0.

2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

This document gathers the aerodynamics concepts deemed necessary to achieve
a prompt understanding of the atmospheric ight dynamics. We will not em-
phasize the rigor of the demonstrations, whose natural place is Aerodynamics
itself.

0.2.1 Aerodynamics. Basic relations

• Specic gas constant for the air. Rg,air = 287 J/kgK
cp
• Heat capacity ratio for the air. γair = = 1.405
cv
• Mach number denition.

V V V [m/s]
Mach = M (V, z) = =p ≈ p (0.27)
a(z) γ Rg T (z)K 20 T (z)K

ρ(z) V l
• Reynolds number denition. Re =
µ(z)
• Viscosity as a function of the altitude (Sutherland's law).

1.458 · 10−6 T (z)1.5

µ(z) = [kg/ms] T in K (0.28)
110.4 + T (z)

• Dynamic pressure denition.

1 1 γ
Q= ρ(z) V 2 = ρ(z) a(z)2 M 2 = p(z) M 2 (0.29)
2 2 2

• Equivalent Speed.
q
−1
 
VE = σ(z) VA LT (0.30)

• Induced Drag coecient.

2
CL2 (CL0 + CLα α)
CDi = = (0.31)
π AR eOswald π AR eOswald

31
Chapter 0. Procedures

The Oswald factor (e) does not admit a general analytical expression.
If there are no other reliable sources, it may be estimated, for a trape-
zoidal wing, through a statistical equation that relates it to the Aspect
Ratio and the Λc/4 angle (expressed in rad).

 Reference David Hull:

 
eOswald ≈ 1 − 0.045 AR0.68
w
1.615
1 − 0.227 Λ(c/4,w) (0.32)

 Reference DATCOM:

1.1 CLα
eOswald ≈ (0.33)
R CLα + π (1 − R) ARw
with R ≈ 0.0004 λ31 − 0.008 λ21 + 0.0501 λ1 + 0.8642
ARw
and λ1 = λ
cos ΛLE

D
• Drag coecient. CD = = CD0 + CDi
QS
L
• Lift coecient. CL =
QS
Ll
• Roll Moment coecient ("Roulis" in French). Cl =
QS b
M
• Pitch Moment coecient ("Tangage" in French). CM =
QS c
N
• Yaw Moment coecient ("Lacet" in French). CN =
QS b
FY
• Side-Force coecient ("Force Laterale" in French). CY =
QS
−2
 
• Aerodynamic drag. D = CD Q S MLT

−2
 
• Aerodynamic lift. L = CL Q S MLT

32
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.6: Denition of parameters for a conventional trapezoidal wing.

0.2.2 Geometrical characteristics of a trapezoidal wing

With the following denitions referred to Figure 0.6:

y
• Non-dimensional wingspan: η=
bw /2
ct
• Wing taper ratio: λw =
cr
• Wing chord as a function of η : c(η) = cr [1 − |η| (1 − λw )]
b2w
• Aspect Ratio: AR =
Sw
2 bw
For a trapezoidal wing: AR =
cr (1 + λw )
4 m 1 − λw
 
• Sweep angle at any location: tan (Λm ) = tan (ΛLE ) −
AR 1 + λw
NOTE: mLE = 0, mc/4 = 0.25, mT E = 1

33
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.7: Procedure to build an equivalent trapezoidal wing when the original wing is
NOT exactly trapezoidal.

NOTE: The denition of Reference exposed wing surface is: reference wing
surface minus the surface covered by the fuselage.

In the case of a wing that is NOT exactly TRAPEZOIDAL, the procedure

shown in Figure 0.7 can be applied.

0.2.3 Denition of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord

In Flight Mechanics it is usual to non-dimensionalize the Moment related to
the longitudinal motion with the length of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord,
which is usually not the same as the geometrical mean chord.

