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ISSN: 2394-3696
VOLUME 3, ISSUE 12, Dec.-2016

DISTENTION IN CONCRETE
SWARNIMA REWATKAR
Student, [Link] Construction Management,
SVSU, Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
The paper discusses the distention in concrete .When a blemish is seen on the surface of a
concrete slab it could likely be swelling. Blisters, cracking, curling, discoloration, dusting,
efflorescence, low spots, Pop outs, scaling or spalling are different types of distention’s.
Which are caused when an extra amount of entrapped air withheld in the concrete by a high
percentage of material passing through various size sieves it can also occur due to restraint to
shortening, sub grade settlement, thermal contraction etc. Reduction in absolute volume of
solids and liquids in hydrating paste results to chemical shrinkage. Main causes for this are an
excess amount of entrapped air in concrete, insufficient vibrations during compaction and
finishing when the concrete is still spongy. Crack which occurs before hardening which is
usually the result of settlement caused by rapid loss of water. When concrete is at just
beginning to get strength, the climatic condition like relative humidity during the drying
period in a wetting and drying cycle also makes crazing. Distention also includes rising up of
a slab’s corners and edges. Some of the blisters results from bleed water and bleed air.
Sometimes blisters are very difficult to identify during finishing. Some factors are found to
influence blisters are calcium chloride admixtures, cement alkalis, hard toweled surfaces, wet
substrate. Some of these results of a thin, weak layer called laitance, composed of water,
cement and water uniformly distributed. Sometimes blister is a deposit usually white in color.
It is the general loss of surface mortar exposed to freezing and thawing. Other names used to
describe these types of soils include expansive, shrinking and swelling.

INTRODUCTION
Early-age cracking can be a costly problem in concrete. Volume changes in concrete will
drive tensile stress development when they are restrained. Cracks can develop when the
tensile stress over crosses the tensile strength, which is generally only 10 percent of the
compressive strength. At early ages, this strength is still developing while stresses are
generated by volume changes. Controlling the variables that affect volume change can
minimize high stresses and cracking. ―Swelling‖ soils contain clay minerals that attract and
absorb water. As a result, these soils expand when they get wet and shrink when they dry.
Other names used to describe these types of soils include expansive, shrinking and swelling.
To sum up, the following precautions are required to be taken by the Architects, Structural
Consultants and Specifies:
 Standardized specification for concrete materials and concrete.
 Proper specifications to take care of environmental as well as sub – soil conditions.
 Constructible and adequate structural design.
 Standardized quality and thickness of concrete cover around the reinforcement steel.
 Planning proper reinforcement layout and detailing the same in slender structures to
facilitate proper placing of concrete without segregation.
 Selection of proper agency to construct

TYPES OF DISTENTION
2.1 BLISTERS
Blisters are the bumps, of varying size, appears when bubbles of trapped air or water rising
through the plastic concrete get trapped under an already sealed, airtight surface.
Blisters arise due to:

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VOLUME 3, ISSUE 12, Dec.-2016
1. An extra amount of trapped air held in the concrete by a high percentage of material
passing the 600 μm, 300 μm, and 150 μm (No. 30, 50, and 100) sieves,
2. Insufficient vibration during compaction that does not adequately release entrapped
air; or extreme use of vibration that leaves the surface with excessive fines, inviting
crusting and early finishing.
3. Any tool used to compact or finish the surface will tend to force the entrapped air
toward the surface. Blisters may not appear after the first finishing pass.
The appearance of blisters on the surface of a concrete slab during finishing operations is
irritating.
6
4 Series 1
2
0 Series 2
Series 3

Fig -1: Cause of Blister

Fig -2: Cause of Blister

2.1.2 PREVENTION
The following should be considered:
1. Do not use concrete with a high slump, excessively high air content, or excess fines.
2. Use appropriate cement contents in the range of 305 to 335 kg/m3(515 to 565 lb/yd3).
Blisters are surface bumps that may range in size from 5 mm to 100 mm (1/4 in. to 4 in.) in
diameter with a depth of about 3 mm (1/8 in.).

2.1.3 CONCRETE SLAB SURFACE DEFECTS

CAUSES, PREVENTION, REPAIR
1. Warm the sub grade before placing concrete on it during cold weather.
2. Avoid placing a slab directly on polyethylene film or other vapor barriers. Use a 100-mm
(4-in.) layer of compactable, drainable fill (not sand). A ―crusher run‖ material, usually
graded between 38 mm to 50 mm (1-1/2 in. to 2 in.) down to rock dust, is suitable. Following
compaction, the surface can be choked off with a fine-grade material to separate the vapor.

