ozone layer

depletion
 Abstract
There are many situations where human activities have significant effects on the
environment. Ozone layer damage is one of them. The objective of this paper is to
review the origin, causes, mechanisms and bio effects of ozone layer depletion as
well as the protective measures of this vanishing layer. The chlorofluorocarbon and
the halons are potent ozone depletors. One of the main reasons for the
widespread concern about depletion of the ozone layer is the anticipated increase
in the amounts of ultraviolet radiation received at the surface of the earth and the
effect of this on human health and on the environment. The prospects of ozone
recovery remain uncertain. In the absence of other changes, stratospheric ozone
abundances should rise in the future as the halogen loading falls in response to
regulation. However, the future behaviour of ozone will also be affected by the
changing atmospheric abundances of methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour,
sulphate aerosol, and changing climate.
 ozone

Ozone /ˈoʊzoʊn/ (systematically named 1λ1,3λ1-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen),

or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O

3. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen

that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope O

2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to O

 2 or dioxygen. Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and
also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations
throughout the Earth's atmosphere (stratosphere). In total, ozone makes up only 0.6
ppm of the atmosphere.

Ozone's odour is sharp, reminiscent of chlorine, and detectable by many people at

concentrations of as little as 10 ppb in air.[citation needed] Ozone's O3 structure was
determined in 1865. The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to
be diamagnetic. In standard conditions, ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at
progressively cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black
solid. Ozone's instability with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both
concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively at elevated
temperatures or fast warming to the boiling point.[4] It is therefore used
commercially only in low concentrations.

Ozone is a powerful oxidant (far more so than dioxygen) and has many
industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This same high
oxidising potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory
tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants, above concentrations of about
100 ppb. This makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near
ground level. However, the ozone layer (a portion of the stratosphere with a
higher concentration of ozone, from two to eight ppm) is beneficial,
preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface, to the
benefit of both plants and animals. The trivial name ozone is the most
commonly used and preferred IUPAC name. The systematic names 1λ1,3λ1-
trioxidane and catena-trioxygen, valid IUPAC names, are constructed
according to the substitutive and additive nomenclatures, respectively. The
name ozone derives from ozein (ὄζειν), the Greek verb for smell, referring to
ozone's distinctive smell.

In appropriate contexts, ozone can be viewed as trioxidane with two hydrogen

atoms removed, and as such, trioxidanylidene may be used as a context-
specific systematic name, according to substitutive nomenclature. By default,
these names pay no regard to the radicality of the ozone molecule. In even
more specific context, this can also name the non-radical singlet ground state,
whereas the diradical state is named trioxidanediyl.

Trioxidanediyl (or ozonide) is used, non-systematically, to refer to the substituent

group (-OOO-). Care should be taken to avoid confusing the name of the group for the
context-specific name for ozone given above Ozone is colourless or slightly bluish
gas (blue when liquefied), slightly soluble in water and much more soluble in inert
non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or fluorocarbons, where it forms a
blue solution. At 161 K (−112 °C; −170 °F), it condenses to form a dark blue liquid. It
is dangerous to allow this liquid to warm to its boiling point, because both
concentrated gaseous ozone and liquid ozone can detonate. At temperatures below 80
K (−193.2 °C; −315.7 °F), it forms a violet-black solid.Most people can detect about
0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific sharp odour somewhat
resembling chlorine bleach. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol produces headaches,
burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.[16] Even low concentrations of
ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, plastics and animal
lung tissue.Ozone is diamagnetic, which means that its electrons are all paired. In
contrast, O2 is paramagnetic, containing two unpaired electrons.

Structure
According to experimental evidence from microwave spectroscopy, ozone is a bent
molecule, with C2v symmetry (similar to the water molecule). The O – O distances
are 127.2 pm (1.272 Å). The O – O – O angle is 116.78°.[17] The central atom is sp²
hybridized with one lone pair. Ozone is a polar molecule with a dipole moment of
0.53 D.[18] The molecule can be represented as a resonance hybrid with two
contributing structures, each with a single bond on one side and double bond on the
other. The arrangement possesses an overall bond order of 1.5 for both sides.

