur
1. Energy supplies – today and in the future
• Today’s energy supplies: a cul-de-sac
• The potential of renewable energy
• Good environmental and economic grounds for using solar energy
• Example applications
Energy routes
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-1
World energy system
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-2
Hidden costs of fossil fuels
Price on the bill
Additional, hidden costs
Costs of war
Environmental damage
Air pollution
Clean-up costs
Security costs
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-3
Emissions caused by burning fossil fuels
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-4
Costs of climate change worldwide
US dollars (thousands of millions)
Economic damage
Insured proportion
Trend - economic damage
Trend - insured proportion
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-5
PV module area to supply current global energy needs
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-6
The potential of renewable energy
The power of the sun
Annual global
Geothermal Biomass energy requirement
Solar energy
Hydro-electricity/ Wind energy
wave power
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-7
Photovoltaics provide power for remote buildings
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-8
Solar power generation in a Japanese housing estate
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-9
Photovoltaics – free-standing arrays or integrated into
buildings
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-10
Solar-thermal power station in California
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-11
Solar-thermal system for heating domestic water
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-12
Active and passive use of solar energy in buildings
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-13
Heat pumps use the heat from the surroundings to warm
buildings
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-14
Wood and wood-pellet heating – use a replenishable
commodity
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-15
Future energy supplies – decentralized and autonomous
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-16
Global PV market growth
MWp
Year
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-17
Main national markets for grid-tied PV
New installations (MW p)
year
Japan Germany USA
Total installed capacity Total installed capacity Total installed capacity
1100 MW (2004) 760 MW (2004) 270 MW (2003)
Energy supplies – today and in the future 1-18
2. The sun’s limitless energy
• The sun as a source of radiation
• Radiation levels
• Solar yield from photovoltaic systems
The sun as a source of energy
Temperature Equivalent to 5.777 K
Solar Constant
(Maximum Irradiation Outside Atmosphere)
1.367 W/m2
The sun’s limitless energy 2-1
Sun-Earth geometry
21 September 21 June
21 December 21 March
The sun’s limitless energy 2-2
Components of solar radiation
Diffusion by Air Molecules,
Diffusion From Aerosols
Direct Diffuse Irradiance
Irradiance
Irradiance Due
to Albedo
The sun’s limitless energy 2-3
Annual and daily path of the sun (Northern hemisphere)
Zenith
21 June
21 September
21 March
W
21 December
N
04:00 a.m.
S
06:20 a.m.
08:33 a.m.
E
The sun’s limitless energy 2-4
Irradiation dependence on weather
Cloudy Sky Clear Sky, Sun
Mainly Diffuse Radiation Mainly Direct Radiation
Irradiation W/m2
The sun’s limitless energy 2-5
Global annual solar radiation in kWh/m²
non - study area
The sun’s limitless energy 2-6
Average daily solar radiation per month
Annual June
Southerly tilted flat plate at latitude
The sun’s limitless energy 2-7
% Yield of a PV system over a year
Month Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.
Propor- 7.9% 11.3% 13.4% 12.4% 13.6% 12.2% 9.2% 7.4% 3.2% 1.9% 2.9% 4.5%
tion of
yearly
output
Table: Output of PV array in Central Europe in monthly percentages of total output. Snow on the array for a few days in January does not
make much difference to the yearly yield
The sun’s limitless energy 2-8
Dependence of yield on direction and inclination
(Northern hemisphere)
Annual percentage
solar insolation (%)
North
West East
Angle of
inclination
W
E
Example South
S
Example: 30° / 45° South-west = 95 %
The sun’s limitless energy 2-9
PV arrays with differing inclinations
The sun’s limitless energy 2-10
3. Photovoltaic effect – conversion of solar energy into
electricity
• Structure of silicon
• Functioning of a crystalline solar cell
• Different cell types and their characteristics
• Solar modules and their characteristics
Conduction in n- and p- doped silicon
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
Hole
Electron
Photovoltaic effect 3-1
Transition region at the p-n interface
p-Region Transition Region n-Region
Diffusion
Free Holes Free Electrons
Photovoltaic effect 3-2
Operation of silicon solar cells
Negative
electrode
n-type silicon
Junction
Positive electrode
p-type silicon
Photovoltaic effect 3-3
Characteristic curve of a crystalline solar cell
Short circuit current
Cell power output (W)
Cell current (A)
Open circuit
Cell voltage (V)
Photovoltaic effect 3-4
Assembly of a copper-indium-diselenide (CIS) solar cell
1 ZnO, 2 CdS, 3 CIS, 4 Metal back contact, 5 Glass face plate
Photovoltaic effect 3-5
Triple junction solar cells – each layer reacts to a
particular spectral range
Long Wavelength Light
Middle Wavelength Light
Short Wavelength Light
1 TCO, 2 Blue absorbent Layer, 3 Green absorbent Layer, 4 Red absorbent Layer, 5 Reflective
Layer, 6 Substrate
Photovoltaic effect 3-6
Efficiency of various solar cells
Current stage of
Type of cell Construction Cell Efficiency * Module Efficiency
development
Monocrystalline silicon Uniform crystalline 24,7 % 13 – 17 % Industrial production
structure – single crystal
Polycrystalline (multi- Multi-crystalline structure – 19,8 % 11 – 15 % Industrial production
crystalline) silicon different crystals visible
Hybrid HIT solar cell Combination of crystalline and 20,1 % 15 – 17,5 % Industrial production
thin-film cells
Amorphous silicon Atoms irregularly arranged. 13 % 5 – 8 %*** Industrial production
Thin film technology
Gallium-arsenide Crystalline cells 25 % ** Produced exclusively for
special applications (e.g.