Fig -3: Cause of Blister

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BARRIER FROM THE CONCRETE
1. Avoid overworking the concrete, especially with vibrating screeds, jitterbugs, or bull
floats. Overworking causes aggregate to settle down, it bleeds water and excess fines to rise.
Properly vibrate to release entrapped air.
2. Do not attempt to seal (finish) the surface too soon. Use a wood bull float on non-air-
entrained concrete to avoid early sealing. Mg or Al tools should be used on air entrained
concrete.
3. Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing during and between finishing
operations. Flat floating and flat troweling are often suggested. Hand floating should be
started when a person standing on a slab makes a 5-mm (1/4-in.) imprint or about a 3-mm
(1/8-in.) imprint for machine floating. If moisture is deficient, a magnesium float should be
used. Proper lighting is also very important during finishing.
4. Reduce evaporation over the slab by using a fog spray or slab cover.
5. Avoid using air contents over 3% for interior slabs.
2.1.4 REMEDIES TO FIX BLISTERS
• Blisters and other surface defects can usually be removed with a solvent bath
• This sometimes works with water-based sealers, but testing first is always
recommended.
• Sometimes simple surface blisters in a solvent system can also be removed just by
applying an additional coat of the same sealer.
• Surface sanding and re-application of the sealer has also worked in spot applications
• If bubbles run deep, then the sealer is usually on too thick, and a solvent bath along
with back rolling may be needed.
• As a last resort, the surface can be stripped of all sealer, cleaned, and resealed.
• Xylene is commonly used to re-wet the sealer and lay the bubbles back down.
• The bubbles and blisters should be broke open for this to work best. In most cases
xylene should fix the whitening also. If it doesn't these areas will have to be stripped
of the sealer and re-sealed.
• The best time to seal new decorative stamped concrete is 28 days after it is poured. It
can be wet cured or curing paper can be used to cure the concrete in the first week.
• The best time of day to seal new or old decorative concrete (or use xylene) is late
afternoon or early evening when the concrete is cooling down and the sun is setting.
By now most all the moisture has escaped the concrete from the day and night before.
• The temperature should be 50 - 70 degrees. This will give the sealer all night to
harden and best resist any moisture escaping the next day. Once the sealer is fully
cured, blisters and bubbles will not be a problem.
•

Fig -3: Xylene Sealantto Fix Blisters

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2.2 CRACKING
Unexpected cracking of concrete is a frequent cause of complaints. Cracking can be the result
of one or a combination of factors, such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction,
restraint(external or internal) to shortening, sub grade settlement, and applied loads.
Cracking can be significantly reduced when the causes are taken into account and
preventative steps are utilized. For example, joints provided in the design and installed during
construction force cracks to occur in places where they are inconspicuous.

Fig -4: Types of Cracks

2.2.1 CAUSES
1. Cracks that occur before hardening usually are the result of settlement within the concrete
mass, or shrinkage of the surface(plastic-shrinkage cracks) caused by rapid loss of water
while the concrete is still plastic .
2. Settlement cracks may develop over embedded items, such as reinforcing steel, or adjacent
to forms or hardened concrete as the concrete settles or subsides. Settlement cracking results
from insufficient consolidation (vibration), high slumps (overly wet concrete), or a lack of
adequate cover over embedded items
3. Plastic-shrinkage cracks are relatively short cracks that may occur before final finishing on
days when wind, a low humidity, and a high temperature occur. Surface moisture evaporates
faster than it can be replaced by rising bleed water, causing the surface to shrink more than
the interior concrete. As the interior concrete restrains shrinkage of the surface concrete,
stresses develop that exceed the concrete’s tensile strength, resulting in surface cracks.
4. Cracks that occur after hardening usually are the result of drying Shrinkage, thermal
contraction, or sub grade settlement.

Fig -5: Shrinkage Cracks

Fig -6: Corrosion Cracks

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2.2.2 PREVENTION
1. Use proper sub grade preparation, including uniform support and proper sub base material
at adequate moisture content.
2. Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse aggregate
and use low-shrinkage aggregate.
3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit overly wet
consistencies.
4. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures.
5. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use of
spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracks.
6. Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab thickness.
7. Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining elements of a structure.
8. Prevent extreme changes in temperature.
9. To minimize cracking on top of vapor barriers, use a 100-mmthick (4-in.) layer of slightly
damp, compactable, drainable fill choked off with fine-grade material. If concrete must be
placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapor barriers, placed directly on polyethylene
sheet or other vapor barriers, use a mix with low water content.
10. Properly place, consolidate, finish, and cure the concrete.
11. Avoid using excessive amounts of cementations materials.
12. Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture to reduce drying shrinkage, which may
reduce shrinkage cracking.
13. Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.

Fig -7: Internal and Primary Cracks

2.2.3 METHODS OF CONCRETE CRACK REPAIRS

EPOXY INJECTION: Cracks as narrow as 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) can be bonded by the
injection of epoxy. The technique generally consists of establishing entry and venting ports at
close intervals along the cracks, sealing the crack on exposed surfaces, and injecting the
epoxy under pressure. Epoxy injection has been successfully used in the repair of cracks in
buildings, bridges, dams, and other types of concrete structures (ACI 503R). However, unless
the cause of the cracking has been corrected, it will probably recur near the original crack. If
the cause of the cracks cannot be removed, then two options are available.
ROUTING AND SEALING: Routing and sealing of cracks can be used in conditions
requiring remedial repair and where structural repair is not necessary. This method involves
enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling and sealing it with a suitable joint
sealant. This is a common technique for crack treatment and is relatively simple in
comparison to the procedures and the training required for epoxy injection. The procedure is
most applicable to approximately flat horizontal surfaces such as floors and pavements.
However, routing and sealing can be accomplished on vertical surfaces (with a non-sag
sealant) as well as on curved surfaces (pipes, piles and pole).

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Fig -8: Crack Repair by Routing and Sealing

STITCHING: Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in U-
shaped metal units with short legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the crack. Stitching
may be used when tensile strength must be reestablished across major cracks. The stitching
procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the holes, and
anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a no shrink grout or an epoxy resin-
based bonding system.

Fig -9: Crack Repair by Stitching

DRILLING AND PLUGGING: Drilling and plugging a crack consists of drilling down the
length of the crack and grouting it to form a key. This technique is only applicable when
cracks run in reasonable straight lines and are accessible at one end. This method is most
often used to repair vertical cracks in retaining walls. A hole [typically 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75
mm) in diameter] should be drilled, centered on and following the crack.

