STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
CES 523
TOPIC 2: WIND LOADING
MOHD AZUAN TUKIAR
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (PULAU PINANG)
BKBA 2.12
012 – 5149 452
[Link]@[Link]
TOPIC 2: WIND LOADING
Learning Outcome:
1. Describe the main feature which influence the wind load
imposed on a structure. (CO1-PO2)
2. Determine and analyze wind loading on a structure. (CO1-PO2)
TYPES OF LOADING
PERMANENT VARIABLE ENVIRONMENTAL
Due to variable effects.
Due to environment and
Inherently less accurate
Description Due to effects of gravity its source is out of human
than the assessment of
control.
dead loads
Movement of people,
i.e. the self-weight of all Soil Pressure, Water,
furniture, equipment and
permanent structural Seismic, Temperature,
Example traffic. The values adopted
elements, walls, roofs and Pressure From Fluid, Snow,
are based on observation
finishes Wind
and measurement
EC1 EC1
Guideline / ANNEX A: Tables for Section 6 : Imposed Loads MS1553 : 2001
Reference nominal density of On Building (Wind Loading)
construction materials
WHY DO WE NEED TO
CONSIDER FOR WIND
LOADING?
The best known structural collapse due to wind was the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge which occurred in 1940 at a wind speed of only about 19 m/s. It
failed after it had developed a coupled torsional and flexural mode of
oscillation. – P. Mandis et al (2007)
CASE IN MALAYSIA
Total number of windstorm occurrences in Peninsular Malaysia between the study periods is 74
cases. In six years data period, it shows that the highest number of occurrence is in year 2012
which is 21 occurrences, followed by year 2011 (16 cases), year 2009 (12 cases), year 2008
(10 cases), year 2010 (9 cases) and the lowest number of occurrence is in year 2007 by 6
occurrences.
Majority low rise buildings among the building structures in Malaysia face the great impact
during the event. It was identified that 80% of the cases caused damaged to the roofing systems
due to the thunderstorm in Peninsular Malaysia. Damage breakdown shows that 47% damage in
steel sheet roofing, 30% damage on trusses system, 13% damage on roof tiles and 20% for other
related damages
FACTORS INFLUENCE
1. Geographical location - China, Russia, Australia, Malaysia, ….
2. Physical location - city center, small town, open country, ...
3. Topography - exposed hill top, escarpment, valley floor, ...
4. Roof Pitch - shallow, steep, mono-pitch, duo-pitch, multi-bay…
5. Wind speed and Direction
6. Building Dimension
7. Building Shape
INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002
The Malaysian Standard was developed by the
Working Group on Code of Practice on Wind Loading
for Building Structure supervised by the Technical
Committee on Structure Loading under the authority
of the Building and Civil Engineering Industry
Standards Committee. Development of this Standard
was carried out by the Construction Industry
Development Board Malaysia (CIDB) which is the
Standards-Writing Organisation (SWO) appointed by
SIRIM Berhad to develop standards for the
construction industry.
During the development of this Malaysian Standard,
reference was made to AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural
design – General requirements and design actions.
There are still many studies carry out to improve and
update the code from time to time especially to
improve the coefficient factor base on local climate
and our widespread material that been used in
Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002
1.1 Scope
This Malaysian Standard sets out procedures for determining wind speeds and resulting wind actions
to be used in the structural design for structures subjected to wind action other than those caused by
tornadoes and typhoons. The standard covers structures within the following criteria:
a) building less than 200 m high;
b) structures with roof spans less than 100 m; and
c) structures other than off-shore structures, bridges and transmission towers
INTRODUCTION TO MS1553:2002
Flow chart B1. Information in using this standard Flow chart B3. Determination of design wind
pressure using simplified procedure
STANDARD METHOD MS1553:2002
SECTION 2 : CALCULATION OF WIND ACTIONS
2.1 General
This Section gives the procedure for determining wind actions, W, on structures and elements
of structures or buildings as follows:
a) determine site wind speeds (see 2.2);
b) determine design wind speed from the site wind speeds (see 2.3);
c) determine design wind pressures and distributed forces (see 2.4); and
d) calculate wind actions (see 2.5)
SITE WIND SPEED
2.2 SITE WIND SPEED
The site wind speeds, Vsit, is defined at the level of the average roof height above ground
(see Figure 2.1) by the expression:
Vsit = Vs (Md) (Mz,cat) ( Ms) ( Mh) (eq. 1)
where,
Vs - Basic Wind Speed, 33.5 m/s zone I and 32.5 m/s zone II respectively, see Figure 3.1;
Md - Directional Multiplier, 1;
Mz,cat - terrain/height multiplier as given in Section 4;
Mh - hill shape multiplier as given in Section 4; and
Ms - shielding multiplier as given in Section 4.
SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Basic Wind Speed, Vs
Figure 3.1 – Zone Map for Peninsular Malaysia
SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Terrain / Height Multiplier, Mz,cat
4.2.2 Determination of terrain/height multiplier, Mz,cat
The variation with height, z, of the effect of terrain roughness on wind speed (terrain/height multiplier),
Mz,cat, shall be taken from the values for fully developed profiles given in Table 4.1. Designers shall take
account of known future changes to terrain roughness in assessment of terrain category.
Table 4.1. Terrain/height multipliers for gust wind speeds in fully developed terrain. Serviceability
limit state design and ultimate limit state
SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Terrain / Height Multiplier, Mz,cat
4.2.1 Terrain category definitions
Terrain, over which the approach wind flows towards a structure, shall be assessed on the basis of the following
category descriptions:
a) Category 1 : Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions.
NOTE. For serviceability considerations, water surfaces are included in this category.
b) Category 2 : Water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few well scattered obstructions having height generally
from 1.5 m to 10.0 m.
c) Category 3 : Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3.0 m to 5.0 m high such as areas of suburban
housing.
d) Category 4 : Terrain with numerous large, high (10.0.m to 30.0 m high) and closely spaced obstructions such as
large city centres and well-developed industrial complexes
Selection of terrain category shall be made with due regard to the permanence of the obstructions which
constitute the surface roughness, in particular some vegetation and buildings in tropical regions shall not be relied
upon to maintain surface roughness during wind events.
SITE WIND SPEED
Shielding Multiplier, Ms
4.3.1 General
The shielding multiplier, Ms, appropriate to a particular direction, shall be as given in Table 4.3.
Where the effects of shielding are ignored, or are not applicable for a particular wind direction, or
where the average up-slope ground gradient is greater than 0.2, Ms shall be equal to 1.0
Table 4.3 Shielding multiplier, Ms
SITE WIND SPEED
Shielding Multiplier, Ms
4.3.3 Shielding parameter
The shielding parameter, s, in Table 4.3 shall be determined from :
(6)
(7)
ls average spacing of shielding buildings;
hs average height of shielding buildings;
bs average breadth of shielding buildings normal to the wind stream;
ht height from the ground to the top of the structure; and
ns number of upwind shielding buildings within a 45 sector of radius 20ht and with hs ≥ ht.
SITE WIND SPEED
Determine Hill Shape Multiplier, Mh
The hill shape multiplier, Mh, shall be taken as 1.0 except that for the particular cardinal direction in
the local topographic zones shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, the value shall be as follows:
(8)
(9)
SITE WIND SPEED
Summary
Vsit = Vs (Md) (Mz,cat) ( Ms) ( Mh) (eq. 1)
1.0
Table 4.3
Clause 4.4
(Ms, shall be taken as 1.0 )
(Mh, shall be taken as 1.0 )
Figure 3.1
Table 4.1
DESIGN WIND SPEED
2.3 Design wind speed
The building design wind speeds, Vdes shall be taken as the maximum site wind speed, Vsit multiplied by the
importance factor, I, which can be obtained from Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Importance factor, I
Category of
Nature of Occupancy Example of Building I
Structures
Buildings and structures that represent low hazard to human life Agricultural
in the event of failure such as agricultural facilities, temporary I facilities, storage 0.87
facilities and minor storage facilities. facilities
All buildings and structure except those listed in category I, III
II Residential House 1.0
and IV.
Buildings and structures where the primary occupancy is one in Shopping Mall,
III 1.15
which more than 300 people congregate in one area. Cinema, Mosque
Essential buildings and structures
Hospital and medical facilities
Fire and police stations
Structures and equipment in civil defense As listed in category
IV 1.15
Communication centers and facilities for IV
emergency response
Power stations and other emergency utilities
Defense shelter.
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
2.4.1 General
The design wind pressures, in Pascals, shall be determined for structures and parts of structures using
the following equation:
p = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa
ρair density of air which can be taken as 1.225 kg/m3 ; and
0.5 ρair 0.613 (This value is based on standard air conditions and typical ground level atmospheric
pressure).
Vdes = Vsit x I
I Importance factor given in Table 3.2
Cfig aerodynamic shape factor as given in Section 5; and
Cdyn dynamic response factor which shall be taken as 1.0 unless the structure is wind sensitive
(see Section 6), when the values shall be as defined in Section 6
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
SECTION 5 : AERODYNAMIC SHAPE FACTOR
5.1 General
This Section provides methods for evaluating aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig, for structures or parts of structures.
