+ +

Chem. Rev. 1996, 96, 3147−3176 3147

Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design

George A. Patani and Edmond J. LaVoie*
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08855-0789

Received May 15, 1996 (Revised Manuscript Received July 25, 1996)

Contents
I. Introduction 3147
II. Classical Bioisosteres 3149
A. Monovalent Atoms or Groups 3149
1. Fluorine vs Hydrogen Replacements 3149
2. Interchange of Hydroxyl and Amino 3150
Groups
3. Interchange of Hydroxyl and Thiol Groups 3151
4. Fluorine and Hydroxyl, Amino, or Methyl 3152
Groups as Replacements for Hydrogen
(Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law)
5. Monovalent Substitutions Involving 3154
Chloro, Bromo, Thiol, and Hydroxyl
Groups (Erlenmeyer’s Broadened
Classification of Grimm’s Displacement George Patani graduated with a B.Pharm. in 1992 from the College of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mangalore University at Manipal, India. In 1996,
Law) he received his M.S. in Pharmaceutical Science at Rutgers University
B. Divalent Isosteres 3155 under the direction of Professor Edmond J. LaVoie. He is presently
1. Divalent Replacements Involving Double 3155 pursuing graduate studies in pharmaceutics. His current research interests
Bonds are focused on drug design and controlled drug delivery.
2. Divalent Replacements Involving Two 3155
Single Bonds
C. Trivalent Atoms or Groups 3156
D. Tetrasubstituted Atoms 3157
E. Ring Equivalents 3158
1. Divalent Ring Equivalents 3158
2. Trivalent Ring Equivalents 3159
III. Nonclassical Bioisosteres 3160
A. Cyclic vs Noncyclic Nonclassical Bioisosteric 3160
Replacements
B. Nonclassical Bioisosteric Replacements of 3165
Functional Groups
1. Hydroxyl Group Bioisosteres 3165
2. Carbonyl Group Bioisosteres 3166
3. Carboxylate Group Bioisosteres 3168 Edmond J. LaVoie received his B.S. in Chemistry from Fordham University
4. Amide Group Bioisosteres 3170 in 1971 and his Ph.D. in Medicinal Chemistry from S.U.N.Y. at Buffalo
5. Thiourea Bioisosteres 3171 under the direction of Dr. Wayne K. Anderson. After postdoctoral study
with Dr. S. Morris Kupchan at the University of Virginia, he joined the
6. Halogen Bioisosteres 3172 American Health Foundation in Valhalla, NY. In 1988, he was appointed
IV. Conclusion 3172 Professor of Medicinal Chemistry in the College of Pharmacy at Rutgers
V. Acknowledgments 3172 University. His current research interests are in the design and synthesis
VI. References 3172 of cancer chemotherapeutics and in the elucidation of mechanism(s) of
carcinogenesis.
for the rational modification of lead compounds into
I. Introduction safer and more clinically effective agents. The con-
Years of cumulative research can result in the cept of bioisosterism is often considered to be qualita-
development of a clinically useful drug, providing tive and intuitive.1
either a cure for a particular disease or symptomatic The prevalence of the use of bioisosteric replace-
relief from a physiological disorder. A lead compound ments in drug design need not be emphasized. This
with a desired pharmacological activity may have topic has been reviewed in previous years.2-5 The
associated with it undesirable side effects, charac- objective of this review is to provide an overview of
teristics that limit its bioavailability, or structural bioisosteres that incorporates sufficient detail to
features which adversely influence its metabolism enable the reader to understand the concepts being
and excretion from the body. Bioisosterism repre- delineated. While a few popular examples of the
sents one approach used by the medicinal chemist successful use of bioisosteres have been included, the
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3148 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

present review is focused primarily upon specific arrangement of electrons. He further defined other
examples from current literature. The emphasis in relationships in a similar manner. Argon was viewed
this review was to outline bioisosteric replacements as an isostere of K+ ion and methane as an isostere
which have been used to advance drug development. of NH4+ ion. He deduced, therefore, that K+ ions and
No attempt was made to be exhaustive or to illustrate NH4+ ions must be similar because argon and meth-
all of the specific analogues represented within a ane are very similar in physical properties. The
single study. biological similarity of molecules such as CO2 and
The ability of a group of bioisosteres to elicit similar N2O was later coincidentally acknowledged as both
biological activity has been attributed to common compounds were capable of acting as reversible
physicochemical properties. In this review an at- anesthetics to the slime mold Physarum polyceph-
tempt has been made to quantitate, in specific alum.8
instances, physicochemical effects such as electro- A further extension to this concept of isosteres
negativity, steric size, and lipophilicity and to cor- came about in 1925 with Grimm’s Hydride Displace-
relate these values to the observed biological activity. ment Law.9,10 This law states: “Atoms anywhere up
Thus, an additional objective of this review was to to four places in the periodic system before an inert
demonstrate the opportunities that one has in em- gas change their properties by uniting with one to
ploying bioisosteres to gain more specific insight into four hydrogen atoms, in such a manner that the
the quantitative structure-activity relationships resulting combinations behave like pseudoatoms,
(QSAR) associated with a specific class of drugs. which are similar to elements in the groups one to
While in some instances such associations were four places respectively, to their right.” Each vertical
detailed by the authors of these literature examples, column as illustrated in Table 2, according to Grimm,
others were developed on the basis of evident cor- would represent a group of isosteres.
relations. To further explain and rationalize the Table 2. Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law
biological activity observed with nonclassical bioiso-
steric groups, the observed biological activity has also C N O F Ne Na
CH NH OH FH
been correlated with some substituent constants
-
CH2 NH2 OH2 FH2+
commonly employed in QSAR studies. These obser- CH3 NH3 OH3+
vations are consistent with the fact that bioisosteric CH4 NH4+
replacements often provide the foundation for the
development of QSAR in drug design.4,6 Recent Erlenmeyer11 further broadened Grimm’s clas-
advances in molecular biology, such as cloning of the sification and redefined isosteres as atoms, ions, and
various receptor subtypes, have enabled a clearer molecules in which the peripheral layers of electrons
definition of the pharmacophoric sites. Bioisosteric can be considered identical (Table 3).
replacements of functional groups based on this Table 3. Isosteres Based on the Number of
understanding of the pharmacophore and the phys- Peripheral Electrons
icochemical properties of the bioisosteres have en- no. of peripheral electrons
hanced the potential for the successful development
of new clinical agents. 4 5 6 7 8
The bioisosteric rationale for the modification of N+ P S Cl ClH
lead compounds is traced back to the observation by P+ As Se Br BrH
S+ Sb Te I IH
Langmuir in 1919 regarding the similarities of vari- As+ PH SH SH2
ous physicochemical properties of atoms, groups, Sb+ PH2 PH3
radicals, and molecules.7 Langmuir compared the
physical properties of various molecules such as N2 The widespread application of the concept of iso-
and CO, N2O and CO2, and N3- and NCO- and found sterism to modify biological activity has given rise
them to be similar. On the basis of these similarities to the term bioisosterism. As initially defined by
he identified 21 groups of isosteres. Some of these Friedman,2 bioisosteres were to include all atoms and
groups are listed in Table 1. He further deduced from molecules which fit the broadest definition for iso-
the octet theory that the number and arrangement steres and have a similar type of biological activity,
of electrons in these molecules are the same. Thus, which may even be antagonistic. More recently this
isosteres were initially defined as those compounds definition has been broadened by Burger as “Com-
or groups of atoms that have the same number and pounds or groups that possess near-equal molecular
shapes and volumes, approximately the same distri-
Table 1. Groups of Isosteres as Identified by bution of electrons, and which exhibit similar physi-
Langmuir
cal properties...”.5 The critical component for bio-
groups isosteres isosterism is that bioisosteres affect the same phar-
1 H-, He, Li+ macological target as agonists or antagonists and,
2 O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ thereby, have biological properties which are related
3 S2-, Cl-, Ar, K+, Ca2+ to each other.
4 Cu2-, Zn2+
V V
Bioisosteres have been classified as either classical
8 N2, CO, CN- or nonclassical.12 Grimm’s Hydride Displacement
9 CH4, NH4+ Law and Erlenmeyer’s definition of isosteres outline
10 CO2, N2O, N3-, CNO- a series of replacements which have been referred
V V to as classical bioisosteres. Classical bioisosteres
20 MnO4-, CrO42-
21 SeO42-, AsO43-
have been traditionally divided into several distinct
categories: (A) monovalent atoms or groups; (B)
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3149