Fig -10: Crack Repair by Drilling and Plugging

GRAVITY FILLING: Low viscosity monomers and resins can be used to seal cracks with
surface widths of 0.001 to 0.08 in. (0.03 to 2 mm) by gravity filling. High-molecular weight
methacrylate, urethanes, and some low viscosity epoxies have been used successfully. The
lower the viscosity, the finer the cracks that can be filled. The typical procedure is to clean
the surface by air blasting and/or water blasting. Wet surfaces should be permitted to dry
several days to obtain the best crack filling.

Fig -11: Crack Repair by Gravity Filling

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OVERLAY AND SURFACE TREATMENTS: Fine surface cracks in structural slabs and
pavements may be repaired using either a bonded overlay or surface treatment if there will
not be further significant movement across the cracks. Unbounded overlays may be used to
cover, but not necessarily repair a slab. Overlays and surface treatments can be appropriate
for cracks caused by one-time occurrences and which do not completely penetrate the slab.

Fig -10: Crack Repair by Overlay and Surface Treatments

2.3 CRAZING
Crazing is a network of fine surface cracks. Crazing cracks are very fine and barely visible
except when the concrete is drying after the surface has been wet. The cracks encompass
small concrete areas less than 50 mm (2 in.) in dimension, forming a chicken-wire pattern.
The term ―map cracking‖ is often used to refer to cracks that are similar to crazing cracks
only more visible and surrounding larger areas of concrete. Although crazing cracks may be
unsightly and can collect dirt, crazing is not structurally serious and does not ordinarily
indicate the start of future deterioration. When concrete is just beginning to gain strength, the
climatic conditions, particularly the relative humidity during the drying period in a wetting
and drying cycle, are an important cause of crazing. Low humidity, high air temperature, hot
sun, or drying wind, either separately or in any combination, can cause rapid surface drying
that encourages crazing. A surface into which dry cement has been cast to hasten drying and
finishing will be more subject to crazing. The conditions that contribute to dusting, as
described below, also will increase the tendency to craze.
2.3.1 PREVENTION
Curing procedures should begin early, within minutes after final finishing when weather
conditions warrant. When the temperature is high and the sun is out, some method of curing
with water should be used, since this will stop rapid drying and lower the surface
temperature. The concrete should be protected against rapid changes in temperature and
moisture wherever feasible.
2.3.2 REMEDIES
Crazing is rarely anything other than a cosmetic problem. Craze cracking is not repaired
because it does not deteriorate over time and will not lead to further slab cracking, and the
crazing cracks will not spread or become larger. : Sealers and surface hardeners actually
can make crazing more obvious. If the owner really wants to fix crazing, a thin overlay is
about the only choice.
2.4 CURLING
Curling is the distortion (rising up) of a slab’s corners and edges due to differences in
moisture content or temperature between the top and bottom of a slab. The top dries out or
cools and shrinks more than the wetter or warmer bottom. If the curled section of a slab is
loaded beyond the flexural strength of the concrete, cracks may develop to relieve the stress.

Fig -12: Curled Slab

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Fig -13: Types and Cause of Curling of Concrete Slabs

2.4.1 PREVENTION
1. Using a low-shrinkage concrete mix.
2. Using proper control-joint spacing (see Cracking).
3. Creating uniform moisture content and temperature of the slabfrom top to bottom.
4. Using large amounts of reinforcing steel 50 mm (2 in.) down from the surface.
5. Using thickened slab edges.
6. Using vacuum dewatering, shrinkage-compensating concrete or post-tensioning.

2.4.2 REMEDIES TO FIX CURLING

1. WET THE TOP OF THE SLAB
• Build a dam, seal joints and cracks, and pond water on the slab surface. Since curling is
caused by the top of the slab being drier than the bottom, wetting the top of the slab
should reverse the curling process. If ponding is feasible, this technique can temporarily
reduce the amount of curl. Surface water at room temperature reduced the curling about
40%. Heat lamps produced a further 20% reduction before heat induced drying caused
the slab to start curling again. Ponding with hot water then brought the corners down to
their initial elevation
• But when the water was removed and the slab dried, the slab returned to its original
curled condition. One suggested curling remedy is ponding the slab until its level again
and cutting additional control joints where the slab has curled (Ref. 2). The success of
this method varies, depending on the extent and cause of the curling.
2. CUT MORE JOINTS
• Cut slab corners on a diagonal, or cut at the centrelines of the slab panels. Holland says
diagonal cuts are much more effective than centreline cuts, but even diagonal cuts reduce
curl no more than 50%, and the reduction is usually much less
• For best results, cut the slab after most of the drying shrinkage has occurred, since further
shrinkage can cause curling of corners and edges at the new cuts. Cutting additional joints
is most likely to be a successful solution for curled floors that receive no forklift traffic
and will be covered with carpet.
• On some projects, cutting to only one-third the slab depth reportedly reduced curled
elevation 50%
3. GRIND
• Perform an elevation survey, choose an acceptable floor profile, and diamond grind the
curled slab edges and corners to achieve the desired profile.
• Typically this involves grinding to a distance of 2 to 6 feet from the curled edges. Grind
only those areas that need a new profile, such as traffic aisles or areas that will be tiled
instead of carpeted.
• Grinding is a common curling repair option that doesn’t create any new joints and
maintains existing aggregate interlock to provide load transfer.

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• Grinding should be done after most of the drying shrinkage has occurred. If grinding is
done too soon, continued curling may require regrinding.