The values of Cfig are used in determining the pressures applied to each surface (see Figure 5.1). The wind
action effects used for design shall be the sum of values determined for different pressure effects such as the
combination of internal and external pressures on enclosed buildings.
Clauses 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 provide values for enclosed rectangular buildings. Methods for particular cases for
buildings, free walls, free roofs, exposed members and other structures are given in the appropriate appendices.
Normal pressures on enclosed buildings Frictional drag on enclosed buildings
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
SECTION 5 : AERODYNAMIC SHAPE FACTOR
5.2 Evaluation of aerodynamic shape factor
The aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig shall be determined for specific surfaces or parts of surfaces as
below:
a) Enclosed buildings (see this Section 5 and Appendix C):
Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp for external pressures;
Cfig = Cp,I Kc for internal pressures; and
Cfig = Cf Kc for frictional drag forces.
c) Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs (see Appendix D):
Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp for pressure normal to surface;
Cfig = Cf for frictional drag forces
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp for external pressures
External pressure coefficients, Cp,e for rectangular enclosed buildings
Table 5.2 (a) Windward wall, W Table 5.2 (b) Leeward wall, L
Table 5.2 (c) Side walls, S
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
5.4.2 Area reduction factor, Ka, for roofs and side walls
For roofs and side walls, the reduction factor, Ka, shall be as given in Table 5.4. For all other cases, Ka, shall be taken
as 1.0. Tributary area is the area contributing to the force being considered.
Table 5.4 Area reduction factor, K a
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
5.4.3 Combination factor, Kc
Where wind pressures acting on two or more surfaces of an enclosed building (e.g. windward wall, upwind roof, side
wall, internal pressure, etc.) contribute simultaneously to a structural action effect (e.g. member force or stress) on a
major structural element, the combination factor Kc given in Table 5.5 may be applied to the combined forces
calculated for the critical external and internal surfaces. This factor shall not be applied to cladding or immediate
supporting structure such as purlins.
For any roof or side wall surface, Kc shall not be less than 0.8/Ka (see 5.4.2)
Table 5.5 Action combination factors for wind pressure contributing from two or more building surfaces to effects
on major structural elements
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
5.4.4 Local pressure factors, Kl for cladding
The local pressure, Kl, shall be taken as 1.0 in all cases except when determining the wind forces applied to claddings,
their fixings, the members which directly support the cladding, and the immediate fixings of these members. In these
cases, Kl shall either be taken from Table 5.6 for the area and locations indicated, or be taken as 1.0, whichever gives
the most adverse effect when combined with the external and internal pressures. Where more than one case applies,
the largest value of Kl from Table 5.6 shall be used.
Table 5.6 Local pressure factor, K l
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
External pressure for enclosed buildings
5.4.5 Porous cladding reduction factor, Kp, for roofs and side walls
The porous cladding reduction factor, Kp, shall be taken as 1.0 except that where an external surface consists of
permeable cladding and the solidity ratio is less than 0.999 and exceeds 0.99, the values given in Table 5.8 may be
used for local negative pressure. The solidity ratio of the surface is the ratio of solid area to total area of the surface.
Figure 5.4 shows the dimension da.
Table 5.8 Porous cladding reduction factor, Kp
Figure 5.4 Notation for permeable surfaces
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Internal pressure for enclosed buildings
Cfig = Cp,I Kc for internal pressures
Internal pressure coefficients, Cp,i for rectangular enclosed buildings
5.3.1 General
Aerodynamic shape factors for internal pressures Cp,i shall be determined from Table 5.1.
Table 5.1(a) shall be used for the design case where openings are shut and the wall permeability dominates. Table
5.1(b) shall be used for the design case where openings are assumed to be open. The reference height, h, at which
the wind speed is determined, shall in all cases be taken as the average height of the roof
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Internal pressure for enclosed buildings
Table 5.1 (a) Cases for permeable walls Table 5.1 (b) dominant openings on one surface
5.3.2 Openings
Combinations of openings shall be assumed to give internal
pressures that together with external pressures give the
most adverse wind actions. Potential openings include
doors, windows and vents.
5.3.3 Dominant openings
A surface is considered to contain dominant openings if the
sum of all openings in that surface exceeds the sum of
openings in each of the other surfaces taken one at a time.
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Summary
p = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa
From clause 2.3 Consider for static analysis, take 1.0
Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp Cfig.e – Cfig.i Cfig = Cp,i Kc Table 5.5
Table 5.1 (a) , (b)
Table 5.2 (a), (b), (c) Table 5.4
Table 5.8
Table 5.6
Table 5.5
Design Wind Pressure
1. pw.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(w.w) Cdyn (Pa)
2. pl.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(l.w) Cdyn (Pa)
3. ps.w = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig(s.w) Cdyn (Pa)
2.4.2 Minimum design wind load
The wind load in the design of main wind force resisting system shall not be less than
0.65 kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the building or structure projected on a vertical plane
normal to the wind direction
WIND ACTION
2.5.1 Directions to be considered
Structures shall be designed to withstand wind forces derived by considering wind actions from no fewer than four
critical orthogonal directions aligned to the structure.