divalent atoms or groups; (C) trivalent atoms or form of 5-FU, 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridylic acid, is ulti-
groups; (D) tetrasubstituted atoms; and (E) ring mately responsible for the inhibition of thymidylate
equivalents. synthase, an enzyme involved in the conversion of
Nonclassical isosteres do not obey the steric and uridylic acid to thymidylic acid and critical for DNA
electronic definition of classical isosteres. A second synthesis (Figure 1). The increased reactivity of
notable characteristic of nonclassical bioisosteres is 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridylic acid relative to 2′-deoxy-
that they do not have the same number of atoms as uridylic acid is due to the inductive effect of fluorine
the substituent or moiety for which they are used as which results in its covalent binding to thymidylate
a replacement. Nonclassical bioisosteres can be synthase.
further divided into groups: (A) rings vs noncyclic
structures; and (B) exchangeable groups.
This approach to classifying bioisosteres will be
used to review literature examples of those bioiso-
steric replacements that have provided useful infor-
mation on the structure-activity relationships as-
sociated with various pharmacologically active com-
pounds.

II. Classical Bioisosteres

A. Monovalent Atoms or Groups
Similarities in certain physicochemical properties
have enabled investigators to successfully exploit Figure 1.
several monovalent bioisosteres. These can be di-
vided into the following groups: (1) fluorine vs The application of the monovalent substitution of
hydrogen replacements; (2) amino-hydroxyl inter- a fluorine atom for a hydrogen atom can also be seen
changes; (3) thiol-hydroxyl interchanges; (4) fluorine, in a more recent study with naphthyl-fused diaze-
hydroxyl, amino, and methyl group interchanges pines, which were employed as agonistic probes of
(Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law); (5) chloro, the pharmacophore of benzodiazepine receptors.14
bromo, thiol, and hydroxyl group interchanges (Er- Replacement of the hydrogen with fluorine at the
lenmeyer’s Broadened Classification of Grimm’s Dis- ortho position of the pendent phenyl group of either
placement Law). naphthyl-fused diazepines, as illustrated in Figure
2, resulted in enhanced affinity and efficacy for both
1. Fluorine vs Hydrogen Replacements naphthyl isomers (Table 4). This greater receptor
binding affinity could again be attributed to the
The substitution of hydrogen by fluorine is one of inductive effect of the fluorine atom facilitating a
the more commonly employed monovalent isosteric stronger interaction with the receptor.
replacements. Steric parameters for hydrogen and
fluorine are similar, their van der Waal’s radii being
1.2 and 1.35 Å, respectively.13 Thus, the difference
in the electronic effects (fluorine being the most
electronegative element in the periodic table) is often
the basis for the major differences in the pharmaco-
logical properties of agents where fluorine has been
substituted for hydrogen. Due to its electronegativ-
ity, fluorine exerts strong field and inductive effects
on the adjacent carbon atom. Fluorine substitution, Figure 2.
in general, exerts a diminished electron-withdrawing Table 4. Benzodiazepine Receptor Binding Affinity
effect at distal sites. However, fluorine can donate for Naphthyl-Fused Diazepines
a lone pair of electrons by resonance. This is com- compound X IC50 (nM)a
monly referred to as its mesomeric effect. The
opposing resonance and field effects can nearly 1a H 1000
1b F 260
cancel. The pharmacological differences can be at- 2a H 1000
tributed to the influence of the electron-withdrawing 2b F 55
effect that the fluorine substitution causes on inter- a In vitro potency of the compound to displace [3H]fluni-
action with either a biological receptor or enzyme, trazepam from the benzodiazepine receptor.
as well as its effect on the metabolic fate of the drug.
The antineoplastic agent 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) rep- Another good illustration of this monovalent bioi-
resents a classical example of how fluorine substitu- sosteric replacement is observed in a recent series of
tion of a normal enzyme substrate can result in a anti-inflammatory corticosteroid analogues (3, Figure
derivative which can alter select enzymatic processes. 3).15 In this study, the topical anti-inflammatory
In this instance, 5-FU is biochemically transformed activity of two pairs of structurally similar corticos-
in vivo into 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridylic acid. Its close teroids were compared. Their relative anti-inflam-
similarity to uracil allows this fluoro derivative to be matory activity was normalized to fluocinolone ace-
a successful mimetic. This biochemically altered tonide, which was assigned a potency of 100. Table
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3150 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Table 5. Biological Activities of Halomethyl
Androstane-17β-carbothionates carbon containing CsNH2 (7, Figure 4), the preferred
tautomer is the CsNH2 form.
topical Perhaps the best known example of classical iso-
anti-inflammatory
compound X Y Z activitya steric substitution of an amino for a hydroxyl group
is illustrated by aminopterin (8b) wherein the hy-
3a H F dCH2 42
3b F F dCH2 108 droxyl substituent of folic acid (8a) has been substi-
3c H H β-CH3 27 tuted by an amino group (Figure 5). As previously
3d H F β-CH3 41 noted, this represents a monovalent bioisosteric
a Topical anti-inflammatory activity was measured in mice substitution at a carbon atom adjacent to a hetero-
by modifications of the croton oil ear assay.16 Fluocinolone cyclic nitrogen atom. Thus, this bioisosteric replace-
acetonide served as a positive control and is assigned a relative ment has the capability of mimicking even the
potency index of 100. tautomeric forms of folic acid. The similarity as well
as the capability of the amino group to hydrogen bond
5 shows that, in the case of the pair of compounds to the enzyme are two important factors that facili-
possessing a 16-methylene substituent, the presence tate the binding of aminopterin to the enzyme dihy-
of an additional fluorine atom at the 6R position drofolate reductase.
results in a derivative with greater activity than 3a
or fluocinolone acetonide. With the pair of corticos-
teroids with a 16-methyl substituent (Z ) CH3),
replacement of hydrogen with fluorine at the 9R
position, 3d, also increased anti-inflammatory activ-
ity relative to 3c.
Thus, the ability of fluorine to replace hydrogen is Figure 5.
an effective method of exploring the affinity of an
agent to the target site (receptor or enzyme) by virtue Interchange of an amino group with a hydroxyl
of its greater electronegativity while other param- moiety in the case of 6,9-disubstituted purines (Table
eters such as steric size and lipophilicity17 are 6) has been shown to result in the development of
maintained. agents with similar benzodiazepine receptor binding
activity.20 This example further substantiates the
2. Interchange of Hydroxyl and Amino Groups ability of the amino group to mimic the hydroxyl
group at the receptor site. In this study a series of
The monovalent interchange of amino and hydroxyl 6,9-disubstituted purines were tested for their ability
groups is well known and has been successfully to bind to the benzodiazepine receptor in rat brain
employed in the development of various pharmaco- tissue. The relative activity of the 9-(3-aminophenyl)-
logical agents. The similar steric size (Table 7), methyl derivative (9a) was compared to the 9-(3-
spatial arrangement, and the ability of these func- hydroxyphenyl)methyl analogue (9b) (Figure 6). In
tional groups to act as either hydrogen bond acceptors contrast to aminopterin where a dramatic difference
or donors is likely responsible for their successful use in binding affinity was observed relative to the
as bioisosteres. normal substrate, these bioisosteric 6,9-disubstituted
Several medicinal agents under investigation as
potential clinical agents carry heteroaromatic moi-
eties. Many of these heteroaromatic compounds are
capable of tautomerization. The prototropic tautom-
erism of heteroaromatic compounds includes all
agents wherein a mobile proton can move from one
site to another within the heteroaromatic molecule.
Figure 4 illustrates one of the more common types
Figure 6.
of tautomerization involving the movement of a
proton between a cyclic nitrogen atom and a sub- Table 6. Benzodiazepine Receptor Binding Activity
stituent on the neighboring carbon atom within the of Substituted 6-(Dimethylamino)-9-benzyl-9H-purines
ring. Tautomerism in heterocyclic molecules has compound R IC50 (µM)a
been extensively studied.18 In the presence of electron-
9a NH2 0.9
donating atoms such as nitrogen in heterocyclic 9b OH 1.2
systems, it is known that there will be substantial a Concentration of compound that decreased specific binding
tautomerization where a neighboring CsOH will
of 1.5 nM [3H]diazepam to rat brain receptors by 50%.
tautomerize to CdO.19 In the case of a neighboring
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3151