4. REMOVE AND REPLACE PART OF THE CONCRETE

• Saw cut around the curled area, use a chipping hammer to remove concrete below the
desired profile, and place and finish patch material to the desired elevation
• Be sure to maintain joint integrity by recutting a joint in the patching material. If only a
few curled areas need repair, this partial-depth patch repair may cost less than hiring a
grinding contractor.
• And if the joint edges show no deterioration, it may not be necessary to grout the under
slab void created by curling

5. GROUT AND GRIND

• Drill or core a 1- to 2-inch-diameter hole at the elevated joint corners and at slab edges,
where necessary
• Use a flow able, low-shrinkage grout to fill the under slab voids, or use a stiff, low-
shrinkage grout to make columns that support the four corners and any curled edges
• Monitor and control the grout pressure (typically limited to 10 psi) to avoid or minimize
slab uplift during grouting
• After the grout hardens, grind the slab surface at curled elevations, if needed, to produce
the desired floor profile
• The grout-and-grind method is typically used on floors subjected to frequent forklift
traffic or heavy forklifts.

6. ADD DOWEL BARS

• Steel dowels can be installed across a curled joint to improve load transfer and minimize
differential movement under traffic.
1. Saw the floor at right angles to the joint, making each saw cut 1 ⁄4 inch wide, 4
inches deep, 36 inches long at the bottom, and 12 inches on centre.
2. Blow each saw cut clean with compressed air.
3. Place a 1 ⁄4x2x36-inch steel flat bar in each saw cut, making sure the bar rests firmly
on the bottom of the cut. Grease each bar to inhibit bonding.
4. Fill each saw cut with high strength epoxy grout, leaving the surface slightly crowned.
Do not let epoxy enter the joint.

Fig -14: Installation of Dowel Bar Across a Curled Joint

5. Fill the joint with a semi-rigid epoxy—not with the high strength grout used in the
saw cut.
6. After the high-strength grout and joint filler have hardened, grind them flush with the
surrounding floor surface.

2.5 DELAMINATION
Delamination’s are similar to blisters in that delaminated areas of surface mortar result from
bleed water and bleed air being trapped below the prematurely closed (densified) mortar
surface. Delaminations are very difficult to detect during finishing and become apparent after

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the concrete surface has dried and the delaminated area is crushed under traffic. The
delaminated mortar thickness ranges from about 3 mm to 5 mm (1/8 in. to 1/4 in.). To avoid
conditions that lead to delaminations, see the recommendations under the section on blisters.
2.5.1 CAUSES
The primary cause is finishing the surface before bleeding has occurred. Delaminations are
also more likely to occur when factors that extend the bleeding time of concrete (e.g. cold
substrate) are combined with factors that accelerate surface setting (e.g. High ambient air
temperature).It is necessary to wait for a period of time after placing the concrete to allow air
and water to escape from the concrete. The waiting period varies with the concrete mixture,
mixing and placing procedures, and weather conditions.

Fig -15: Cause of Delamination

Delaminations also may be the result of disruptive stresses from chloride-induced corrosion
of steel reinforcement or of poorly bonded areas in two-course construction. The resulting
delaminations are deeper than those caused by trapped air or bleed water and are often called
spalls (see Spalls). A delaminated area that has separated from the underlying concrete can
leave a hole in the surface and resembles spalling. A delamination survey can be conducted
by sounding dragging a chain across the surface or tapping with a hammer and listening for
hollow sounds. A hollow sound indicates delaminated areas, and a ringing sound indicates
intact areas. This test is described in ASTM D 4580, Standard Practice for Measuring
Delaminations in Concrete Bridge Decks by Sounding. Nonstandard methods for detecting
delaminated areas are acoustic impact, infrared thermography, and ground-penetrating radar.
Delaminations can be repaired by patching or, if widespread, by grinding and overlaying with
a new surface. Epoxy injection may also be beneficial in some applications
2.5.2 PREVENTION
Greater care in lift placement and consolidation, allowing more time for bleed water to
dissipate before closing the surface, proper curing and sealing measures to prevent moisture
ingress, and checks to insure minimum concrete cover over steel is provided.
2.5.3 REMEDIESTO FIX DELAMINATION
If delamination occurs, take following steps to restore the coating:
• Work in small, manageable areas.
• Saturate them with xylene and allow dwelling for several minutes. These will re-solvate
the disbanded sealer.
• Dampen a roller cover in xylene and gently back-roll the area. This will redeposit the
sealer directly to the concrete surface
• Allow to dry
• Repeat if necessary on localized areas
In most cases this will solve your problem. If needed, scrap excess sealer off the roller cover
during back-rolling operation

Fig -16: Delamination Before and After Applying Remedies

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2.6 DISCOLORATION
Surface discoloration of concrete flatwork can appear as gross color changes in large areas of
concrete, spotted or mottled light or dark blotches on the surface, or early light patches of
efflorescence (see section below).Laboratory studies to determine the effects of various
concreting procedures and concrete materials show that no single factor is responsible for all
discoloration. Factors found to influence discoloration are calcium chloride admixtures,
cement alkalis, hard-toweled surfaces, inadequate or inappropriate curing, a wet substrate,
variation of the water-cement ratio at the surface, and changes in the concrete mix.
Discoloration from these causes appears very soon after placing the concrete.
Discoloration at later ages may be the result of atmospheric or organic staining—simply
stated, the concrete is dirty. This type of discoloration is usually removed by power washing
with pressurized water and, possibly, chemical cleaners. The use of calcium chloride in
concrete may discolor the surface. Calcium chloride accelerates the hydration process but has
a retarding effect on the hydration of the ferrite compound in Portland cement. The ferrite
phase normally becomes lighter with hydration; however, in the presence of calcium chloride
the retarded, unhydrated ferrite phase remains dark.
Extreme discoloration can result from attempts to hard-trowel the surface after it has become
too stiff to trowel properly. Vigorously troweling a surface to progressively compact it can
reach the point where the water-cement ratio is drastically decreased in localized areas. This
dense, low-water-cement-ratio concrete in the hard troweled area is almost always darker
than the adjacent concrete. Waterproof paper and plastic sheets used to moist-cure concrete
containing calcium chloride have been known to give a mottled appearance to flat surfaces
due to the difficulty in placing and keeping a cover in complete contact with the surface over
the entire area. The places that are in contact will be lighter in color than those that are not.
Concrete materials and proportions affect concrete color. Individual cements may differ in
color. Thus, substituting one cement for this delamination is the result of sealing the surface
before bleeding has occurred.