space craft)
Gallium-arsenide, gallium- Tandem (multijunction) 25 – 31 % ** Research and
antimony & others cells, different layers development stage
sensitive to different light
wavelengths
Copper-indium-diselenide Thin film, various 18 % 10 – 12 % Industrial production
deposition methods
Cadmium-telluride & others Thin film technology 17 % 9 – 10 % Ready to go into
production
Organic solar cells Electrochemical principle 5–8% ** Research and
based development stage – not
commercially available
* Cell efficiency is based on laboratory samples, and is invariably higher than module efficiency. From the practical point of view of evaluating systems,
the module efficiency should be used.
** Not available in module form.
*** in stabilized form.
Photovoltaic effect 3-7
Surface area requirements according to cell type
Cell material Module efficiency Surface area need for 1 kWp
Monocrystalline silicon
Polycrystalline silicon (EFG)
Polycrystalline silicon
Thin film
copper-indium-diselenide
Amorphous silicon
Photovoltaic effect 3-8
Construction of a glass-glass module
1 Glass on front and rear sides, 2 Encapsulation in ethyl-vinyl-acetate (EVA), 3 Crystalline solar cell
Photovoltaic effect 3-9
Construction of a module in an aluminium frame
1 Aluminium frame, 2 Seal, 3 Glass, 4 Encapsulating EVA, 5 Crystalline cell, 6 Tedlar sheet
Photovoltaic effect 3-10
Monocrystalline module
Photovoltaic effect 3-11
Polycrystalline module
Photovoltaic effect 3-12
Flexible Uni-Solar multi-junction amorphous module roll
Photovoltaic effect 3-13
Effect of temperature on the operation of crystalline solar
modules
Module current (A)
UMPP voltage range
Module voltage (V)
Photovoltaic effect 3-14
Effect of irradiation on the operation of crystalline solar
modules
Module current (A)
UMPP voltage range
Module voltage (V)
Photovoltaic effect 3-15
Datasheet specifications of a module
Photovoltaic effect 3-16
Defects arising from quality assurance problems
Photovoltaic effect 3-17
4. Grid-tied photovoltaic systems – components and
design
• Principles of grid-tied photovoltaic systems
• Inverters
• PV combiner boxes
• Lightning protection
• Grid connection
• Steps in system sizing
• Shade
Principles of a grid-tied PV system
1 PV array, 2 PV array combiner/junction box, 3 Grid-tied inverter,
4 Import/export meter, 5 Connection to grid, 6 Loads.
Other configurations are possible
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-1
Connection of PV modules in series
Series
Series
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-2
Connection of PV modules in parallel
Parallel
Parallel
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-3
Connection of PV modules in series-parallel
Series-Parallel
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-4
Grid-tied PV systems using a central inverter or multiple
inverters
1 PV array, 1a/b Part PV arrays, 2 PV Combiner Box, 3 Inverter
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-5
Use of central inverter in higher-voltage systems
1 PV array, 2 PV Combiner Box, 3 DC-Isolator, 4 Inverter, 5 Grid
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-6
Use of central inverter in lower-voltage systems
1 PV array, 2 DC-Isolator, 3 Inverter, 4 Grid
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-7
String inverters
1 PV array, 2 DC-Isolator, 3 Inverter, 4 Grid
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-8
Use of inverters for invidual modules
1 PV array, 2 Inverter, 3 Grid
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-9
Grid-side connection of multiple inverters
1 PV array, 2 DC plug-socket connectors, 3 PV combiner box, 4 Inverter
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-10
The efficiency of an inverter
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-11
PV combiner box
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-12
Earthing PV systems in context of lightning protection
measures
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-13
Surge protection for a grid-tied PV system
PV array PV array Main DC isolator
combiner/junction box
Main DC
cables Inverters Hot/live
Neutral
Ground/
earth
Surge protection
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-14
Surge protection – use of proper cable bundling
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-15
Lightning and surge damage to PV systems
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-16
System components which always carry a voltage in
daylight
DC-Isolator AC-
(all poles) Isolator
Inverter Grid
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-17
Shade hinders the generation of solar power
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-18
The direction of shadow changes over the day
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-19
Shade prediction using a solar-path indicator
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-20
Shade prediction using solar-path diagrams (London)