purines exhibited similar activity with regard to their

affinity for the benzodiazepine receptor. In this
example of bioisosteric replacement, pharmacological
activity was retained. It is important to note that
retention of biological activity based on in vitro data
can be critical in those instances where differences
between bioisosteric analogues exist with regard to
in vivo parameters which may include absorption,
distribution, metabolism, or elimination. While one Figure 9.
may only observe retention of activity associated with
Table 7. Calcium Channel Blocking Activity of
interaction of drug with the pharmacophore, bioiso- 1,4-Dihydropyrimidines
steres may differ dramatically in their in vivo ef-
van der Waal’s
ficacy. Additional examples of this bioisosteric re- compound X radius24 (Å) IC50 (nM)a
placement will be discussed in the next section on
monovalent replacement of hydroxyl and thiol groups. 15a dO 1.40 140
15b dNH 1.50 160
3. Interchange of Hydroxyl and Thiol Groups 15c dS 1.85 17
a
The interchange of thiol for hydroxyl can be con- Concentration that produced 50% inhibition and deter-
sidered as an extension of the amino-hydroxyl mined for the vasorelaxant activity with potassium-depolarized
rabbit thoracic aorta.
replacement and has been used extensively in me-
dicinal chemistry. This replacement is based on the analogues with similar potency. However, substitu-
ability of both these functional groups to be hydrogen tion with the thiol resulted in enhanced potency
bond acceptors or donors. A classical illustration of (Table 7). This could be explained by the fact that
this replacement being guanine (10a) and 6-thiogua- the size of the substituents, described here as the van
nine (10b, Figure 7).21 der Waal’s radii, and the ability to hydrogen bond
were the important factors influencing retention of
activity. Therefore, replacement with the amino
group, which has a similar size, resulted in similar
potency. However, replacement with the sterically
optimal thiol resulted in an analogue which was an
order of magnitude more potent.
The use of this replacement in the design of novel
Figure 7. anti-inflammatory agents substantiates its utility as
As discussed in the previous section, when part of a monovalent bioisostere. Long term use of nonste-
a heteroaromatic ring, these functional groups can roidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for the
exist in different tautomeric forms. Figure 8 il- treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other inflam-
lustrates the most common example wherein a mobile matory diseases has been associated with side effects
proton on a nitrogen atom in the aromatic ring can such as gastrointestinal ulceration, bleeding, and
be transferred to the heteroatom attached to the nephrotoxicity.25,26 With a view to designing new
adjacent carbon resulting in the different tautomers. drugs with an improved safety profile, certain thia-
zoles (16, Figure 10 and Table 8) that are dual

Figure 10.
Figure 8.
Table 8. Anti-inflammatory Activity of Benzylidene
In the case of 6-thioguanine, the ability of this Derivatives in Intact Rat Basophilic Leukemia
bioisosteric analogue to be viewed as a substrate by (RBL-1) Cells
the salvage pathway associated with purine biosyn- IC50 (µM)a
thesis, allows for its transformation into 6-thiogua- compound Z electronegativity29 5-LO CO
nylic acid by hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl-
16a OH 3.51 1.4 0.35
transferase (HGPRT). However, the significance of 16b NH2 2.61 0.77 0.39
this “fraudulent” nucleic acid with respect to its 16c SH 2.32 0.38 0.012
lethality to neoplasms is uncertain.22 It is as this a Concentration of the test compound causing 50% inhibition
phosphoriboside that either the de novo synthesis of of 5-LO or CO formation.
nucleic acids is inhibited or incorporation into deoxy-
ribonucleic acid occurs. inhibitors of both cyclooxygenase (CO) and 5-lipoxy-
In an attempt to enhance the calcium channel genase (5-LO) are being studied as potential anti-
blocking capacity of certain dihydropyrimidine agents, inflammatory agents.27 The beneficial effects of
a number of isosteric analogues with the general NSAIDs have been attributed to the inhibition of the
structure 15 (Figure 9) were synthesized.23 Substitu- enzyme cyclooxygenase, thereby preventing produc-
tion of the hydroxyl with an amino resulted in tion of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins.28 Leuko-
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3152 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

trienes produced by the 5-lipoxygenase enzyme path-

way may also contribute to both inflammation and
NSAID-induced effects. Table 8 summarizes the
concentrations of test compounds required to cause
a 50% inhibition of 5-LO and CO formation.
Replacement of the hydroxyl with an amino group
resulted in more potent activity toward 5-LO while
the potency toward CO remained the same. How- Figure 11.
ever, replacement with a thiol resulted in enhanced Table 9. In Vitro Inhibition of NEP and ACE by
potency toward both 5-LO and CO. Comparison of N-[2-(Mercaptomethyl)-3-phenylbutanoyl] Amino
the electronegativity values of oxygen, nitrogen and Acids
sulphur (Table 8) suggests that this could be a factor IC50 (nM)
that modulates the degree of inhibition of 5-LO. Size,
effective angiotensin
however, may play a significant role with regard to van der Waal’s converting neutral
inhibition of CO (Table 7). Thus, the thiol group may compound R radii (Å)31 enzyme endopeptidase
be a suitable and informative bioisostere for the 17a H 1.20 4.3 2.5
amino and hydroxyl groups in several different series 17b F 1.47 6.9 5.9
of medicinal agents by the virtue of its size, lower 17c OH 1.53 7.9 9.0
electronegativity, and ability to hydrogen bond. 17d NH2 1.79 12.0 16.0