(Important NOTE: The Lateral Force and the two Lateral Moments L and N
are non-dimensionalized with the wingspan bw ).
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is dened as follows: the chord of a
rectangular wing, without sweep nor torsion, that produces the same pitching
moment as the wing being considered.
The mathematical denition is expressed by Equation 0.34.

b/2 b/2
1 2
Z Z
2
MAC = cw = c (y) dy = c2 (y) dy (0.34)
Sw −b/2 Sw 0

34
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

For a trapezoidal wing the relation of Equation 0.35 is valid.

b/2
1
Z
MAC = cw = c(y)2 dy = . . .
Sw −b/2
b/2
2 λ2
 
2
Z
··· = c(y)2 dy = cr 1 + (0.35)
Sw 0 3 1+λ

with the position of cw along the wingspan being given by Equation 0.36.

1 + 2λ
 
1
ηM AC = (0.36)
3 1+λ

If the wing is not trapezoidal, the general denition must be applied to calculate
the MAC by evaluating the integral of Equation 0.34.

0.2.4 Calculation and location in the wing of the Mean

Aerodynamic Chord through a graphical procedure
NOTE: We will usually work on a 3-view drawing. For this reason, we will
be able to estimate many of the mentioned parameters by directly measuring
them, without a need for using the equations that, on the other hand, only
show obvious geometrical relations.

The value of the MAC may be calculated according to Equations 0.34 and 0.35,
but Figure 0.8 shows a simple graphical procedure to know the magnitude of
MAC (C̄ in Figure 0.8) and its position along the wingspan (Ȳ in Figure 0.8)
in the case of a trapezoidal wing.
As an example, one of the geometrical relations established in a trapezoidal
wing is given by Equation 0.37: root wing chord for a trapezoidal wing.
Sw 2 bw
cr = = (0.37)
bw /2 (1 + λw ) ARw (1 + λw )

0.2.5 Lift curve slope for a 3D trapezoidal wing in subsonic

regime
This expression is used frequently and it pays o to remember it .
There is no closed analytical expression
2 valid for any wing geometry.

2 Ref. " Lift Curve Slope for nite Aspect Ratio Wings, E.V. Laitone. AIAA C89-789.

35
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.8: Graphical procedure to determine the mean aerodynamic chord and its location
for a trapezoidal wing.

36
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

A commonly accepted 3 expression for the lift curve slope of a trapezoidal wing
in subsonic regime is the one shown in Equations 0.38 to 0.40. It may
be observed that the expression of CLα is a function of ARw , M and Λc/2 .
This means thatit depends on geometrical parameters of the wing
planform and the Mach number.
• General expression (valid only for M < 1):
2π AR
CLα = q (0.38)
2
4 + AR 1 − M 2 + tan2 Λc/2


2+

• Low subsonic regime:

2π AR
CLα |M =0 = v
u " #2 (0.39)
u AR
2+ 4+
t

cos Λc/2

• Low subsonic regime, rectangular wing (Helmbold Equation, 1942):

!
Λ =0 AR
CLα |Mc/2
=0 = 2π p (0.40)
2 + 4 + AR2

In supersonic regime, the accurate calculation of the CLα |M >1 coecient for a
given wing requires complementary documentation sources. A wide database
may be found in DATCOM and ESDU.

Corrections to these equations4

Some complementary eects that introduce modications to the expressions
given in Equation 0.38 to 0.40 are taken into account through a coecient (ε)
that multiplies the aspect ratio parameter AR, as shown by Equation 0.41.

ARef f ective = ε ARtheoretical (0.41)

1. Plate Eect: when the wing, as it happens with some horizontal empen-
nages, is located among vertical stabilizers (in the wingtips) whose total

3 Ref. NACA T N 3911 from Lowry & Polhamus, for a summary on how these expressions have
been reached. This document justies, with an experimental basis, the usage of the same expression
for non-trapezoidal wings, as long as they have a Λc/2 angle well dened geometrically.
4 You will observe that we will not always consider these corrections.