Resonance Lewis structures of the ozone molecule

Reactions
Ozone is among the most powerful oxidizing agents known, far stronger than O2. It is
also unstable at high concentrations, decaying to ordinary diatomic oxygen. It has a
varying half-life length, depending upon atmospheric conditions (temperature,
humidity, and air movement). In a sealed chamber with a fan that moves the gas,
ozone has a half-life of approximately a day at room temperature.[19] Some
unverified claims imply that ozone can have a half life as short as a half an hour under
atmospheric conditions.

2O

3→3O2

This reaction proceeds more rapidly with increasing temperature and increased
pressure. Deflagration of ozone can be triggered by a spark, and can occur in ozone
concentrations of 10 wt% or higher.[21] Ozone can also be produced
electrochemically at the anode of an electrochemical cell from oxygen. This reaction
can be used to create smaller quantities of ozone for research purposes
 Uses of ozone
USES OF OZONE AT HOME

To get back to uses within the home setting, ozone used for cleaning fruit and
vegetables has an interesting side effect because ethylene given off by fruit
accelerates the ripening process, however, ozone reacts with ethylene reducing rapid
ripening and thereby extending shelf life (Grocers note!). Regular use of ozone in the
home can ensure high levels of immunity from most common diseases. Perhaps you
are a smoker or live with someone who smokes or maybe work with people who do.
That is a worrying scenario as cigarette smoke has over 3,600 chemicals. Ozone will
break those chemicals down into their basic molecular components, neutralizing them.
It is capable of destroying tar, soot and oil in the lungs, benzene, vinyl chloride and
other hydrocarbons. Having performed this task the ozone itself reverts to just plain
oxygen! Doctors regularly warn about the dangers of airborne gasses such as
formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, and chemical pollutants given off by carpets,
wallpaper, and furniture. Take for example formaldehyde. When formaldehyde is
infiltrated by ozone it breaks down into carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. Well
worth bearing in mind if you have pollutants in your house or workplace like these
that you are not in a position to remove. Solvents from fresh paint are instantly
neutralized by ozone as are cooking smells, animal odors, cigarette smoke, garbage
smells and mildew, etc. Perfume can be intolerable for people suffering chemical
insensitivities. An ozonator may be the answer. In some countries people wear tiny
ozone generators around their neck to neutralize pollutants, perhaps on a journey
through heavily polluted areas. Bacteria, molds, fungi and even mildew are destroyed
when they react with ozone as the outer membranes or ‘shells’ of these micro-
organisms contain receptors that absorb ozone to their own demise. They are
anaerobic, meaning that they can thrive only where oxygen levels are depleted. Ozone
increases oxygen levels. Viruses are also destroyed by ozone on contact. In the case of
polio only 0.012ppm removes all viral cells in seconds. As you know there isn’t an
effective antibiotic that will touch a virus. Ozone is a particularly safe therapy to use
provided that certain restrictions are respected. The Food and Drug Administration
declares 0.05ppm as the safe level for 24 hour a day inhalation in the USA. However,
natural outdoor levels vary between 0.03 and 0.05ppm and go several times higher
than this at times and in certain ideal locations can reach 0.65ppm, so nature then
breaks the FDA’s rulings! Even at these higher rates no harm has been caused, in fact
the opposite is the case.

OZONATED OILS

If olive oil is ozonated for several weeks the oil will start to change, it foams and
becomes a gel. If kept in a refrigerator this oil holds onto its ozone for beyond 10
years and can be used as required on cuts, all skin complaints, burns, bites, herpes and
as a lubricant when required in this setting. This gel is 95% as active as ozone gas.
One must keep in mind though that olive oil with an exceptionally high concentration
of ozone presenting itself as a white paste has a strong oxidation ability and in some
cases can remove a layer of skin or react on certain skin types so it must be used
responsibly. Tests have been done on various other types of oils and proven that any
oil with lots of double bonds is good for ozonating. When a oil is ozonated long
enough to generate some ozonoids but not turn the oil into a white paste, it still has a
long shelf life and some of the elements of the oil are maintained, in some cases this
mixture is much more beneficial to the skin. Take for instance Palm tree oil, which is
extremely rich in vitamin E, if you ozonate correctly it maintains it's vitamin E to a
point and still has enough ozonoids making it good to get rid of infections etc on the
skin whilst also feeding the skin. Ozonating of oil is also tricky and should be done
using >90% oxygen or at least an air dryer to prevent the build up of harmful
elements in the oil. Dr Julian Holmes from South Africa has done a lot of research on
this and published many papers.