4. Fluorine and Hydroxyl, Amino, or Methyl Groups as inhibitors is useful despite the fact that a more
Replacements for Hydrogen (Grimm’s Hydride selective ACE inhibitor was not developed. Retention
Displacement Law) of activity within this series of bioisosteres permits
This monovalent group of isosteres is a result of an assessment of the validity of a possible correlation
the direct adaptation of Grimm’s Hydride Displace- with one or more specific physicochemical param-
ment Law. The basis for the fluorine-hydrogen eters. This study, for example, did provide insight
interchange and the hydroxyl-amino interchange into structural features which were critical to their
was discussed previously. The existence of this activity as inhibitors of these peptidases.
larger group of isosteres might be attributable to a Recently, several 8-substituted O6-benzyl guanines
greater tolerance of the different physicochemical (18, Figure 12) were evaluated for their ability to
parameters of these functionalities within a particu- inactivate the human DNA repair protein, O6-alkyl-
lar series of agents. However, in the studies outlined guanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGT) (Table 10).32
in this section, an attempt was made to correlate a Inactivation of the human DNA repair protein O6-
physicochemical parameter of this group of bioisos- alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase by exposure to
teres with the observed effect on biological activity. compounds such as O6-benzylguanine leads to a
In designing agents for the treatment of cardio- dramatic enhancement in the cytotoxic response of
vascular diseases, it may be beneficial to associate human tumor cells and tumor xenografts to chemo-
the hypotensive effects resulting from the inhibition therapeutic drugs. This effect is principally observed
of angiotensin II formation with the diuretic and for chemotherapeutic agents whose mechanism of
natriuretic responses. Diuretic and natriuretic ef- action involves modification of DNA guanine residues
fects can be mediated by protection of the endogenous at the O6-position. In this study the effect of the
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) from inactivation by interchange of NH2, OH, as well as CF3 (a bioisostere
inhibition of epithelial neutral endopeptidase (NEP). for a methyl group based on the replacement of
Inhibition of angiotensin II formation may be brought hydrogen with fluorine) on activity was assessed.
about by inhibition of endothelial angiotensin- Analogues possessing electronegative groups at the
converting enzyme (ACE). A series of dual metal- 8-position were more effective as inactivators of AGT
lopeptidase inhibitors have been designed on the in human HT29 colon tumor cell extracts. The
basis of the characteristics of the active sites of both relative activities of these bioisosteres based on the
enzymes. Monovalent substitution by fluorine, hy- dose required for 50% inhibition (ED50) along with
droxyl, and amino in place of hydrogen has recently their electronegativities are outlined in Table 10.
been used in the design of these metallopeptidase
inhibitors (Figure 11, Table 9).30
In this study optically pure N-[2-(mercaptomethyl)-
3-phenylbutanoyl] amino acids (17) were evaluated
as dual inhibitors of NEP and ACE. Substitution
with isosteres (-F, -OH, -NH2) as described by
Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law (Table 2) re- Figure 12.
sulted in retention of activity. It was observed within Table 10. Alkyl Guanine Transferase Inactivating
this series, however, that the increase in the effective Activity of 6-(Benzyloxy)purine Derivatives
van der Waal’s radii of the isosteric substituents compound R electronegativity29 ED50 (µM)a
resulted in a decrease in activity (Table 9). In this
instance, no significant alteration in preferential 18a NH2 2.61 2.0
18b CF3 3.46 0.25
activity with either of the peptidases, ACE or NEP, 18c OH 3.51 0.15
was observed for these bioisosteres. a Effective dose required to produce 50% inactivation in HT-
The empirical approach used to advance the struc-
29 cells upon incubation for 4 h.
ture-activity relationships with these peptidase
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3153

Again, the retention of activity within a series of

bioisosteres provides the basis for the discovery of a
possible correlation between pharmacological activity
and the physicochemical properties of specific agents.
As an extension to the above group defined by
Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law, the widespread
use of the chlorine atom as a bioisostere has been
observed in several different series of biologically Figure 14.
active compounds. This could be attributed to the Table 12. Thymidylate Synthase Enzyme Inhibition
similarity in size between these atoms, a comparison Data for Benzo[f]quinazolin-1(2H)-ones
of which is made in Table 11. Further, there exists
thymidylate synthase
similarity in the lipophilicity of the methyl group inhibitory activity
with that of chlorine which may be responsible for compound X IC50 (µM)a
its suitability as a monovalent bioisosteric replace- 20a Cl 0.025
ment. 20b CH3 0.178
N-(Substituted-3-pyridyl)-N ′-alkylthioureas (19, Fig- 20c OH 0.48
ure 13), which have been evaluated as novel potas- 20d NH2 0.63
sium channel openers,33 are among the more recent 20e H 1.08
illustrations of the replacement of chlorine with a Inhibitor concentration producing 50% inhibition and

isosteres from Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law determined by the tritium release assay of Roberts35 as
(Table 11). Potassium channel openers cause va- modified by Dev et al.36
sorelaxation in vascular smooth muscle through
hyperpolarization of the cell membrane. There is an as methotrexate. Within this series, it was observed
increased interest in these compounds based on their that hydrogen bond donors were more potent than
therapeutic potential in the treatment of cardiovas- the unsubstituted parent compound. These ana-
cular diseases. Substitution at the 6-position with logues, however, were less active than compact
monovalent isosteres (-NH2, -CH3, -Cl) results in lipophilic groups in elevating thymidylate synthase
analogues with similar biological activity. It was inhibition. Thus, at the 9-position, optimal size and
observed that substituents with similar biological lipophilicity appear to be critical factors associated
activity had comparable effective van der Waal’s radii with their ability to inhibit thymidylate synthase.
(Table 11). The methyl group, which has a lower In another study aimed at designing cholinergic
electronegativity, elicited a weaker pharmacological agents which would be capable of penetrating the
response, suggesting an additional correlation be- central nervous system and displaying high efficacy
tween activity and a physicochemical property. at the cortical muscarinic receptors, a series of
oxadiazole-based tertiary amines 21 (Figure 15, Table
13) were tested. The assay used was designed to
measure affinity and predict cortical efficacy from the
antagonist-agonist (i.e. NMS/OXO-M) binding ratio
in rat cortical membranes.37 The log of this ratio has
Figure 13.
been shown to correlate with the ability of the ligand
Table 11. Inhibition of Spontaneous Mechanical to stimulate the hydrolysis of cortical phosphatidyl-
Activity in Rat Portal Vein (in vitro) inositol. It is known that at least three muscarinic
maximum effective receptor subtypes m1, m3, and m5 may be capable
fall in SBPa electro- van der Waal’s of positively stimulating phosphatidylinositol hy-
compound X (%) negativity29 radii31 (Å) drolysis. In this series it was observed that replace-
19a NH2 29 2.61 1.79
19b CH3 18 2.27 1.80
19c Cl 27 3.0 1.73
a Antihypertensive activity measured as maximum % fall

in systolic blood pressure in anesthetized normotensive rat by

iv injection.