Fig -17: Cause of Discoloration

2.6.1 CONCRETE SLAB SURFACE DEFECTS
Driveway discoloration due to the use of a calcium chloride admixture in the concrete at the
bottom but not the top of the photo. This illustrates just one of several types of discoloration.
Another may change the color of concrete. Concretes containing significant amounts of
mineral admixtures—fly ash, silica fume, met kaolin, or slag, for example—may differ in
color from those containing no mineral admixture. The color of the sand has an effect on the
color of the concrete. High-strength concrete with a low water-cement ratio is darker in color
than low-strength concrete with a high water-cement ratio.

Fig -18: Cause of Discoloration on Concrete Slab

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2.6.2 PREVENTION
(1) Avoiding the use of calcium chloride admixtures.
(2)Using consistent concrete ingredients uniformly proportioned from batch to batch.
(3) Using proper and timely placing, finishing, and curing practices. Concreting practices
should not be allowed to vary, as any disruption or change in the concrete mixture, formwork,
finishing, or curing can result in significant and sometimes permanent discoloration.
To eradicate discoloration, the first (and usually effective) remedy is an immediate, thorough
flushing with water. Permit the slab to dry, and then repeat the flushing and drying until the
discoloration disappears. If possible, use hot water. Acid washing using concentrations of
weaker acids such as 3% acetic acid (vinegar) or 3% phosphoric acid will lessen carbonation
and mottling discoloration. Treating a dry slab with 10% solution of caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide) gives some success in blending light spots into a darker background. Harsh acids
should not be used, as they can expose the aggregate. One of the best methods to remove
most discoloration, when other remedies have failed, is to treat a surface with a 20% to 30%
water solution of diammonium citrate. This chemical is expensive to buy in small quantities,
so consider it as a last resort. These and other treatments and recommendations to prevent and
eradicate discoloration are contained in surface.
2.6.3 REMEDIES TO FIX DISCOLORATION
FLUSH AND SCRUB
Flushing is when you flood the surface of concrete slab with hot water and then scrub
vigorously with a hand brush. For Mild discolorations, you can repeat this process several
times and eventually it will even out as the concrete breathes in and evaporates the water.
This natural breathing process helps to evenly distribute any sort of moisture and mineral
build up within the concrete’s surface that could be causing discoloration
ACID WASH
Severe discolorations that do not disappear without flushing require the next step up, which
is a light solution of muriatic [Link] must always start with less than a 1% solution of acid
to water and increase if you do not see significant enough results. To make sure that the acid
does not penetrate farther than the surface layer, flood the concrete beforehand. From there,
apply the acid solution directly and scrub it with a scrub brush. After each scrub down, rinse
the surface down with clean water no later than 15 minutes.
CONCRETE STAIN
If acid does not work, then the only means available are chemical top coats. A paintbrush or a
paint roller is the option for application. You should always test a small out-of-the-way area
in advance, and always start with a shade of stain that is two or three shades lighter than what
you actually want the results to be. This is because you can never lighten a stain, you can
only add additional layers to make darker coats, so you should start light and build way to
perfect results.
TINTED SEALER
Another option to hide imperfections is a tinted sealer. Just as you can use topcoat sealers on
natural stone installations to protect the stone as well as give it a slightly different colour, the
same option exists for concrete. They are only useful for wide open areas where the
discoloration is slight, because these are translucent top coats which will still show
blotchiness. For best results, apply a sealer after you have finished putting on a coat of
concrete stain which will help blend the two layers together.

Fig -19: Discoloration Before and After Applying Remedies

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2.7 DUSTING
Dusting—the development of a fine, powdery material that easily rubs off the surface of
hardened concrete—can occur either indoors or outdoors, but is more likely to be a problem
when it occurs indoors (Fig. 7). Dusting is the result of a thin, weak layer, called laitance,
composed of water, cement, and fine particles. Fresh concrete is a fairly cohesive mass, with
the aggregates, cement, and water uniformly distributed throughout. A certain amount of time
must elapse before the cement and water react sufficiently to develop hardened concrete.
During this period, the cement and aggregate particles are partly suspended in the water.
Because the cement and aggregates are heavier than water, they tend to sink. As they move
downward, the displaced water moves upward and appears at the surface as bleed water,
resulting in more water near and at the surface than in the lower portion of the concrete.
Thus, the laitance—the weakest, most permeable, and least wear-resistant concrete—is at the
top surface, exactly where the strongest, most impermeable, and most wear-resistant concrete
is needed. Floating and troweling concrete with bleed water on it mixes the excess water back
into the surface, further weakening the concrete’s strength and wear resistance and giving rise
to dusting.