MEDICAL

As this gas cleans up your body the immune system responds, arteries are cleaned,
veins also, circulation improves with blood vessels unclogged, blood and lymph
normalizes, inflammation reduces, bleeding stops, cardiac problems reduce as plaque
is oxidized in arteries (such patients are often dependent upon oxygen tanks
throughout the day), the brain and memory respond to the increases in oxygen
produced, heavy metals are chelated, tumor metabolism is inhibited and the outer lipid
layer of malignant cells is broken down and destroyed. Successful use of this therapy
has been found with gangrene of the fingers and toes and with destroying the viruses
that causes hepatitis. Many doctors are using it internally via rectum, vagina, mouth
and ear. Some specialists inject it straight into the tumor, into the portal vein for the
liver or into the arm. There are ozone body suits that you can step into following a hot
bath, so as to get it into the skin – referred to by nutritionists as the third kidney. Dr.
Michael Carpendale wrote an article in Science magazine (Vol. 209 22 August 1980)
and stated that the growth of human cancer cells from lung, breast and uterine cancers
were selectively inhibited in a dose dependent manner by ozone at 0.3ppm to 0.8ppm
in ambient air during 8 days of culture. Exposure to ozone at 0.8ppm inhibited cancer
cell growth more than 90%. Evidently the mechanisms for defense against ozone are
impaired in human cancer cells. Today both the FDA and EPA certify ozone as able
to destroy 99.9992% of all pathogenic germs in the purification of water whilst
destroying 99.9992% of pollutants in the water simultaneously. Many
doctors/therapists are testifying to the effectiveness of ozone with the HIV virus. I do
not believe that there is a disease or health condition that ozone hasn’t been used with,
there is no way I could list all the conditions it is successful with, all the cancers, all
the bacterial, parasitic diseases etc. Unsolicited testimonials are sited on the Internet
and covering such a wide variety of conditions including one of silicon poisoning
following leakage from a breast implant!

CAR USE
In recent years we have seen headlines such as ‘Burnt diesel fumes the worst
carcinogen’. Carbon monoxide is a lethal gas and cannot be detected easily. It bonds
with human blood 600 times faster than oxygen. Ozone changes carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide, a harmless gas. There are ozonators that you can have in your car
plugged into the cigarette lighter (how ironic), household ozonators for water, oil and
air, and larger industrial units.

AIR TREATMENT

Ozone reacts rapidly with most odors, oxidizing them to less harmful elements or all
the way to harmless Carbon Dioxide. More and more of our furnishings and floor
coverings are made from synthetic materials. Under the stagnant air conditions which
prevail because of the lack of ventilation, decomposition products and solvents leach
out of these synthetic materials and fill the indoor space. Much has been said about
the "sick building syndrome" and this usually refers to institutional building. But they
have basically the same problems as the private home. When odors are inhaled, they
increase the demand for oxygen in the human body thus depleting the body of
oxygen. In cleaning the air, ozone reacts with odors oxidizing them into harmless
compounds or carbon dioxide. We would have sufficient ozone but all the chemical
gasses released into the atmosphere by cars and factories are using it up. Surely
oxygen generators would be sufficient? Well, ozone is approximately 3,500 times
more potent an oxidant than oxygen. High mountain areas produce high levels of
ozone. This is why people with respiratory problems, TB etc. are sent to such areas.
As with anything i.e. oxygen, water etc. too much can be harmful, (although ozone is
an incredibly safe gas and consistently spoken of as the safest therapy, non toxic and
with no evidence of free radical damage) yet none has ever died from using ozone and
it has been in use for many years. Only chronic high overdose may give problems and
then there would be warning symptoms such as coughing for more than 30 minutes
continuously
 The ozone layer
The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most
of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O3)
in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other
gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of
ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is
about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of
the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth,
although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.[1]

The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and
Henri Buisson. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its
surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a
black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500–6,000 K (5,227 to 5,727 °C),
except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the
ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being
absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing
radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone.[2] Its properties were
explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a
simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure
stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a
worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this
day. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is
named in his honor.