Table 12 lists the relative potency of a group of

bioisosteres which act as inhibitors of thymidylate Figure 15.
synthase. Each of these benzo[f]quinazolin-1(2H)- Table 13. In Vitro Binding Data for Substituted
ones (20, Figure 14), inhibit thymidylate synthase by Oxadiazoles
virtue of their structural relation to its cofactor, 5,10- Ka(app) (µM)
methylenetetrahydrofolic acid.34 They are, therefore, 3H]NMSa
compound X [ [3H]OXO-Mb ratioc
referred to as folate-based thymidylate synthase
inhibitors. These analogues differ from other folate- 21a CH3 0.44 0.0009 490
based thymidylate synthase inhibitors as the absence 21b Cl 0.19 0.00048 400
21c NH2 0.60 0.0005 1200
of a glutamate residue suggests that they are not
a Displacement of [3H]-N-methylscopolamine. b Displace-
dependent upon active folate transport and poly-
glutamylation for activity, the two mechanisms of ment of [3H]oxotremorine-M. c Ratio of Ka(app) for NMS to
Ka(app) for OXO-M.
resistance that have been observed with agents such
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3154 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

ment of the methyl with the less lipophilic amino

group resulted in an increase in this antagonist-
agonist binding ratio. However, replacement with a
chloro substituent which is isosteric and isolipophilic Figure 18.
to the methyl group resulted in a compound which Table 14. Biological Half-Lives of Para-Substituted
had lower binding affinity, but a very similar an- 2-(Diethylamino)ethyl Benzoates
tagonist-agonist binding compared to the methyl-
compound X σp t1/2
substituted analogue.
27a NH2 96.29
While the chlorine atom is often viewed to be
-0.66
27b OCH3 -0.26 26.75
isosteric and isolipophilic with the methyl group, it 27c Cl 0.23 4.94
is very often selected as a bioisosteric replacement 28d CN 0.63 1.28
because of its ability to alter the metabolism. Previ-
ous research has very effectively illustrated the 5. Monovalent Substitutions Involving Chloro, Bromo,
feasibility of altering the metabolism of an agent by Thiol, and Hydroxyl Groups (Erlenmeyer’s Broadened
the interchange of chlorine with one of the bioiso- Classification of Grimm’s Displacement Law)
steres from Grimm’s Hydride Displacement Law. The last class of monovalent isosteres involves
Replacement of a chloro atom with a methyl sub- chloro, bromo, thiol, and hydroxyl group inter-
stituent can facilitate metabolism of a xenobiotic. changes. While we have already rationalized the
Lipid-soluble chemicals tend to be distributed into hydroxyl-thiol interchanges, the classification of the
adipose tissue where, unless they are metabolized, chloro, bromo and thiol group together is based on
they tend to accumulate for long periods of time, e.g. their similarity in their number of peripheral elec-
DDT (22, Figure 16). The replacement of the trichlo- trons as defined by Erlenmeyer. Use of these mono-
romethyl moiety with a tert-butyl group (23, Figure valent isosteric replacements is illustrated for certain
16) results in diminished persistence of this pesti- C8-substituted guanosine analogues (28, Figure 19).
cide.38 The methyl substituents provide a site which To evaluate the efficacy of C8-substituted guanosine
is susceptible to metabolic degradation. analogues in the enhancement of primary antibody
response in vitro, these analogues were cultured with
antigen and adjuvant.40 B lymphocytes were incu-
bated with 1.0 mM of the guanosine analogues in
presence or absence of type 2 antigen TNP-Ficoll and
after 3 days the cells were processed, collected, and
then evaluated for the number of antibody-forming
Figure 16. cells. The results of this study demonstrated that
the bromo-, hydroxyl-, and thio-substituted analogues
Alternatively, the addition of a chloro substituent could stimulate polyclonal immunoglobulin secretion
can be effective in inhibiting metabolic oxidation. and in the presence of antigen enhanced the magni-
Phenobarbital (24) is metabolized by aromatic hy- tude of the anti-TNP plaque-forming cell (Anti-TNP
droxylation at the para position to produce 25 (Figure PFC) antibody response to antigen TNP-Ficoll as
17), which then forms a glucuronide conjugate. summarized in Table 15. The thiol bioisostere was
Replacement of the hydrogen at the para position more potent as compared to the hydroxyl and the
with chlorine (26) prevents this route of metabolism. bromo isosteres.
Thus, in this instance the chlorine atom blocks the
metabolism of phenobarbital and thereby increases
its duration of action.

Figure 19.
Table 15. Enhancement of Antibody Responses of
DBA/2 B Cells by Guanosine Analogs
antigens: no. of anti
Figure 17. TNP plaque-forming
cells/culture
compound X medium TNP-Ficoll
2-(Diethylamino)ethyl benzoates (27, Figure 18),
which are used as local anesthetics provide yet 28a medium 14 8
28b medium + Br analogue 78 198
another example where classical bioisosteric replace- 28c medium + OH analogue 118 200
ment affects the observed duration of action by 28d medium + SH analogue 80 296
altering metabolism.39 On the basis of the results
outlined in Table 14, it appears that the decreased Dihydrotestosterone is a potent androgen known
half-lives (t1/2) associated with those analogues having to be essential for male differentiation, growth, and
electron-withdrawing groups is likely associated with function of androgen-sensitive sex organs and is
their increased susceptibility to hydrolysis. involved in the pathophysiology of many diseases
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3155

such as benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostrate such analogues as divalent bioisosteres requires the
cancer. Inhibition of steroid 5R-reductase is of recent absence of a mobile proton which can migrate within
pharmaceutical interest in view of its role in the the ring system.
conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. The replacement of CdS with CdO in Tolrestat
Recent research has isolated and characterized two (30a, Figure 21), an aldose reductase inhibitor cur-
types of human 5R-reductases, namely type I and rently under study in human subjects for the treat-
type II. Therefore, a rational approach for treatment ment of diabetic neuropathy, resulted in oxo-Tolrestat
of these androgen-sensitive disease states can be (30b), which retained activity both in vitro and in
envisioned by the inhibition of either one or both vivo (Table 17).42
enzymes with specific inhibitors. 4-Substituted N-(1,1-
dimethylethyl)-3-oxo-4-androsten-17β-carboxamide
analogues (29, Figure 20) with hydroxy, thiol, chlo-
rine, or bromo substituents at the 4-position were
evaluated and found to show intermediate inhibitory
activity on human type II 5R-reductase activity.41
From the data obtained (Table 16), it could be
inferred that the enzyme has steric and electronic
preferences at this position, resulting in significantly Figure 21.
enhanced potency for the hydroxy and chloro substi-
tuted compounds. Table 17. Aldose Reductase Inhibitory Activity of
Tolrestat and Oxo-Tolrestat
aldose reductase inhibition
compound X in vitroa in vivob
30a S 94 53
30b O 86 56
a Inhibition of enzyme activity in partially purified bovine

lens preparation. b Inhibition of galactitol accumulation in the

sciatic nerves of rats fed 20% galactose for 4 days.
Figure 20.
Another illustration of the use of this class of
Table 16. In Vitro Inhibition of Human Type II divalent isosteres is with certain novel purine nucleo-
5r-Reductase of 4-Substituted N-(1,1-
Dimethylethyl)-3-oxo-4-androstene-17β-carboxamides side analogues (31, Figure 22) that were tested in
vivo for antiviral activity against Semliki Forest virus
effective
van der Waal’s electro- IC50
(SFV) infection in a mouse model.43 Table 18 outlines
compound R radii31 (Å) negativity29 (nM) the percentage of mice that survived for 21 days for
the various bioisosteric analogues compared to the
29a OH 1.53 3.51 172
29b Cl 1.73 3.00 192 absence of any survivors in control infected mice.
29c SH 1.80 2.32 437 Replacement of the sulfur atom at C-8 with the
29d Br 1.86 2.80 387 oxygen or selenium atom, another well-known diva-
a IC lent isosteric replacement, resulted in weaker activity
50 values represent the concentration of compounds
required to inhibit 5R-reductase activity by 50%. relative to the thio analogue.