37
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.9: Graphical procedure to determine the mean aerodynamic chord and its location
for a trapezoidal wing.

altitude is h, the effective aspect ratio that must be taken into account is
given by Equation 0.42.

h h
 
ε = 1 + 1.9 ARef f = ε ARth = 1 + 1.9 ARth (0.42)
bw bw

2. If the wing has "winglets " or wingtip tanks (both elements reduce
the induced drag), the simplication of Equation 0.43 may be used with
caution.
ε ≈ 1.09 (0.43)

3. To include the inuence of the mean thickness of the wing, the the-
oretical value of CLα
given by the previous expressions may be corrected

5 ctip b2
according to Figure 0.9 . With: λ = A = ARw = w
croot Sw
5 Ref. DATCOM; Hoak & alia.

38
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

[Link] Approximate expression to calculate the deviation in subsonic regime

The calculation of the stream deviation generated by a lifting wing may be
approximated through some of the expressions presented in this subsection, if
it is a conventional aircraft with rear empennage. The deviation that
inuences the rear surface ("DOWNWASH") may be given by Equation 0.44.

1.
dε 16 CLα CLα CLα
=− 3 ≈ −0.516 ≈− (0.44)
dα π ARw ARw 2 ARw

2. This approximation may be carried out with more rigor with one of the
methods presented by DATCOM. It is a semi-empirical method:

(a) It is assumed that ε varies linearly with α:

 
∂ε
ε= α (0.45)
∂α

∂ε
 
(b) It is also assumed that varies like the wing lift curve slope,
∂α
so as to include the inuence of the Mach number. This means that
the following relation is accepted :
CLα (M )
     
∂ε ∂ε
= (0.46)
∂α ∂α M =0 CLα (M = 0)
∂ε
 
In turn, is approximated:
∂α M =0
  1.19
∂ε  q
= −4.44 KA Kλ KH cos Λc/4 (0.47)
∂α M =0
With:

1 1
KA = −
ARw 1 + AR1.7 w
10 − 3λ
Kλ = (λ = wing taper ratio)
7
hH
1−
b
KH = s w
3
2 lH
bw

39
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.10: Denition of the lH and hH geometrical wing parameters.

With the values that Figure 0.10 shows for lH and hH , hH being
positive when it is above the main wing symmetry line.

3. The calculation of the stream deviation generated by a lifting surface, in

the case of a non-conventional aircraft with a FRONT empennage
(Canard) may be approximated by Equation 0.48.
 
1.04+ AR61.7
cc
   
∂ε c
≈ + 0.3 AR0.3


c − 0.33 (0.48)
∂α UP lc
where lc is the distance among the canard Aerodynamic Center and the
main wing Aerodynamic Center, cc is the canard Mean Aerodynamic
Chord and ARc is the canard aspect ratio. Please note that Equation 0.48
is "valid" forΛc,c/4 < 35◦ .

Note: the airstream deviation angle cannot be accurately calculated

from simple equations. Nevertheless, in order to take into account the
important aerodynamic phenomenon that originates it and its consequences
in the aircraft trimming, it is necessary to accept reasonable simplications.
The expressions shown are some of them, but not the only possible ones. In
the specic bibliography you will nd many more, frequently in the shape of
graphics.

40
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.11: Procedure to estimate the lift curve slope in supersonic regime for a wing
with λ = 0.

[Link] Lift curve slope for a trapezoidal wing in supersonic regime

Only as an example, Figures 0.11 and 0.12 are attached. These gures allow
to calculate the lift curve slope√
in the supersonic regime for 2 dierent kinds
of wings. Please note that β = M 2 − 1.

0.2.6 "Flap" type control surfaces. Calculation of a plain ap

The aerodynamic control of the aircraft is based on these surfaces. Thus, they
are of great importance. They consist in the articulation of a part of an airfoil,
so that the deection of the articulated part modies the global lift of the
surface. In 1927, Hermann Glauert developed a 2D theory for thin airfoils that
we will apply now. He was preceded in this work by Max Munk.

Please observe that the addition of an articulation implies that we may alter
the geometrical chamber of the airfoil at will.

41
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.12: Procedure to estimate the lift curve slope in supersonic regime for a wing
with λ = 0.2.