The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet

light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially
damage exposed life forms near the surface.

The ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and the lower
atmosphere (troposphere) are chemically identical, because they all consist of three
oxygen atoms and have the chemical formula O3. However, they have very different
roles in the atmosphere and very different effects on humans and other living beings.
Stratospheric ozone (sometimes referred to as "good ozone") plays a beneficial role
by absorbing most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet sunlight (called UV-B),
allowing only a small amount to reach the Earth's surface. The absorption of
ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat, which actually forms the
stratosphere itself (a region in which the temperature rises as one goes to higher
altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role in the temperature structure of the Earth's
atmosphere. Without the filtering action of the ozone layer, more of the Sun's UV-B
radiation would penetrate the atmosphere and would reach the Earth's surface. Many
experimental studies of plants and animals and clinical studies of humans have shown
the harmful effects of excessive exposure to UV-B radiation.

At the Earth's surface, ozone comes into direct contact with life-forms and displays its
destructive side (hence, it is often called "bad ozone"). Because ozone reacts strongly
with other molecules, high levels of ozone are toxic to living systems. Several studies
have documented the harmful effects of ozone on crop production, forest growth, and
human health. The substantial negative effects of surface-level tropospheric ozone
from this direct toxicity contrast with the benefits of the additional filtering of UV-B
radiation that it provides.

The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere, a region of the atmosphere that is
about 10 to 50 kilometers above the Earth. The stratosphere consists of
approximately 90 percent ozone. Ozone has the chemical formula O3.

How ozone is formed

The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by
the British physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is
created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen
atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic
oxygen then combines with unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is
unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits
ozone it splits into a molecule of O2 and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing
process called the ozone-oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described as:

O2 + ℎνuv → 2O
O + O2 ↔ O3

About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and
131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone
were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres
(1⁄8 inch) thick.

Ozone is produced naturally in the stratosphere when highly energetic solar radiation
strikes molecules of oxygen, O2, and cause the two oxygen atoms to split apart in a
process called photolysis. If a freed atom collides with another O2, it joins up, forming
ozone O3.

Most of the ozone in the stratosphere is formed over the equatorial belt, where the
level of solar radiation is greatest. The circulation in the atmosphere then transports it
towards the pole (see diagram). So, the amount of stratospheric ozone above a
location on the Earth varies naturally with latitude, season, and from day-to-day.

Under normal circumstances highest ozone values are found over places such as Canada and
Siberia, whilst the lowest values are found around the equator. The ozone layer varies
naturally with season. Over Canada is normally about 25% thicker in winter than summer.
Weather conditions can also cause considerable daily variations.

Ozone is also naturally broken down in the stratosphere. In an unpolluted atmosphere

there is a balance between the amount of ozone being produced and destroyed and so
the total concentration remains relatively constant. At different temperatures and
pressures (i.e. varying altitudes), there are different production and destruction
reaction rates leading to a variation in concentration. The highest ozone
concentrations are in the lower stratosphere, between about 18 and 26 km.

Ozone also occurs in very small amounts in the troposphere. It is produced at ground
level through a reaction between sunlight and, e.g., gases emitted from cars. As a
pollutant it should not be confused with the separate problem of stratospheric ozone
depletion.

Why are we so concerned about the Ozone Layer?