Fig -20: Cause of Concrete Dusting

2.7.1 CAUSES
(1) Water applied during finishing,
(2) Exposure to rainfall during finishing,
(3) Spreading dry cement over the surface to accelerate finishing,
(4) A low cement content,
Fly ash aggravates the staining by intensifying the color. This staining is probably caused by
differences in curing and degree of hydration of the surface cementations materials under
high humidity and high ambient temperature conditions. In particular, additional hydration of
the ferrite compounds in cementations materials leads to more reduced iron being available to
oxidize and discolor the concrete. Research has found that the staining occurs under a certain
set of conditions, which includes the availability of water and oxygen.
Rapid drying of the concrete results in insufficient moisture to produce staining, while
continuous immersion does not allow access of air. In both cases, discoloration does not
occur. Therefore, it is recommended that the concrete be kept fully wet for the required
curing period, then allowed to dry as rapidly as possible thereafter. For instance, wet burlap
with a plastic sheet covering should be removed in the morning of a hot day rather than in the
evening or before rain is expected. This type of staining is difficult to remove. Commercial
sodium bisulfate cleaners are somewhat successful in removing the stain; however, the
difference between cleaned and stained areas decreases over several weeks. The following
chemicals are largely ineffective at removing these buffs to red/orange stains: hydrochloric
acid (2%), hydrogen peroxide (3%), bleach, phosphoric acid (10%), diammonium citrate
(0.2M), and oxalic acid (3%).
2.7.2 REMEDIESTO FIX DUSTING
To minimize or eliminate dusting, apply a chemical floor hardener. If dusting is reduced but
still noticeable, retreat with hardener. Other solution is to grind off or shot blast off this thin

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layer to expose the solid concrete underneath and potentially a new surface with good wear
resistance. Another solution is extending the life of the concrete slab by using surface
treatments containing certain chemicals, including sodium silicate and magnesium flu
[Link] products can upgrade a dusty floor and improve its wear resistance.
2.8 EFFLORESCENCE
Efflorescence can be considered a type of discoloration. It is a deposit, usually white in color
that occasionally develops on the surface of concrete, often just after a structure is completed.
Although unattractive, efflorescence is usually harmless. In rare cases, excessive
efflorescence deposits can occur within the surface pores of the material, causing expansion
that may disrupt the surface.

Fig -21: Cause of Efflorescence

2.8.1 CAUSES
A combination of circumstances: soluble salts in the material, moisture to dissolve these salts,
and evaporation or hydrostatic pressure that moves the solution toward the surface. Water in
moist, hardened concrete dissolves soluble salts. This salt-water solution migrates to the
surface by evaporation or hydraulic pressure where the water evaporates, leaving a salt
deposit at the surface. Efflorescence is particularly affected by temperature, humidity, and
wind. In the summer, even after long rainy periods, moisture evaporates so quickly that
comparatively small amounts of salt are brought to the surface.
Usually efflorescence is more common in the winter when a slower rate of evaporation
allows migration of salts to the surface. If any of the conditions that cause efflorescence—
water, evaporation, or salts—are not present, efflorescence will not occur.

Fig -22: Efflorescence on Brick, Concrete, Stucco, Pavers

2.8.2 PREVENTION
Accelerators or heated concrete often prevents delamination in cool weather. Emphasis in
finishing should be on screening, straight edging, floating the concrete without working up an
excessive layer of mortar and without sealing the surface layer. Do not place concrete directly
on retarder. Do not use air entrained concrete for interior floor slabs.
2.8.3 REMEDIESTO FIX EFFLORESCENCE
Efflorescence will stop forming when the movement of moisture through the concrete stops.
Try to wash and scrub off the white deposits using clean water as soon as they appear. You
will need a mild or diluted acidic solution that is stronger than vinegar water. For grey
concrete following solutions are recommended. One part HCL in 10-20 parts of water. One
part Phosphoric acid in 10 parts of water. One part Phosphoric acid, plus one part Acetic acid
in 20 parts [Link]-packaged efflorescence [Link] with one part HCL in 50 or 100

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parts of water (2% to 1% concentration) and increase the concentration as needed. Flood the
surface with clean water (to prevent acid being absorbed into the concrete).Allow the acidic
solution to set on the surface for [Link] off the efflorescence with a stiff brush.
Immediately and thoroughly flush the surface with clean water to remove all acid and then
apply the acidic solution uniformly in terms of concentration, amount and duration. Perform a
trial treatment on an inconspicuous area to check for adverse effects and to perfect the
technique. After removing efflorescence, consider sealing with an exterior concrete sealer.

Fig -23: Efflorescence Before and After Applying Remedies

2.9 LOW SPOTS
Low spots can affect slab drainage or serviceability if items placed on the slab need to be
level. Low spots are often caused by poor lighting during placement and finishing,
improperly set forms and screeds, damage to form and screed grade settings during
construction, use of overly wet or variably wet concrete, and poor placement and finishing
techniques
2.9.1 PREVENTION
(1) Using a low-slump, low-water-content concrete mix.
(2) Providing adequate light.
(3) Frequently checking grades and levels, and filling the low areas.
(4) Using a vibrating screed for strike off.
(5) Using a ―highway‖ straightedge in lieu of a bull float to smooth and straighten and
surface.
2.9.2 REMEDIES
Low spots in the concrete surface that can trap water. Areas of extreme low spots may be
corrected somewhat by grinding adjacent high spots or, depending on the floor use, by
installing a leveling course or topping. Hwever, as discussed, low spots should be expected
because perfect flatness is unlikely, and achieving greater flatness increases the cost.
2.9 POPOUTS
A pop outs is a conical fragment that breaks out of the surface of the concrete leaving a hole
that may vary in size generally from 5 mm to 50 mm (1/4 in. to 2 in.) but up to as much as
300 mm (1 ft.) in diameter (Fig. 8). Usually a fractured aggregate particle will be found at
the bottom of the hole, with part of the aggregate still adhering to the point of the popouts
cone.

