Inexpensive, Open Source Colorimeters That Are Easy

to Make and Use

Chris Stewart and John Giannini *

Biology Department, St. Olaf College, 1520 St. Olaf Avenue, Northfield, MN 55057

5 ABSTRACT
As part of an effort to help reduce the cost of scientific equipment and make

scientific inquiry more accessible and understandable for others, we describe two

different open source designs for inexpensive, single-beam colorimeters that are easy to

build and use. One can be 3D printed, and the other can be built from supplies

10 available at most hardware stores or online. The former uses a light dependent resistor

(LDR) and digital multimeter as a detector while the latter uses a commercial light

meter. In both models, we use an LED flashlight with a convex lens to focus the beam

as our light source and pieces of colored cellophane as our filters. We test these

designs using the Bradford assay to measure protein concentration and a lysozyme

15 assay to measure enzyme activity. We also explain how these instruments can be used

in an introductory or upper level chemistry, biochemistry, or biology course to teach

basic principles of colorimetry or spectroscopy, including how to create a standard

calibration curve and examine enzyme kinetics. Finally, because we are making these

designs open and accessible to all, we have named them “the OPN Colorimeter,” and we

20 further include as Supporting Information instructions on how to 3D print or build

these instruments (along with the underlying computer design files), so that others can

use or modify them to fit their educational or research needs.

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 ABSTRACT GRAPHIC

25 KEYWORDS
General Public, Analytical Chemistry, Biochemistry, Laboratory Instruction, Hands-On
Learning / Manipulatives, Laboratory Equipment / Apparatus, Spectroscopy, Proteins /
Peptides, Enzymes

INTRODUCTION
30 In a recent report,1 we explained how to 3D print or build inexpensive

epifluorescence microscopes for educational or other purposes. We called these

instruments “OPN Scopes” because their plans and parts were designed to be open and

accessible to all. We have further applied this approach to the development of other

low-cost scientific instruments, and we describe here two ways to make inexpensive,

35 single-beam colorimeters for use in the classroom or teaching lab.

A critical tool in many different branches of the sciences, a colorimeter can measure

the concentration of a given solution by determining the amount of light absorbed by

the mixture. Moreover, because the absorbance of a solution often changes as its

chemical properties change, a researcher can use a colorimeter to obtain critical

40 information about (and crucial insights into) a wide variety of experimental situations

(such as creating a standard curve to determine the protein concentration of an

unknown sample, examining the rate of an enzymatic reaction, or determining whether

a chemical reaction has reached equilibrium). As such, this analytical instrument plays

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 an essential role in a diverse array of fields, ranging from biochemistry to materials

45 science to medicine.

Similar to a spectrophotometer, a colorimeter works by measuring the difference

between the intensity of incident light striking a sample (I ) and the intensity of

transmitted light passing through that sample and reaching a detector (T ).2-5 To make

this determination, a colorimeter first sends an intense beam of light through an optical

50 filter, which selects a particular wavelength from the beam and sends it into the sample

(Fig. 1, left). That incident light then passes through the sample, and the resulting

transmitted light ultimately reaches a detector, which calculates an Absorbance value

(A) – namely, the proportion of light that the sample has absorbed (Fig. 2, right).

55 Figure 1. The workings of a basic colorimeter.

Moreover, as expressed in the Beer-Lambert law, there is a negative logarithmic

relationship between the intensity of the light transmitted through the sample (T )

compared to the intensity of the incident light initially striking the sample (I ), and this

relationship is further proportional to specific qualities of the sample. Namely,

60 A = -log10( T/I ) = εcl,

where ε is the molar extinction coefficient of the sample under investigation [L/mol·cm],

c is the concentration of that sample in solution [mol/L ], and l is the path length of the

sample [cm], which is typically the length of the cuvette containing the sample (i.e., 1

cm).2-7

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65 Despite the importance of colorimetery and spectroscopy as an analytical and

diagnostic tools, many commercial colorimeters and spectrophotometers are too costly

to use in a teaching lab given the constrained budgets of many schools.8-10

Furthermore, as others have noted, given the way in which many colorimeters and

spectrophotometers are designed and used, students often view these devices as “black

70 boxes” that give little insight into how they actually work.11-14 In an effort to address

these and other issues, many teams have offered some very insightful and innovative

designs, giving students access to low-cost colorimeters and spectrophotomters that

serve as valuable analytical and educational tools.8-24 In fact, two recent models use