The Ozone Layer acts as a shield for us from very harmful UV rays. If we damage the
Ozone Layer any more than we would put ourselves at an increasingly greater risk.
Without the Ozone Layer we wouldn't be able to survive. Exposure to UV rays causes
skin cancer, damages crops, and harms ocean life. Without the Ozone Layer the risk
of these things would greatly increase. An example of this is in Australia, where a
large amount of ozone has depleted. Around 97% of the citizens have or have had
skin cancer problems due to the exposure to harmful UV rays that leak through the
Ozone layer. Another risk is polar shifting, a complex event that occurs when uneven
melting of ice shelfs occur. A major hole is now over Antarctica, where there are ice
shelfs. If these Ice shelfs melt, it could increase coastal flooding and the poles could
shift, causing a violent shift in climate.

Threats to the ozone layer

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total
stratospheric ozone depletion.
 Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners
in buildings and cars manufactured before 1995.
 Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital
sterilants.
 Also used in foam products — such as soft-foam padding (e.g.
cushions and mattresses) and rigid foam (e.g. home insulation).
 Halons
Used in some fire extinguishers, in cases where materials and

equipment would be destroyed by water or other fire
extinguisher chemicals. In B.C., halons cause greater damage
to the ozone layer than do CFCs from automobile air
conditioners.
 Methyl Chloroform
 Used mainly in industry — for vapour degreasing, some
aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives and chemical processing.
 Carbon Tetrachlorid

+ ozone layer depletion

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the
late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in
Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in
stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.[1] The latter phenomenon is referred
to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there
are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole for/mation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning
but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic
halogens.[2] The main sourc/e of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is
photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and
foam-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, freons, halons). These
compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the
surface.[3] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of
halocarbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting

substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths
(280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's
atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern,
leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs,
halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and
trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as
increases in sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of
plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV
exposure due to ozone depletion The most-pronounced decrease in ozone has been in
the lower stratosphere. However, the ozone hole is most usually measured not in
terms of ozone concentrations at these levels (which are typically a few parts per
million) but by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth's
surface, which is normally expressed in Dobson units, abbreviated as "DU". Marked
decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the
early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone
Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).[7]

Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern

hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are
continuing. Since the 1990s, Antarctic total column ozone in September and October
continued to be 40–50 percent lower than pre-ozone-hole values.[1] A gradual trend
toward "healing" was reported in 2016.[8]

In the Arctic, the amount lost is more variable year-to-year than in the Antarctic. The
greatest Arctic declines, up to 30 percent, are in the winter and spring, when the
stratosphere is coldest.

Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role
in enhancing ozone depletion.[9] PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the
Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are
deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a
gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a
surprise to many scientists.[citation needed]

In middle latitudes, it is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion rather than holes.
Total column ozone declined to about six percent below pre-1980 values between
1980 and 1996 for the mid-latitudes of 35–60°N and 35–60°S. In the northern mid-
latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996
to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere
decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant
over that time period. In the tropics, there are no significant trends, largely because
halogen-containing compounds have not yet had time to break down and release
chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.[1][10]

Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone-
depleting effects, as observed (for example) with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in
the Philippines.[11]

Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and
upper tropospheric temperatures.[12][13] The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is
the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some
stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO
2 and CFCs themselves; however the ozone-induced cooling appears to be
dominant.[14]

Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult, but the precision of models' predictions
of observed values and the agreement among different modeling techniques have
increased steadily.[1] The World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research
and Monitoring Project—Report No. 44 comes out strongly in favor of the Montreal
Protocol, but notes that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the
1994–1997 period.[15]]

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances

(ODS) are mainly responsible for man-made chemical ozone depletion. The total
amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be
calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).[16]

CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1920s. They were used in air
conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in
the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by-
products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been
identified for these compounds—their presence in the atmosphere is due almost
entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone-depleting
chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release
chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of
thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the
longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated
that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the
ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century,
destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during tha time.[17][verification
needed]
.