B. Divalent Isosteres
Divalent isosteres can be classified into two sub-
groups: (1) Those divalent bioisosteres which involve
the interchange of atoms that are involved in a
double bond, such as in the series; CdC, CdN, CdO,
and CdS. And (2) those divalent isosteres where
substitution of a different atom results in the alter-
ation of two single bonds such as in the series; Figure 22.
CsCsC, CsNHsC, CsOsC, and CsSsC. Both of
Table 18. Activity of Guanosine Bioisosteric
these types of bioisosteric substitutions have been Analogues against Semliki Forest Virus
used extensively in the study of the structure-
activity relationships of various pharmacologically compound X % total survivors
active agents. 31a S 83 (10/12)
31b O 67 (8/12)
1. Divalent Replacements Involving Double Bonds 31c Se 58 (7/12)

This subclass includes replacements such as CdS,

CdO, CdNH, and CdC. As we have already dis- 2. Divalent Replacements Involving Two Single Bonds
cussed in the earlier sections, the presence of het- The second major class of divalent bioisosteres
erocyclic systems in most of the lead compounds represents those atoms or groups which are attached
under study as medicinal agents facilitates the tau- to different substituents. As these divalent bioiso-
tomerization of these groups. As mentioned earlier, steres are attached to two different substituents, the
for the purpose of this review, the classification of chemical and polar differences are less pronounced.
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3156 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

The bond angle or the conformation associated with

the use of these divalent bioisosteres may be an
important factor associated with retention of biologi-
cal activity. Table 19 shows a comparison of the
antiallergy activity and bond angles of several diva-
lent bioisosteric substitutions which have been in-
vestigated for a series of 4-(diarylhydroxymethyl)-1-
[3-(aryloxy)propyl]piperidines (32, Figure 23).44 Figure 24.
Table 20. Regulation of NFAT-1-Regulated
β-Galactosidase Activity by Quinazolinediones
compound X IC50 (µM)
33a -NH- 4.47
33b -CH2- 4.03
33c -O- 2.5

Figure 23. ure 24) as potential immunosuppressive agents by

their ability to inhibit β-galactosidase expression as
Table 19. Oral Antiallergy Activity in the Passive summarized in Table 20. Here again the similar
Foot Anaphylaxis Assay of Analogues Containing bond angles and electronegativities (Tables 19 and
Varied Heteroatoms
20) of the -NH- and -CH2- bioisosteric linkers
bond passive foot result in analogues which retain activity. In this
electro- angle45 anaphylaxis study, the use of an oxygen atom as a bioisosteric
29
compound X negativity (deg) assay (10 mg/Kg)a
linker, which has a marginally smaller bond angle
32a -O- 3.51 108.0 +++ and much greater electronegativity, results in an
32b 2.32 112.0
analogue with increased potency.
-S- +
32c -CH2- 2.27 111.5 +
32d -NH- 2.61 111.0 + Other divalent linkers that have been obtained as
a
modifications of the above classical isosteres include
Aminophylline orally at 100 mg/kg was used as a positive
control and assigned a biological response of (++); (-) not
higher oxidation states of the thioether linker result-
significantly different from negative control group at p < 0.05 ing in sulfoxide and sulfone derivatives. These types
as determined by the Dunnett’s t test; (+) activity between of replacements will be discussed in the section on
positive and negative groups; (++) activity equivalent to nonclassical isosteres.
positive control group; (+++) activity greater than positive
control group.
C. Trivalent Atoms or Groups
These compounds were tested using the passive A classical trivalent bioisosteric replacement is
foot anaphylaxis assay which is an IgE-mediated sCHd with sNd. This replacement has been widely
model useful in the detection of compounds possess- used in the drug discovery process and has been
ing antiallergic activity. A significant correlation further discussed among the ring equivalent class of
between biological activity and electronegativity was classical bioisosteres. This replacement when ap-
observed for these analogues. plied to cholesterol (34) resulted in 20,25-diazacho-
Another illustration of divalent bioisosteric linkers lesterol (35, Figure 25) which is a potent inhibitor of
is observed in the study of inhibitors of the nuclear cholesterol biosynthesis.47 The greater electronega-
factor of activated T cells (NFAT)-mediated tran- tivity of the nitrogen atom could be responsible for
scription of β-galactosidase.46 T cells are essential the biological activity of this bioisostere.
components of the immune response. They are
activated upon contact with foreign substances, or
antigens, present on invading organisms. One of the
earlier events that occurs after T cells recognize a
foreign antigen is the induction of the interleukin-2
(IL-2) gene. IL-2 is an essential autocrine growth
factor for T cells and its appearance marks the
Figure 25.
commitment of the T cell toward activation. These
activated cells release a variety of bioactive molecules Another trivalent substitution based on Erlen-
which initiate a cascade of events which initiate an meyer’s definition of the similarity in the number of
immune/inflammatory response. The region 257- peripheral electrons would be the replacement of
286 base pairs upstream of the IL-2 structural gene sPd (bond angle C-P-C ) 100 ( 4°) with sAsd
binds to a protein, the nuclear factor of activated T (bond angle C-As-C ) 96 ( 5°).48 Arsenic is a
cells-1 (NFAT-1), prior to IL-2 gene transcription. classical bioisostere of nitrogen (Table 3). Arsenicals
NFAT-1 is expressed in relatively few cells besides have received considerable attention due to their
T cells and is markedly upregulated upon stimulation therapeutic significance. The oxidation of arseno
of the T cell receptor. This makes it a highly specific compounds to arsenoxides is important in the bioac-
target within activated T cells. When the cell is tivation of a number of chemotherapeutic arsenicals.
activated, the NFAT-1 protein binds to the DNA at One of the first drugs used clinically was arsphe-
its recognition site and induces the transcription of namine (36, Figure 26). The activity of arsphe-
β-galactosidase. This study evaluated some of the namine against the syphilis organism was attributed
bioisosteric analogues of quinazolinediones (33, Fig- to its oxidized metabolite oxophenarsine. However,
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3157

leukemia cell line HL-60 to mature granulocytes was

examined as a measure of retinoidal activity.50 Com-
pounds with a trimethylsilyl or trimethylgermyl
group at the meta positions showed similar activities
as the corresponding retinobenzoic acids with a tert-
butyl group. Results in Table 22 summarize the
differentiation-inducing activity observed for one
such series of retinobenzoic acids.
Figure 26.