2.5.2 Forces on building elements
To determine the action effects, W, the forces, F, in Newton, on a building element, such as a wall or a roof, shall be
calculated from the pressures applicable to the assumed areas as follows:
F = Σ pz Az
pz the design wind pressure at height z, in Pascals
(pe – pi) for enclosed buildings or (pn) where net pressure is applicable. Given pe, pi, pn are the
external, internal and net pressures respectively as determined in 2.4;
Az area of a structure or a part of a structure, in meters squared, at height z, upon which the pressure at that
height (pz) acts.
For enclosed buildings, internal pressures shall be taken to act simultaneously with external pressures including the
effects of local pressure factors, Kl (see 5.4.4). The most severe combinations of internal and external pressures shall be
selected for design.
WIND PRESSURE
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs (see Appendix D)
D1.1 Application
This appendix provides methods for evaluating aerodynamic shape factors, Cfig, for the following:
a) free roofs, including hyperbolic paraboloid roofs;
b) canopies, awnings and carports (adjacent to enclosed buildings);
c) cantilevered roofs; or
d) hoarding and free standing walls
D2.1 Aerodynamic shape factor for normal net pressure on free standing hoardings and walls
The aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig, for calculating net pressure across free standing rectangular hoardings or walls
(see Figure D1), is as follows:
Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp (D2)
Cp,n net pressure coefficient acting normal to the surface, obtained from Table D2 using
the dimensions in Figure D1;
Kp porous cladding reduction factor given in D1.4;
Ka 1.0; and
Kl 1.0
The resultant of the pressure should be taken to act at half the height of the hoarding or wall, (c/2), with a
horizontal eccentricity, e
WIND PRESSURE
Free standing hoardings, walls canopies and roofs
Table D2(a). Wind normal to hoarding or wall, θ = 0o
*Cp,n always acts normal to the surface regardless of the wind direction
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Summary
p = (0.613) [Vdes]2Cfig Cdyn Pa
From clause 2.3 Consider for static analysis, take 1.0
Cfig = Cp,n Ka Kl Kp
Table D2(a). Wind normal to hoarding or wall, θ = 0o
2.4.2 Minimum design wind load
The wind load in the design of main wind force resisting system shall not be less than
0.65 kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the building or structure projected on a vertical plane
normal to the wind direction
SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
A1. Limitations
The simplified procedure of analysis shall be applied to the design of cladding and main structural
system of building structures, which meet all of the following criteria:
a) the buildings are rectangular in plan, or a combination of rectangular units;
b) the average roof height of a structure, h, is not greater than 15.0 m;
c) the ratio of the average roof height to the least horizontal dimension does not exceed 3;
d) the location of structure is not at unusually exposed locations such as hill-crest or at headland; and
e) the following types of building are not considered in this section:
i) buildings and structures where the primary occupancy is one in which more than 300 people
congregate in one area;
ii) essential buildings and structures;
iii) hospital and medical facilities;
iv) fire and police stations;
v) structures and equipment in civil defence;
vi) communication centres and facilities for emergency response;
vii) power stations and other emergency utilities; and
viii) defence shelter.
REFERENCES
1. Holmes J.D., Wind Loading of Structures, Taylor & Francis, Second Edition, United State of
America
2. Majid, T. A.*, Zakaria, S. A. S., Wan Chik, F. A., Deraman, S. N. C., Muhammad, M. K. A. (2016), Past
Windstorm Occurrence Trend, Damage, And Losses In Penang, Malaysia. Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2016) 397 – 406
3. Mendis, P., Ngo, T., Haristos, N., Hira, A., Samali, B. and Cheung, J. (2007), Wind Loading on Tall
Building, EJse Special Issue: Loading on Structures, 2007
4. T.A. Majid, Noram I. Ramli, M. I. Ali, M. Syamsyul H. Saad, Malaysia Country Report 2012: Wind
Related Disaster Risk Reduction and Wind Environmental Issues
5. Zhou, Y., Kijewski, T. and Kareem, A. (2002), Along-Wind Load Effect on Tall Building:
Comparative Study of Major International Codes and Standard, Journal of Structural Engineering,
June 2002
6. MS1553:2002 “Malaysia Standard Code of Practice on Wind Loading for Building”, Department of
Standards Malaysia