1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane, also known as CFC-113a, is one of four man-

made chemicals newly discovered in the atmosphere by a team at the University of
East Anglia. CFC-113a is the only known CFC whose abundance in the atmosphere is
still growing. Its source remains a mystery, but illegal manufacturing is suspected by
some. CFC-113a seems to have been accumulating unabated since 1960. Between
2010 and 2012, emissions of the gas jumped by 45 percent.[18][19]

Scientists have been increasingly able to attribute the observed ozone depletion to the
increase of man-made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds from CFCs by the use of
complex chemistry transport models and their validation against observational data
(e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS—Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere). These
models work by combining satellite measurements of chemical concentrations and
meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants obtained in lab
experiments. They are able to identify not only the key chemical reactions but also the
transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone

Causes of ozone depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and
destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural
phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-
made compounds such as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.

It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made
group of compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the
main source of ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the
discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions

with other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and
they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of
their relative stability, CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they
are eventually broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free
chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively involved in the process of destruction of
ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone are replaced by three of
molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:

Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up
to 100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or
halons, can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and
bromine from man-made compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone
depletion. Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in
response to international agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because
CFCs remain in the atmosphere so long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself
until at least the middle of the 21st century. Naturally occurring chlorine has the same
effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in the atmosphere

There are many other substances that lead to ozone layer depletion such as hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such
substances are found in vehicular emissions, by-products of industrial processes,
aerosols and refrigerants. All these ozone depleting substances remain stable in the
lower atmospheric region, but as they reach the stratosphere, they get exposed to the
ultra violet rays. This leads to their breakdown and releasing of free chlorine atoms
which reacts with the ozone gas, thus leading to the depletion of the ozone layer
Health and Environmental Effects of
Ozone Layer Depletion
The Connection between Ozone Layer Depletion and UVB RadiationReduced ozone
levels as a result of ozone depletionHelpozone depletionA chemical destruction of
the stratospheric ozone layer beyond natural reactions. Stratospheric ozone is
constantly being created and destroyed through natural cycles. Various ozone-
depleting substances (ODS), however, accelerate the destruction processes, resulting
in lower than normal ozone levels. The science page
(http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/index.html) offers much more detail on the
science of ozone depletion. mean less protection from the sun’s rays and more
exposure to UVBHelp radiation at the Earth’s surface. Studies have shown that in the
Antarctic, the amount of UVB measured at the surface can double during the annual
ozone holAdditional Information

Basic Ozone Layer Science

Addressing Ozone Layer Depletion

Effects on Human Health

Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-
melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development.
In addition, UVB has been linked to the development of cataracts, a clouding of the
eye’s lensBecause all sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal stratospheric
ozone levels, it is always important to protect your skin and eyes from the sun. See a
more detailed explanation of health effects linked to UVB exposure.

EPA uses the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework model to estimate the
health benefits of stronger ozone layer protection under the Montreal Protocol.
Updated information on the benefits of EPA’s efforts to address ozone layer
depletion is available in a 2015 report, Updating Ozone Calculations and Emissions
Profiles for Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework Model.

Effects on Plants

UVB radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants.

Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and an ability to adapt to
increased levels of UVB, plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation.

Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are
distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary
metabolism) may be equally or sometimes more important than damaging effects of
UVB. These changes can have important implications for plant competitive balance,
herbivory, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton

productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in
which there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity. Exposure to solar UVB
radiation has been shown to affect both orientation and motility in phytoplankton,
resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms. Scientists have demonstrated
a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone depletion-related
increases in UVB.

UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of
fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The most severe effects
are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Small
increases in UVB exposure could result in population reductions for small marine
organisms with implications for the whole marine food chain.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Increases in UVB radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles,
thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically important trace
gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, ozone, and possibly
other gases). These potential changes would conribute to biosphere-atmosphere
feedbacks that mitigate or amplify the atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