the lack of selective toxicity associated with these

arsenicals has led to a reduced interest in such
replacements in current research. Analogy is drawn
to prontosil (37, Figure 26) which is found to be
metabolized to p-aminobenzenesulfonamide. Pron-
tosil is inactive against microorganisms in vitro but
Figure 28.
active in vivo.
Table 22. Differentiation-Inducing Activity of
D. Tetrasubstituted Atoms Trimethylsilyl- or Trimethylgermyl-Containing
Retinoids
One of the more widely used tetravalent replace-
compound R2 R4 ED50a
ments has been the interchange of a quaternary
charged nitrogen atom with a tertiary carbon atom. 41a tert-butyl tert-butyl 3.6 × 10-8
C2-C20 acyl groups of acyl-CoAs are reversibly trans- 41b trimethylsilyl trimethylsilyl 3.0 × 10-8
41c trimethylgermyl trimethylgermyl 4.2 × 10-8
ferred to the β-hydroxyl group of (R)-carnitine by
a Effective dose required to cause differentiation-inducing
carnitine acyltransferases. The selective inhibition
of individual carnitine acyltransferases may be useful activity in 50% of human promyelocytic leukemia cells.
in the therapy of diabetes and heart disease. The
determination of relative substrate specificity and the A classical illustration of tetrasubstituted isosteres
development of specific inhibitors for individual car- involves replacement of the quaternary ammonium
nitine acyltransferases has been of considerable group in case of cholinergic agonists (42, Figure 29)
interest because of its possible therapeutic implica- with the phosphonium and arsonium analogues.51 In
tions. Certain simple acylcarnitine analogues are this study, it was observed that such replacements
potent carnitine acyltransferase (CAT) inhibitors.49 resulted in less potent analogues with greater toxic-
Structure-activity studies in this series have in- ity. Activity was found to decrease as size of the
cluded the bioisosteric replacement of the hydroxyl onium ion increased. The decreased potency and
group of carnitine (38) with an amino (39) and greater toxicity of these higher elements has dimin-
replacement of the tetravalent trimethylammonium ished interest in replacements of this type for the
group with a tertiary butyl group (40, Figure 27). development of direct-acting cholinergic agonists.
Table 21 lists the similar kinetic constants that were
obtained for these bioisosteres.

Figure 27.
Table 21. Rate Constants for Carnitine and Synthetic
Analogues with Pigeon Breast Carnitine
Acyltransferase
X Ki (mM)a
39 4.0
40 2.6
Figure 29.
a
Ki values were obtained from a plot of apparent Km vs
[inhibitor].
A more recent illustration of retention of activity
within a series of charged isosteres, as described by
Other tetravalent bioisosteric replacements have Erlenmeyer (Table 3) was observed for a series of
been investigated which use members of the same R-tocopherol analogues (45, Figure 30) that were
group of the periodic table (group IVB), i.e. the silicon found to scavenge lipoperoxyl and superoxide radicals
or germanium atom. These atoms are also tetrava- in vitro and accumulate in heart tissue as demon-
lent and have similar hydrophobicity, but possess strated by measurement of ex vivo inhibition of lipid
different electronic and steric properties from carbon. peroxidation in mouse heart homogenates.52 Table
The ability of trimethylsilyl- or trimethylgermyl- 23 illustrates that all the bioisosteric analogues of
containing retinobenzoic acids (41, Figure 28) to R-tocopherol were found to elicit similar biological
induce differentiation of the human promyelocytic activity.
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3158 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

A copper-containing monooxygenase, dopamine

β-hydroxylase, present in a variety of mammalian
tissues, catalyses the benzylic hydroxylation of dopa-
mine. Since dopamine β-hydroxylase plays an im-
portant role in the biosynthetic production of nor-
Figure 30. adrenaline, it could be a target for the design of
Table 23. In Vitro and ex Vivo Inhibition of Lipid
inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for the
Autooxidation in Mouse Heart Homogenate modulation of adrenergic activity in vivo. Isosteric
divalent ring replacements as obtained from Grimm’s
in vitroa ex vivob
compound X IC50 (µM) ID50 (µM/kg) IC50/ID50 Hydride Displacement Law (Table 2) resulted in
retention of activity within a series of indane deriva-
45a -N+(CH3)3 19 11 1.7
45b -P+(CH3)3 10 8 1.3
tives (49, Figure 33) evaluated as inhibitors of
45c -S+(CH3)2 7 6 1.3 dopamine β-hydroxylase53 (Table 24).
a Concentration that inhibits thiobarbituric acid reactive

substances (TBARS) formation by 50%. b Dose that inhibits

TBARS formation by 50% 1 h after sc administration.

E. Ring Equivalents Figure 33.

Ring equivalent bioisosteres represent the final
Table 24. Kinetic Inhibition Parameters for
subclass of classical bioisosteres that will be re- Dopamine β-Hydroxylase by Indan Derivatives
viewed. Classical isosteric substitutions when ap-
plied within ring systems result in different hetero- compound X Ki (mM)a
cyclic analogues which can be effective bioisosteres. 49a -CH2- 1.12
The use of the classical bioisosteres benzene, thio- 49b -O- 0.65
49c 0.4
phene, and pyridine resulted in analogues with -NH-
a Apparent binding constant K estimated by plotting 1/k
retention of biological activity within different series i obs
of pharmacological agents. One of the successful uses as a function of 1/[I].
of this replacement resulted in the potent antihista-
mine mepyramine (47, Figure 31) which evolved by The applicability of divalent ring-equivalent iso-
the replacement of the phenyl moiety in antegran steres has also been demonstrated in other five- and
(46) by a pyridyl group. seven-membered ring systems. The search for novel
cardiotonic agents resulted in the successful develop-
ment of two clinically useful agents, amrinone54 (50)
and milrinone55 (51) (Figure 34). It is known that
the positive vasodilatory actions of amrinone and
milrinone are related to the inhibition of adenosine
3′,5′-cyclic phosphate phosphodiesterase III (cAMP
Figure 31. PDE III).
During SAR studies on amrinone (50), it was
Substitution of benzene by pyridine also improved observed that a free amino group was not necessary
activity in the tricyclic antihistamines [promethazine for in vitro cAMP PDE III activity.56 This prompted
(48a) and isothipendyl (48b)] and neuroleptics [pro- the design and synthesis of analogues with general
mazine (48c) and prothipendyl (48d)] (Figure 32) and structure 52.57 Table 25 summarizes the in vitro
resulted in a reduction of both sedative and extrapy- cAMP PDE III activity of the divalent ring-equivalent
ramidal effects. In reviewing some more recent
studies, this subclass of bioisosteres will be divided
into (1) divalent ring equivalents and (2) trivalent
ring equivalents.