One particular case often presented is the need to calculate the aerodynamic
behavior of a tail surface in a conventional aircraft if it has a movable part and
6
a xed part, as it is quite common . This is the case represented in Figure 0.13.

We will determine the inuence of the empennage plain ap through the NACA
TN 3911 procedure.

[Link] Procedure to calculate the lift generated by a plain ap

Next, the information needed to calculate the eect of a PLAIN Flap
is presented.
(The word " Flap " does not refer here to the characteristic high lift device
usually located in the main wing, which admits a great variety of kinds.)

The expression " Wing " in this subsection refers to the surface in which the
plain ap is located.

6 It is common, but it is not always like this. There are many aircraft able to move the complete
rear horizontal surface. Other aircraft have both possibilities: to move it as a whole and to move
only a part of it.

42
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.13: Geometry of a conventional rear stabilizer with a plain ap used as an elevator.

43
Chapter 0. Procedures

The increase in lift generated by the deection of a plain ap placed in a 3D

wing is given by Equation 0.49 .
7

CL3D,δF = x1 · x2 · x3 · x4 (0.49)

where:

x1 = ∆cl2D,δF (From Glauert)

CLα,3D
 
x2 = (From 0.38 and 2D-Aerodynamics)
clα,2D
cf lap
 
x3 = Kc , ARw (From graphics, Figures 0.15 and 0.16)
cwing
x4 =Kb [λ, (η0 − ηi )] (From graphics, Figures 0.17 and 0.18)

The parameters from Equation 0.49 are calculated from graphics and equations
as follows:

1. CL3D,δF is the lift increase provided by the deection (δF ) of the plain
ap and is precisely the value we are looking for. It is 3D.

2. ∆cl2D,δF is the lift increase when the plain ap of a 2D airfoil is deected
δF . It may be calculated through the 2D procedure by Glauert8 or apply-
ing experimental results, if they are available. The angular deection of
the ap intervenes here. Applying Glauert's theory, we get Equation 0.50:

θF − sin θF
 
∆cl2D,δF = 2π 1 − δF (0.50)
π
where, according to Figure 0.14, θF is given by Equation 0.51.

cF
  
θF = arccos 1 − 2 1 − (0.51)
ctail

CLα,3D
 
3. The calculation of the parameter has two parts:
clα,2D
7 The variable η of Equation 0.49 is not related to the one used to locate the non-dimensional
location of the mean aerodynamic chord according to the wingspan in Equation 0.36
8 Max Munk, in the NACA RP 142 Report (1923) about thin airfoils, reaches similar conclusions
to Glauert, but with a higher complexity. It is less pleasant to work with them.

44
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.14: Reference geometry for the application of Glauert's 2D theory.

• The denominator is the lift curve slope with respect to α in 2D, and
may be taken as 2π .
• The numerator is the lift curve slope with respect to α considering
a nite wing (3D). Therefore, the appropriate equation (0.38 or its
simplications) must be applied to the wing in which the ap is
located.

4. The calculation of Kc is carried out from plots:

• The rst plot, in Figure 0.15, gives the value of (αδ )cl as a function
of cF /cw .
• The second plot, in Figure 0.16, gives the value of Kc as a function
of (αδ )cl and ARt (which is shown in the plot as AW ).

5. And an analogous procedure is carried out to obtain Kb through Fig-

ures 0.17 and 0.18, previously determining the width of the wing occu-
pied by the ap. Please observe in the plots that Kb is determined as a
function of the wing taper ratio λ and that its value is a difference among
two values in a scale for Kb .

45
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.15: Graphical procedure to determine (αδ )cl .

Figure 0.16: Graphical procedure to determine Kc .

46
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.17: Graphical denitions and procedure to determine Kb .

Figure 0.18: Graphical procedure to correct Kb .