3D-printed parts, LEDs, and other circuit components to construct such an

75 instrument,25, 26 and another uses a smartphone as the detector.27

In a similar vein, we have designed two relatively inexpensive, single-beam

colorimeters for use in the classroom or teaching lab. One version can be easily

assembled from four 3D-printed components (Fig. 2A); and, for those who do not have

access to this type of technology, the other model can be easily built from parts

80 available at most hardware stores or online (Fig 2B). Moreover, both designs are simple

to use and easy to understand, involving relatively few components and requiring no

advanced knowledge of or experience with electrical circuits or soldering techniques (as

sometimes occurs with more sophisticated designs). Because the instructions and

supplies needed to make these instruments (as well as the underlying computer files)

85 are all open source, we have named this general design “the OPN Colorimeter,” and we

hope that these devices can help expand the use of colorimetry in the classroom,

teaching lab, and hopefully beyond.

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 Figure 2. The OPN Colorimeter. (A) 3D-printed version. (B) Alternate version built from supplies available at most
90 hardware stores or online.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The 3D-printed version of the OPN Colorimeter consists of four parts: (i) a body that

holds a standard cuvette and a cellophane filter, (ii) a lid that fits over the cuvette, (iii) a

tube that holds the light source (an LED flashlight), and (iv) a plug that fits into the

95 back of the body and holds a detector – specifically, a light dependent resistor (LDR)

(Fig. 3). We have further included as Supporting Information the underlying Computer

Aided Design (CAD) files (S2) and related STereoLithographic (STL) files (S3) for these

parts, so that readers can print or modify them to fit their educational or research

needs. As with the OPN Scope,1 we used the free version of DesignSpark Mechanical

100 (RS Components, Corby, Northhamptonshite, U.K.) to create these files (S1).

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 Figure 3. Schematic of the 3D-printed version of the OPN Colorimeter, which contains a (i) body, (ii) lid, (iii) tube for the
light source, and (iv) plug that holds a light dependent resistor (LDR).

We also include as Supporting Information instructions on how to build an

105 alternative version of the OPN Colorimeter using parts available at most hardware

stores or online (S4). Thus, in brief, we built a wooden version of the OPN Colorimeter

(Fig. 2B) using ¾-inch thick board, ¾-inch Schedule 40 PVC pipe, and other

components, such as metal hinges and a wooden knob for opening and closing the lid

(S4). Alternatively, readers can use PVC board instead of wood since the former should

110 not warp, split, or rot over time.

Both versions of the OPN Colorimeter can hold a standard cuvette (external

dimensions: 1.25 cm x 1.25 cm x 4.5 cm), and we further use a Coast G20 LED

inspection light, which has a convex lens to focus the beam, as our light source in both

models (Fig. 2; S1 and S4). However, other LED flashlights will suffice. We also use

115 small pieces of colored cellophane as our filters (S1 and S4).

As our detectors, we use an inexpensive (85-cent) LDR and a digital multimeter with

the 3D-printed version of the OPN Colorimeter (S1) and a commercial light meter with

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 the other version (S4). Of course, readers can also build a wooden or PVC version of the

OPN Colorimeter that uses an LDR and multimeter, and we include some basic designs

120 and assembly instructions for these models in the Supporting Information as well (S4).

We tested our designs using the Bradford assay28 for determining protein

concentration and an enzyme assay29 for measuring the activity of lysozyme – both of

which are described in the Supporting Information (S5 and S6). In addition, during

these experiments, we used a commercial spectrophotometer (a Hitachi U-1100) as a

125 control instrument.

After finishing each assay, we entered our data into Microsoft Excel and calculated

an Absorbance value for each entry. Specifically, for the wooden version of the OPN

Colorimeter, we used the formula A = -log10(T / I ) since the light meter reported its

results directly in lumens per square meter [lux]. However, for the 3D-printed version

130 of the OPN Colorimeter, which used a commercial multimeter with an LDR, we omitted

the negative sign (“-”) from this formula because the resistance of the LDR was inversely

proportional to the intensity of the light striking it (instructors should emphasize this

point with students to make sure that they understand the reason for this change). In

both equations, I denotes the reading for an empty chamber and T denotes the amount

135 of transmitted light for a given protein concentration (in the Bradford assay) or light

scattering at a given time (in the lysozyme assay). Also, for both versions of the OPN

Colorimeter, we treated the “dark” value as zero, which is the stated value for this

variable in the commercial light meters that we used (and which did not impact the

Absorbance calculations for readings taken with the LDR).