Fig -24: Cause of Pop outs

2.10.1 CAUSES
Pop outs usually is a piece of porous rock having a high rate of absorption and relatively low
specific gravity. As the offending aggregate absorbs moisture or freezing occurs under moist
conditions, its swelling creates internal pressures sufficient to rupture the concrete surface.
Pyrite, hard-burned dolomite, coal, shale, soft fine-grained limestone, or chart commonly

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causes popouts. Popouts may also occur to relieve pressure created by water uptake of
expansive gel formed during the chemical reaction between the alkali hydroxides in the
concrete and reactive siliceous aggregates. Scaling is a scabrous condition where the surface
mortar has peeled away, usually exposing the coarse aggregate. Most popouts appear within
the first year after placement. Popouts caused by alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) may occur as
early as a few hours to a few weeks, or even a year, after the concrete is placed. Popouts
caused by moisture-induced swelling may occur shortly after placement due to the absorption
of water from the plastic concrete, or they may not appear until after a season or year of high
humidity or rainfall or after the concrete has been exposed to freezing temperatures. Popouts
are considered a cosmetic detraction and generally do not affect the service life of the
concrete.
2.10.2 PREVENTION
1. Use concrete with the lowest water content and slump possible for the application.
2. Use a durable crushed-stone or beneficiated aggregate concrete.
3. During hot, dry, and windy weather, cover the surface with plastic sheets after screeding
and bull floating to reduce evaporation before final finishing. This reduces the migration of
alkalis to the surface due to drying and therefore helps reduce popouts caused by alkali-silica
reactivity (ASR).
4. Do not finish concrete with bleed water on the surface.
5. Avoid hard-steel troweling where not needed, such as most exterior slabs.
6. Avoid use of vapor barriers. If required, cover the vapor barrier with 100 mm (4 in.) of
compactable granular fill, slightly dampened, and choked off appoints is a small fragment of
concrete surface that has broken away due to internal pressure, leaving a shallow, typically
conical, depression
7. Use wet-curing methods such as continuous sprinkling with water, fogging, ponding, or
covering with wet burlap soon after final finishing. Wet-cure for a minimum of 7 days, as wet
cures can greatly reduce or eliminate popouts caused by ASR. Avoid plastic film, curing
paper, and especially curing compounds as they allow an accumulation of alkalis at the
surface. Flush curing water from the surface before final drying. Impervious floor coverings
or membranes should be avoided as they can aggravate popouts development.
8. Use a blended cement or a supplementary cementations material such as fly ash (proven to
control ASR) where popouts are caused by alkali-silica reactivity. Use of low-alkali cement is
also beneficial.
9. Use two-course construction with clean, sound rock in the topping, and the offending
aggregates in the base slab, thus limiting the susceptible aggregate’s exposure to excess
moisture.
10. Slope the slab surface to drain water properly.
11. Use air-entrained concrete.
12. Reduce concrete temperature to 10°C to 20°C (50°F to 70°F). Surfaces with popouts can
be repaired. A small patch can be made by drilling out the spelled particle and filling the void
with a dry-pack mortar or other appropriate patch material. If the popouts in a surface are too
numerous to patch individually, a thin-bonded concrete overlay may be used to restore
serviceability.

Fig -25: Popouts on Concrete Surface

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2.10.3 REMEDIES
For small popouts, use a rotary-hammer drill and drill out the remaining deleterious substance
and unsound concrete to create a hole with a minimum depth of ½ inch. For medium and
large popouts, use a hammer and chisel, small chipping hammer, or core drill to remove all
remnants of deleterious substances and unsound concrete. Create a hole with square edges
(perpendicular to the surface) and a minimum depth of ½ inch. Do not feather edges. Remove
all unsound concrete, dirt, and debris. For site-mixed, dry-pack repair mortar, mix one-part
Portland cement to two-and-a-half parts sand. Use only enough water to produce a stiff
mortar that will pack into a ball when molded by hand. If possible, use the same type of
cement and sand used in the original concrete. To improve the color match of the repair
mortar, substitute white cement for the gray cement. Determine the amount of white cement
by trial mixes. Before placing the dry-pack repair mortar, scrub the repair area with a thick
and creamy bonding grout consisting of one part cement and one part fine sand. Immediately,
tamp the repair mortar into place and finish or texture to match the surrounding surface. Do
not place or smear the repair mortar over a larger area than necessary. Cure repaired areas
using wet burlap and plastic sheeting or a spray-on curing compound. Prepackaged concrete
repair materials can be used but it will probably not match the color of the existing concrete.
If there are too many popouts for individual repairs, consider using a thin-bonded concrete
overlay.

Fig -26: Popouts, Scaling and Spalling.

2.11 SCALING
Scaling is the general loss of surface mortar exposed to freezing and thawing. The aggregate
is usually clearly exposed and often stands out from the concrete.
2.11.1 CAUSES
[Link] is primarily a physical action caused by hydraulic pressure from water freezing
within the concrete and not usually caused by chemical corrosive action.
2. When pressure exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, scaling can result if entrained-air
voids are not present to act as internal pressure relief valves.
3. Scaling is also caused due to the use of deicing solutions.

Fig -27: Scaling of Concrete Surface

2.11.2 REMEDIES
Begin by thoroughly removing any loose material to create a relatively smooth surface.
Contact the repair material manufacturer for guidance. Most manufacturers suggest surface
preparation should include repairing shallow delaminations, surface, scaling, and aggregate
popouts. This may require grinding the resulting rough surface. The committee recommends
trying to achieve a concrete surface profile in the range of 3 to 5 as described in the
International Concrete Repairs Institute's Document 03732.