47
Chapter 0. Procedures

In this way we already have all the components from Equation 0.49 and we
can get its value. If we " compact " everything, we get Equation 0.52
2 Kc Kb [π − (θF − sin θF )] ARw
∆CL3D,δF = q  δF (0.52)
2 + 4 + AR2w 1 − M 2 + tan2 (Λc/2 )


with:
cF
  
θF = arccos 1 − 2 1 − (0.51 revisited)
ctail

COMPLEMENTARY NOTE 1: The deection δF generates a camber

increase that also produces a moment about the aerodynamic center of the
wing in which it is located. Frequently we do not consider it to be relevant,
since it is small compared to the moment that the ap lift generates around
the aircraft CoG, for a conventional aircraft. (It is very important, however,
if we are studying a " ying wing " without empennage, as we will see later).
H. Glauert's Thin Airfoil theory shows that the Fourier series coecients ob-
tained when applying the theory to a at plate with a plain ap are given by
Equation 0.53:

π − θF 2 sin (nθF )
 
A0 = α + δF An = δF (0.53)
π nπ

The values of the aerodynamic coecients as a function of the Fourier series

coecients are given by Equations 0.54 and 0.55.

A1
 
CL = 2π A0 + (0.54)
2
A2
 
π
CM LE = − A0 + A1 − (0.55)
2 2

An example of the predictions of this theory compared to the experimental

results for a apped airfoil is shown in Figure 0.19.

In order to calculate the position of the Airfoil Center of Pressure,

we can establish Equation 0.56

(xCP ) CL + CM = 0 (0.56)

48
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.19: Experimental pressure distribution compared to the Thin Airfoil theory pre-
dictions for an airfoil with a plain ap.

49
Chapter 0. Procedures

from where:
CM
xCP = − (0.57)
CL

Replacing the values obtained in Equations 0.54 and 0.55, we get Equation 0.58.

A2
A0 + A1 −
(xCP )f romLE =  2 (0.58)
A1

4 A0 +
2

which is equivalent to Equation 0.59.

( r ii )
c
h h 
sin 2 arccos 1−2 1− cF
h  i2 h  i
δF cF cF
α+ π
2 1− 1−2 1− cw
+ π − arccos 1 − 2 1 − cw
− 2
w

xCP = ( "r #)
h  i2 h
 i
δF cF cF
4 α+ π
1− 1−2 1− cw
+ π − arccos 1 − 2 1 − cw

(0.59)

the dif-
The unpleasant Equation 0.59 has the advantage of clearly showing
ferent location of the Center of Pressure due to the angle of attack
α and the one due to the camber generated by δF . The point at
which we may consider the lift due to α to be applied IS NOT THE
SAME as the point in which the lift due to δF is applied. This is
particularly important when studying tail-less aircraft.
Please observe that, when δF = 0 and α 6= 0, we obtain the expected result of
Equation 0.60.
(xCP )δF =0 1
= (0.60)
cw 4

But when δF 6= 0 and α = 0, we obtain Equation 0.61.

( r ii )
c
h h 
sin 2 arccos 1−2 1− cF
h  i2 h  i
cF cF
2 1− 1−2 1− cw
+ π − arccos 1 − 2 1 − cw
− 2
w

xCP = (r )
h
 i2 h  i
cF cF
4 1− 1−2 1− cw
+ π − arccos 1 − 2 1 − cw

(0.61)

Equation 0.61 does not depend on δF , but it does depend on cF /cw . Thus, the
location of the Center of Pressure due to the camber for a plain ap with a
xed geometry remains constant, even if we vary the ap deection. Figure 0.20

50
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.20: xCPα (blue) and xCPδF (red) as a function of cF /cw .

shows the value of xCP due to α and the one due to the camber, for dierent
values of cF /cw (please remember that this whole analysis is 2D).

0.2.7 Aerodynamic Center (with respect to α) of a trapezoidal

wing. (We now abandon 2D and go to 3D)
It is the geometrical point in which the wing lift due to α can be assumed to be
applied. If the aerodynamic moment is taken about this point, an interesting
property is fullled: the moment coecient is independent from the angle of
attack. Thus, if we despise the eects of Mach, this coecient is constant.

It is placed in the aircraft plane of symmetry, and we will expose two

dierent procedures to evaluate it. The rst procedure is an approximation,
but is generally enough to meet our needs. The second one includes the eect
of the Mach number.