140 To generate our graphs, we subtracted the initial absorbance value from each

reading to calculate the difference in absorbance for each assay, and we displayed our

results as scatter plots using Excel (Fig. 4). Finally, we fit a line to the Bradford data

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 and displayed the equation for that line (as well as its R2 value) on the graph (Figs. 4A –

4C).

145 Hazards

Before making the 3D-printed or wooden version of the OPN Colorimeter or

performing any of the chemical assays described above, please review the Supporting

Information (S1, S4 – S6) for a discussion of the related hazards since some of them are

significant (as would be expected in any chemistry experiment or when working with

150 mechanical tools).

RESULTS
In the two assays that we conducted, both versions of the OPN Colorimeter

generated results that were similar to those of a commercial spectrophotometer (Figs.

4C and 4F) and consistent with the trends one would expect in these types of

155 experiments.28, 30 Specifically, in the Bradford assay, we found that absorbance

increased linearly as the concentration of protein increased over the range that we used

(Figs. 4A and 4B). Similarly, in the lysozyme assay, we saw different trends in the

decay of each curve, which varied depending upon the concentration of the enzyme in

the sample (Figs. 4D and 4E). In particular, as the amount of lysozyme in solution

160 increased, the initial slope of the curve became steeper, and the curve itself began to

taper off gradually over time (as typically occurs in enzyme-catalyzed reactions since the

substrate is consumed more quickly at higher protein concentrations than at lower

ones).31, 32

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165 Figure 4. Results from a standard Bradford (left) and Lysozyme (right) assay using the 3D-printed (A and D) and wooden
(B and E) versions of the OPN Colorimeter compared to those from a Hitachi U-1100 spectrophotometer (C and F).

Readers, however, should note that the curves pictured in Figures 4D – 4F are the

mirror image of a typical saturation curve for an enzymatic reaction since the

Absorbance of each sample decreased over time due to the breakdown of the bacterial

170 cell walls in solution. Readers should also note that, in both sets of assays, the OPN

Colorimeter results were roughly 1/5 to 1/2 the magnitude of those generated by our

control spectrophotometer – likely due to the broader spectrum of light that passes

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 through the cellophane filters that we used in the OPN Colorimeter (Fig. 5; see also S1

and S4) compared to the much more specific wavelength that would be transmitted by a

175 commercial device.33 As such, it is unlikely that students could use published molar

extinction coefficients with the OPN Colorimeter. Nevertheless, as an exercise, students

could calculate their own extinction coefficients given their data (e.g., A = εcl → ε = A/cl )

and compare their results to published values.

180 Figure 5. Transmission spectra (between 400 and 700 nm) for the Amerifilm and Transilwrap colored cellophane sheets
that we have used as filters in the OPN Colorimeter (determined by using a Hitachi U-1100 spectrophotometer on the
“VIS” setting).

DISCUSSION
As with the OPN Scope,1 we designed the OPN Colorimeter to be simple and easy to

185 make as well as use. Not only do the components fit together intuitively, students can

easily take them apart and look inside to gain a better insight into how these (and,

thus, more sophisticated) instruments actually work – a valuable quality, as others

have noted.9, 11, 13, 14 Furthermore, because the OPN Colorimeter uses a flashlight in

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 combination with a commercial multimeter or light meter, students (as well as their

190 teachers) do not need to be familiar with electronic circuits or soldering techniques in

order to assemble the instrument. In this respect, the device can be easily used and

understood by students at almost any level. Moreover, because students can use

cellophane filters of different colors in the OPN Colorimeter, the device is not limited to

a single wavelength (as sometimes occurs with more sophisticated LED-based designs).

195 As a result, even though the OPN Colorimeter is less sensitive than other models

described in the literature given the wider spectrum of wavelengths that pass through

these cellophane filters,26 the instrument is rather versatile in addition to being

relatively inexpensive to make.

In particular, as explained in the Supporting Information, we estimate that 3D

200 printing the basic parts for the OPN Colorimeter using the MakeXYZ34 or Shapeways35

websites would cost between roughly $30 and $50 (S1) at April 2016 prices (not

including any taxes or shipping). Thus, with a common LDR ($1) and a reasonably

priced multimeter ($13) and LED flashlight ($11), the entire set-up should cost around

$55 to $75 (or less for those who already have a 3D printer). Similarly, buying the raw

205 materials to make a wooden or PVC version of the OPN Colorimeter should generally

cost between $40 and $95 depending on the exact materials used (S4), not including

the price of tools. As a result, a classroom or teaching lab could easily be outfitted with

several working models at a fairly low cost, creating a host of opportunities for both

students and their teachers.