Effects on Materials

Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials

of commercial interest are adversely affected by UVB radiation. Today's materials
are somewhat protected from UVB by special additives. Yet, increases in UVB levels
will accelerate their breakdown, limiting the length of time for which they are useful
outdoors
Solution to ozone depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a phenomena that was observed during the later
part of the 70s and has since then showed a declining rate of 4% per decade and there
is a remarkable decrease over the polar regions of the Earth. The main reason for the
destruction of the ozone is by man-made halocarbon refrigerants such as CFCs,
halons and freons that are released into the atmosphere and are known as ‘ozone
depleting substances’ or ODS. These harmful substances strike the ozone and splits it
apart. The ozone depletion has led to a worldwide concern as the thinning protective
coat over Earth is letting harmful ultraviolet light pass which has led to many health
hazards like skin cancer, damages to plants and plankton as well as cataracts.
Therefore many governments have banned products that produce these ODS. The
ozone layer is our warrior against the might Sun that is bombarding earth with
harmful UV radiation and we are trying our best to protect it. Ozone is basically a gas
also referred to as O3 which is formed and reformed constantly in our Earth’s
atmosphere. If it were not for the ozone layer, our Earth would be barren with slight
traces of life. It is also being said that the southern hemisphere of the Earth could have
an additional 20% depletion of the ozone that could result in natural calamities like
tornadoes, avalanches, fires, tsunamis etc. Here are five ways in which we can
contribute to protecting the ozone layer and our precious Earth:

1. Limit private vehicle driving

A very easy way to control ozone depletion would be to limit or reduce the amount of
driving as vehicular emissions eventually result in smog which is a culprit in the
deterioration of the ozone layer. Car pooling, taking public transport, walking, using a
bicycle would limit the usage of individual transportation. It would be a great option
to switch to cars/vehicles that have a hybrid or electric zero-emission engine.

2. Use eco-friendly household cleaning productsUsage of eco-friendly and natural

cleaning products for household chores is a great way to prevent ozone depletion.
This is because many of these cleaning agents contain toxic chemicals that interfere
with the ozone layer. A lot of supermarkets and health stores sell cleaning products
that are toxic-free and made out of natural ingredients.

3. Avoid using pesticides

Pesticides may be an easy solution for getting rid of weed, but are harmful for the
ozone layer. The best solution for this would be to try using natural remedies, rather
than heading out for pesticides. You can perhaps try to weed manually or mow your
garden consistently so as to avoid weed-growth.

4. Developing stringent regulations for rocket launches

The world is progressing in scientific discoveries by leaps and bounds. A lot of rocket
launches are happening the world over without consideration of the fact that it can
damage the ozone layer if it is not regulated soon. A study shows that the harm caused
by rocket launches would outpace the harm caused due to CFCs. At present, the
global rocket launches do not contribute hugely to ozone layer depletion, but over the
course of time, due to the advancement of the space industry, it will become a major
contributor to ozone depletion. All types of rocket engines result in combustion by
products that are ozone-destroying compounds that are expelled directly in the middle
and upper stratosphere layer – near the ozone layer.

5. Banning the use of dangerous nitrous oxideDue to the worldwide alarm caused by a
study in the late 70s about the alarming rate at which the ozone was being depleted,
nations around the globe got together and formed the Montreal Protocol in the year
1989 with a strong aim to stop the usage of CFCs. However, the protocol did not
include nitrous oxide which is the most fatal chemical that can destroy the ozone layer
and is still in use. Governments across the world should take a strong stand for
banning the use of this harmful compound to save the ozone layer
 CONCLUSION
Under the auspices of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
Governments of the world, including the United States have cooperatively taken
action to stop ozone depletion with the "The Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer", signed in 1987. Scientist's are concerned that continued
global warming will accelerate ozone destruction and increase stratospheric ozone
depletion. Ozone depletion gets worse when the stratosphere (where the ozone
layer is), becomes colder. Because global warming traps heat in the troposphere, less
heat reaches the stratosphere which will make it colder. Greenhouse gases act like a
blanket for the troposphere and make the stratosphere colder. In other words,
global warming can make ozone depletion much worse right when it is supposed to
begin its recovery during the next century. Maintain programs to ensure that ozone-
depleting substances are not released and ongoing vigilance is required to this
effect. In fact, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, and ground-level
ozone pollution all pose a serious threat to the quality of life on Earth. They are
separate problems, but, as has been seen, there are links between each. The use of
CFCs not only destroys the ozone layer but also leads to global warming.
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