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-21
Arrangement of modules on roofs to avoid shade
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-22
Avoiding self-shading of modules mounted free-standing
or on flat roofs
Distance
4 - 6 x height
Height
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-23
Functioning of bypass diodes
Bypass diode Bypass diode
cell cell cell cell cell
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-24
Reducing the effect of non-avoidable shade by suitable
module layout
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-25
Planning and sizing of grid-tied PV systems:
1. Sizing the system
• Available budget
• Determine roof size, inclination and orientation, and the position of any roof
fixtures
• Check the extent of shade on the roof or location where the PV array is to
be mounted. If necessary, relocate arials and lightning rods
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-26
Planning and sizing of grid-tied PV systems:
2. Choose the solar module
• Decide on module type (monocrystalline, polycrystalline or thin-film module)
• Determine number of modules: desired system size/roof area
• Establish module voltage at the normal operating temperature range
(-10°C bis 70°C)
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-27
Planning and sizing of grid-tied PV systems:
3. Select the inverter
• Choice of inverter must match array peak output power, module voltage
and the feed-in current
• Take account of the manufacturer's warranty, guarantee and service
conditions
• Decide on inverter arrangement, with module isolators, corresponding to
the inverter MPP range
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems 4-28
5. Stand-alone PV systems – components and design
• Island systems – application areas for stand-alone PV systems
• Principles of stand-alone PV systems
• Specific components and their characteristics
• Steps in sizing
Solar-based power supplies for small equipment
Stand-alone PV systems 5-1
Stand-alone PV systems bring communication and light to
remote locations
Stand-alone PV systems 5-2
Mobile, thanks to solar power
Stand-alone PV systems 5-3
Principles of a stand-alone PV system
PV array
Inverter
Charge regulator
Battery
Stand-alone PV systems 5-4
Range of different system configurations
Stand-alone PV systems 5-5
Inverters for stand-alone systems and charge contollers
Stand-alone PV systems 5-6
Battery characteristics for directly-connected PV Systems
Discharge Current
Charging Current
Current in A
Akku
Loads
Voltage in V
PV array characteristic Battery characteristic Resistance characteristic
of load
Stand-alone PV systems 5-7
Range of batteries for stand-alone PV systems
Stand-alone PV systems 5-8
Voltage characteristic of lead-acid batteries when charged
and discharged at constant current
Charging Time in h
Charge
Upper charge voltage
Cell Voltage in V
Gassing voltage
Quiescent Voltage
Lower discharge voltage
Discharge
Discharge Time in h
Discharge at:
Stand-alone PV systems 5-9
Temperature dependance of fully-charged voltage
charged voltage in V
Fully-charged
Temperature in °C
Stand-alone PV systems 5-10
Relationship between discharge time and capacity
(flat plate lead-acid battery)
Useable capacity
Discharge time
Stand-alone PV systems 5-11
Life expectancy of lead-acid batteries
Depth of discharge (DOD) per cycle
End of battery life
Number of cycles
Modified SLI Gel cells, maintenance free
Flooded deep cycle Maintenance-free deep
cycle
Stand-alone PV systems 5-12
Properties of batteries for PV stand-alone systems
Usual type description Modified SLI Gel cells, Maintenance-free Flooded deep cycle
maintenance-free deep cycle
Construction Thicker plates than SLI Maintenance-free, Gel electrolyte, tubular Liquid electrolyte,
(automotive) sealed plates tubular plates,
transparent containers
Properties Moderate to low water No maintenance Low maintenance, can Low maintenance,
loss, low self-discharge withstand deep robust construction,
rate discharge charge well with low
currents, can withstand
deep discharge
Unit voltages 12 V 12 V 2V–6V 2V–6V
Capacity range in Ah 60 – 260 Ah 10 – 130 Ah 200 – 12,000 Ah 20 – 2,000 Ah
Self-discharge rate – 2–4% 3–4% <3% 2–4%
monthly
% DOD – cycle life 20 % – 1000 30 % – 800 30 % – 3000 30 % – 4500
(approximate) 40 % – 500 50 % – 300 80 % > 1000 80 % > 1200
(can be less)
Maintenance periods 3 months approx. None Monitoring & yearly 3 month approx.
cleaning
Stand-alone PV systems 5-13
Battery area – dry, cool and well-ventilated
Stand-alone PV systems 5-14
Battery configurations for 12 V and 24 V systems
Stand-alone PV systems 5-15
Determining the system cable lengths
PV array
500 W p
Controller
Fridge
50 W
Battery
Lamp
9W
Socket 120 W
Stand-alone PV systems 5-16
Recommended conductor sizes for 12 V systems
Power carried in W
Total conductor length : Supply and return conductors in m
Stand-alone PV systems 5-17