210 For example, if used in an introductory or upper level chemistry, biology, or physics

course, the OPN Colorimeter could help demonstrate many of the underlying principles

involved in colorimetry and spectroscopy, including how these instruments are designed

and built, how they obtain their readings, what those results actually mean given the

sample(s) under investigation, and how those values factor into the Beer-Lambert law.

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215 By way of illustration, students could not only use the OPN Colorimeter to create a

standard (i.e., calibration) curve to determine the concentration of a given substance in

a Bradford or similar assay; as part of that exercise, students could further use that

curve to estimate the concentration of one or more “unknown” samples – a common

component of many teaching labs. Similarly, in a lysozyme or other enzyme

220 experiment, students could use the OPN Colorimeter to examine how the concentration

of a given enzyme affects the shape of the decay or saturation curve as well as the initial

rate of the reaction. Instructors could further ask their students to explain what their

results imply for the solution they are examining (e.g., why a higher protein

concentration results in a higher absorbance value in a Bradford assay or a steeper

225 initial curve in a lysozyme assay). More importantly, though, instructors could expand

upon these types of activities to provide even more challenging and engaging activities

for their students.

For example, students could use the OPN Colorimeter to analyze a wide range of

protein concentrations in a Bradford or similar assay, which would enable them to

230 observe where the linear relationship expressed in the Beer-Lambert law begins to

break down.9 Additionally or alternatively, students could examine how different

proteins (e.g., albumin, cytochrome c, gelatin, lysozyme, pepsin, or trypsin) react with

Bradford reagent to generate different concentration curves, 36 how certain denaturing

agents (e.g., detergents, such as Triton X-100 or SDS) unravel the protein and thus

235 affect the Bradford results,37 how various sugars (e.g., glucose or sucrose) interfere with

the assay by sequestering the dye,38 how other chemicals (e.g., Phenol) can be added to

the assay to improve its sensitivity (depending upon the protein under analysis),39 or

how the Bradford assay can be improved upon by also examining absorption in the blue

spectrum (450 nm) and using those results to linearize the data.40

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240 Relatedly, students could use the OPN Colorimeter to conduct more sophisticated

experiments into enzyme kinetics, such as exploring the effects of different pH levels,

temperatures, inhibitors, or other denaturing agents on the underlying reaction.29, 41

Students could also calculate (and then compare) the Michaelis-Menten kinetic

parameters KM, Vmax , kcat, and the catalytic efficiency of a reaction (kcat / KM) for

245 different enzyme concentrations under different conditions and then explain what these

results mean in the context of their experiment.

Moreover, given the wealth of lab activities and exercises published in the literature,

the OPN Colorimeter could be used in wide variety of other experiments as well. For

example, students could create calibration curves for different proteins, sugars, or

250 chemical compounds (e.g., CuSO4, K2Cr2O7, or KMnO4) through a Benedict, Lowry, or

other assay.8, 9, 12, 14, 20, 42, 43 Alternatively or additionally, students could examine the

activity and kinetics of other enzymes, such as alpha-chymotrypsin,44 amylase,45

cytochrome-b5 reductase (methemoglobin),46 or cytochrome oxidase.47 In the process,

we hope that students could use the OPN Colorimeter to not only gain a greater

255 understanding of the underlying chemistry involved in these types of reactions, but also

develop deeper insights into how scientific instruments like colorimeters and

spectrophotometers are designed and used to collect data in these types of experiments.

Thus, we hope that the OPN Colorimeter will be able to contribute to the outstanding

and innovative work that others have already done (and are continuing to do) in

260 developing low-cost scientific equipment for educational and other purposes.

CONCLUSION
As we continue to work on ways to help make science more accessible and

understandable for others, we hope that both versions of the OPN Colorimeter will help

to promote scientific inquiry and investigation in the classroom, teaching lab, and

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265 hopefully beyond. We also invite others to use or modify these designs to fit their own

educational or research needs, and we look forward to seeing the results.

ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Supporting Information
The following materials are available on our web page http://pages.stolaf.edu/opn-

270 lab/equipment/: our protocols for 3D printing the parts for the OPN Colorimeter (S1),

the underlying CAD and STL files for the components of the 3D-printed version of the

OPN Colorimeter (S2 and S3, respectively), instructions for building a wooden or PVC

version of the OPN Colorimeter (S4), and our protocols for the Bradford and lysozyme

assays described above (S5 and S6).

275 AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author
* Email: [email protected]
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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