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This is often the best range for applying most liquid-applied membranes and most thin
coatings. Most liquid-applied products are not intended to level off or hide imperfections,
although trowel-grade materials can sometimes be used for this purpose. Remember that the
temperature of the repair material should be as close to the floor slab as possible.

Fig -28: Scaling Before and After Applying Remedies

2.12 MOTOR FLAKING
It over coarse aggregate particles sometimes called pop offs, is another form of scaling that
somewhat resembles a surface with [Link] finishing practices can also aggravate
mortar flaking
2.12.1 CAUSES
1. Mortar flaking over coarse aggregate particles is caused essentially by the same actions
that cause regular scaling.
2. However, the moisture loss is accentuated over aggregate particles near the surface.
3. The lack of moisture necessary for cement hydration results in a mortar layer of lower
strength and durability, higher shrinkage, and poorer bond with the aggregate.
2.12.2 PREVENTION
1. Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing cycles must be air-entrained.
2. DO NOT use deicing salts, such as calcium or sodium chloride, in the first year after
placing the concrete. Use clean sand for traction.
3. DO NOT perform any finishing operations with water present on the surface.
4. Protect concrete from the harsh winter environment. It is important to prevent the newly-
placed concrete from becoming saturated with water prior to freeze and thaw cycles during
winter months.
2.12.3 REMEDIES
1. Use properly air entrained concrete (6.5 + 1.5%).
2. Concrete should have a water/cement ratio of < 0.45.
3. Do not over finish or finish with bleed-water present.
4. Provide sufficient and timely curing.
5. Avoid late season placement – Concrete needs a minimum of 30 days before being
subjected to deicing salts.
6. Use a penetrating sealer

Fig -29: Flaking, Cracking, And Spalling

2.13 SPALLING
Spalling is a deeper surface defect than scaling, often appearing as circular or oval
depressions on surfaces or as elongated cavities along joints. Spalls may be 25 mm (1 in.) or
more in depth and 150 mm (6 in.) or more in diameter, although smaller spalls also occur.

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Fig -30: Cause of Spalling

2.13.1 CAUSES
1. Spalls are caused by pressure or expansion within the concrete, bond failure in two-course
construction, impact loads, fire, or weathering. Improperly constructed joints and corroded
reinforcing steel are two common causes of spalls.
[Link] left unrepaired, spalls can accelerate pavement deterioration.

Fig -31: Spalling

2.13.2 PREVENTION
1. Properly designing the concrete element including joints for the environment and
anticipated service.
2. Using proper concrete mixes and concreting practices.
3. Taking special precautions where necessary
2.13.3 REMEDIES
1. Remove loose or delaminated concrete above corroded reinforcing steel.
2. Once initial removals are made, proceed with the undercutting of all exposed corroded
bars. Undercutting will provide clearance for under bar cleaning and full bar circumference
bonding to surrounding concrete, and will secure the repair structurally. Provide minimum ¾
inch clearance between exposed rebar and surrounding concrete or ¼ inch larger than the
largest aggregate in repair material, whichever one is greater.
3. Concrete removal shall extend along the bars to locations along the bar free of bond
inhibiting corrosion, and where the bar is well bonded to surrounding concrete.
4. If non-corroded reinforcing steel is exposed during the undercutting process, care shall be
taken not to damage the bar’s bond to surrounding concrete. If bond between bar and
concrete is broken, undercutting of the bar shall be required.
5. Any reinforcement which is loose shall be secured in place by tying to other secured bars
or by other approved methods.
6. All heavy corrosion and scale shall be removed from the bar as necessary to promote
maximum bond of replacement material. Oil free abrasive blast is the preferred method. A
tightly bonded light rust build-up on the surface is usually not detrimental to bond unless a
protective coating is being applied to the bar surface, in which case the coating
manufacturer’s recommendations for surface preparation should be followed.
If reinforcing steel has lost significant cross section, a structural engineer should be
consulted. If repairs are required to the reinforcing steel, which is obviously the case in
Shilshole condominium building, one of the following repair methods should be used:
1. Complete bar replacement.
2. Addition of supplemental bar over affected section.

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CONCLUSIONS
Concrete repair projects are very challenging, as is true with most repair and renovation
projects. It is imperative that the engineer understands the reasons which led to the damage
and/or deterioration prior to developing a repair program. The underlying causes should be
corrected, although this is not always possible. As a minimum, all unsafe conditions must be
corrected, and if necessary, temporary shoring or bracing provided, as soon as they are
identified. The owner must be included when formulating a repair program, especially
determining the project objectives. Because budget constraints often control the approach to a
repair program, it is important that the owner has a clear understanding of what is being done.
Furthermore, the owner should be apprised of the anticipated life of the repairs and the long-
term costs to maintain that structure, after the repairs are implemented.

REFERENCES
1) Shetty M. S., ―Concrete Technology-Theory And Practice.” Chand& company, New
Delhi, (1982)

2) Gambhir M. L., ―Concrete Technology.” Tata McGraw-Hill Company, New Delhi (1986)

3) Krishna Raju N., ―Design of Concrete Mixes.” Faridabad (1975)0

4) Remedios A. p., ―Concrete Mix Design-Handbook‖, Himalaya Publishing House, New

Delhi (2008), pp.137-199

BIOGRAPHIES
Name: Swarnima S. Rewatkar
[Link] (Civil), [Link] (CM)
Pune

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