1. Approximate Procedure. It consists in assuming that the Aerody-

namic Center is located in a particular point of the mean aerodynamic
chord projection on the fuselage central line, so that:

• In Subsonic Regime: we will assume it to be placed at a 0.25 of

the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (wherever it falls taking the wingspan
into account), projected on the fuselage central line:

xACw|M <1 = Ȳ tan (ΛLE ) + 0.25 M AC (0.62)

51
Chapter 0. Procedures

• In Supersonic Regime: we will assume it to be placed at a 0.4 of

the Mean Aerodynamic Chord projected on the wing root chord:

xACw|M >1 = Ȳ tan (ΛLE ) + 0.40 M AC (0.63)

The characteristics of wings with a high Aspect Ratio are mainly deter-
mined by the 2D features of the airfoils. The value of Ȳ was shown in a
previous section.

2. A more accurate estimation of the position of the Aerodynamic Cen-

ter of a wing may be carried out from the diagrams
9 shown in Figure 0.21

to 0.26, which show the position of the Aerodynamic Center with respect
to the wing root chord.
These curves are based on the wing planform and can be applied to low
Aspect Ratio (AR) wings as well. The inuence of the Mach number also
appears. Thus, they can be used both in the subsonic and the supersonic
regime, always in the linear regime with α.
(NOTE: More often than not, one needs to interpolate, since the exact
wing that we are studying will not normally appear in the plots. The
parameters that intervene have a quite particular way of being dened
and their use requires some practice, since they are a bit tricky).
Parameters that intervene in the curves:
√ √
β= 1 − M2 (Subsonic); β= M2 − 1 (Supersonic)

There are several curves because each of them is used for a given value of
the wing taper ratio λ. In them, the A letter represents the aspect ratio
A = AR.

Annex: Wave drag. Compressibility eects.

NOTE: a very concise treatment is given here to a complex aerody-
namics topic. This treatment is exclusively oriented to its applica-
bility to the courses 11889 and 11901, but we will only use it in this
way if we do not have anything better at hand...
The compressibility eects are practically not appreciable until the aircraft
reaches its "Critical Mach Number". This ight Mach number implies the
appearance of M = 1 at some point of the aircraft. Usually, aircraft are
designed in a way that this point is placed in the wing upper surface. The
drag signicantly increases from the Drag Divergence Mach Number.

9 Ref. DATCOM; Hoak & Alia (1978).

52
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.21: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ = 0.

Figure 0.22: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ = 0.2.

53
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.23: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ=
0.25.

Figure 0.24: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ=
0.33.

54
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

Figure 0.25: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ = 0.5.

Figure 0.26: Procedure to estimate the position of the wing aerodynamic center for λ = 1.

55
Chapter 0. Procedures

An aircraft designed for subsonic ight will not usually y with a Mach number
greater than the Drag Divergence Mach Number, since the wave drag increases
too much. The value of the Wave Drag coecient (when it starts to appear)
may be approximated through Equation 0.64.

3
CDwave = 29.2 (M − MDragDivergence ) if M > MDragDivergence (0.64)

MDragDivergence in a more accurate manner,

In order to calculate the value of
the graph introduced below (by DATCOM) may be used.

[Link] Procedure to estimate the Critical Mach Number

There is a method based on the following document, available as a DEMO-
MATH:

Ref. AIAA "Journal Of Aircraft" Vol. 49, No. January-February, 2012. By

Takahashi, German, Shajanian, Daskilewitz & Donovan... "FORM FACTOR
AND CRITICAL MACH NUMBER ESTIMATION FOR FINITE WINGS"
(pages 173-182) (ETSID Library)

[Link] Graphical method to estimate the Drag Divergence Mach Number

(DATCOM)
The Drag Divergence Mach Number (for CL = 0) may be estimated through
Figure 0.27 (Ref. DATCOM).

56
 0.2 Some basic notions about Aerodynamics

57

Figure 0.27: Graphical procedure to estimate the Drag Divergence Mach Number (DAT-
COM).