Figure 34.
Table 25. In Vitro cAMP PDE III Activity of
Ring-Equivalent Bioisosteres of
5-(4-Pyridinyl)benzoxazol-2(3H)-one
cAMP PDE III
Figure 32. compound X IC50 (µM)a
50 amrinone 28
1. Divalent Ring Equivalents 51 milrinone 0.36
Some of these heterocyclic rings obtained by the 52a -O- 9.8
replacement of a heteroatom within different ring 52b -CH2- 5.3
52c 1.3
systems will be discussed among the nonclassical
-NH-
52d -S- 0.54
category of bioisosteres on the basis of their ability a Concentration required to cause 50% inhibition of cAMP
to mimic the spatial conformation of certain other
PDE III in vitro.
functional groups.
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3159

isosteres that were evaluated in this study. No clear The inhibition of cardiac phosphodiesterase, which
correlation with physicochemical parameters could is related to the development of cardiotonic agents,
be extrapolated from this series. However, cAMP was assessed on the canine cardiac sarcoplasmic
PDE inhibitory activity was retained by all the reticulum-bound, cGMP-inhibited, high-affinity cAMP-
bioisosteric analogues of this series. PDE (SR-PDE). Table 27 shows a comparison of the
Divalent isosteric ring substitutions of the pyrazino- inhibition of phosphodiesterase (PDE) by the various
[2,1-a][2]benzazepine system (53, Figure 35) resulted divalent bioisosteric ring substitutions.
in derivatives containing different heterocyclic sys- C-Glycosyl nucleosides which are analogues of
tems. All these bioisosteres exhibited anthelmintic nicotinamide nucleoside are expected to be converted
activity.58 Table 26 shows a relative comparison of to the analogues of NAD coenzyme and to inhibit
the MIC values of the various divalent isosteres. NAD-dependent inosine monophosphate dehydroge-
Replacement of the methylene with a sulfur or nase (IMPD). Inhibition of this enzyme produces the
oxygen atom resulted in analogues with decreased accumulation of IMP and the depletion of guanine
potency relative to the carbocyclic analogue. nucleotides, which is linked to DNA synthesis inhibi-
tion. Both 2-β-D-ribofuranosylthiazole-4-carboxamide
(tiazofurin, 55b) and 2-β-D-ribofuranosylselenazole-
4-carboxamide (selenazofurin, 55c) (Figure 37) are
metabolized to analogues of NAD and have pro-
nounced antitumor activity in animals and broad
spectrum antiviral activity.60 Selenazofurin is about
10 times more active than tiazofurin with a similar
spectrum of antitumor activity (Table 28).

Figure 35.
Table 26. Anthelmintic Potency of Derivatives of the
Pyrazino[2,1-a][2]benzazepine System
minimum inhibitory
concentration,a
compound X Taenia crassiceps Figure 37.
53a -CH2- +++ Table 28. Bioisosteres of 2-β-D-Ribofuranosyl-
53b -O- ++ 4-carboxamides
53c -S- +
a
antitumor relative activity,
Concentration required to prevent all movement of cysts compound X agent IC50a (µM)
and evaginated scoleces: ++++ ) MIC < 0.1 µg/mL; +++ )
0.1 µg/mL < MIC < 1.0 µg/mL; ++ ) 1.0 µg/mL < MIC < 10 55a -O- oxazofurin inactive
µg/mL; + ) MIC > 10 µg/mL. 55b -S- tiazofurin 1.0
55c -Se- selenazofurin 0.1
Replacements using selenium have been less com- a Estimated relative potency against P388 and L1210 leu-

monly used as a divalent ring equivalent. However kemias. Inactive until a maximum tested concentration of 4
ring substitution of -Se- has frequently resulted in × 10-3 M.
retention of their respective biological activities. Replacement with oxygen in 2-β-D-ribofuranosyl-
Replacement with selenium has been shown to thiazole-4-carboxamide (tiazofurin) resulted in 2-β-
introduce a potential risk of toxicity. Substitution D-ribofuranosyloxazole-4-carboxamide (oxazofurin,
with the different divalent isosteres including sele- 55a). Oxazofurin lost the ability to inhibit the growth
nium in a novel class of cardiotonic agents 54 (Figure of P388 and L1210 murine leukemia and HL 60
36 and Table 27) resulted in retention of activity.59 human promylelocytic leukemia.61 This may be
attributed to the lower basicity of the oxazole moiety
compared to that of the thiazole moiety of tiazo-
furin.62
2. Trivalent Ring Equivalents
The trivalent substitution of sCHd with sNd is
Figure 36.
commonly used in modern drug design. Trivalent
Table 27. Biochemical Properties of Heterocyclic ring substitution of sCHd with sNd in the anti-
Indolones bacterial agent norfloxacin (56a) resulted in enoxacin
compound X IC50a (µM) (56b, Figure 38) which is also in clinical use for its
54a -NH- 0.17 antibacterial activity63 (Table 29).
54b -CH2- 0.24
54c -S- 0.33
54d -Se- 0.54
54e -O- 0.96
a Concentration required to produce 50% inhibition of the

sarcoplasmic reticulum bound low-Km cAMP phosphodi-

esterase (SR-PDE).
Figure 38.
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3160 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

Table 29. Isosteres of Clinically Significant

Quinolone Antibacterials
compound X antibacterial agent
56a -CH- norfloxacin
56b -N- enoxacin

Figure 41.
Another example of such a replacement is il-
lustrated for the (benzothiazolylbenzyl)phosphonate Table 31. Topoisomerase I-Mediated DNA Cleavage
derivatives (57, Figure 39) which retained vasodila- and Cytotoxicity of Terbenzimidazoles
tory activity.64 Table 30 outlines the percent increase Topo I-mediated cytotoxicity IC50
in coronary flow obtained by replacement of the compound X DNA cleavagea (µM) RPMI 8402
benzene ring with pyridine. 60a phenyl 2 0.09
60b 2-pyridyl 3.3 0.16
60c 3-pyridyl 2 0.035
60d 4-pyridyl 2 0.035
a Topoisomerase I cleavage values are reported as REC,

relative effective concentration, i.e., concentrations relative to

Hoechst 33342, whose value is arbitrarily assumed as 1, that
Figure 39. are able to produce the same cleavage on the plasmid DNA in
the presence of calf thymus topoisomerase I.
Table 30. Effect of Phosphonates on Coronary Flow
of Isolated Guinea Pig Heart
in retention of cytotoxicity and topoisomerase I
maximum increase in inhibitory activity (Figure 41, Table 31).
compound X coronary flowa (%)
57a -CH- 79.9 III. Nonclassical Bioisosteres
57b -N- 94.0
a This major class of isosteres includes all those
Langendorff’s method in isolated guinea pig heart.
replacements that are not defined by the classical
definitions of bioisosteres. These isosteres are ca-
Pilocarpine (58, Figure 40) is widely employed as pable of maintaining similar biological activity by
a topical miotic for controlling the elevated intraocu- mimicking the spatial arrangement, electronic prop-
lar pressure associated with glaucoma. The duration erties, or some other physicochemical property of the
of lowering of intraocular pressure by pilocarpine molecule or functional group that is critical for
lasts only for about 3 h. This short duration of action retention of biological activity.
is mainly due to the hydrolytic cleavage of the lactone
ring, resulting in the formation of pilocarpic acid and A. Cyclic vs Noncyclic Nonclassical Bioisosteric
rapid elimination and/or epimerization to form iso- Replacements
pilocarpine.65 In an attempt to study the influence
of the carbamate nitrogen on physiological properties, This subclass includes all those nonclassical re-
certain carbamate analogues corresponding to pilo- placements wherein a noncyclic functional moiety
carpine were synthesized and evaluated.66 Replace- mimics a cyclic group sterically or electronically
ment of the carbon atom on the oxazolidinone ring resulting in retention of biological activity. Com-
with nitrogen resulted in the carbamate analogue 59 parison of the various structural analogues of estra-
which was equipotent with pilocarpine (ED50 ) 1 diol is a classical illustration of this phenomena. Here
µM). This analogue bypasses the problem associated the ability of the structure to hold the critical
epimerization as observed in the case of pilocarpine. functionality in a particular spatial configuration was
In addition, this cyclic carbamate would be expected essential for activity. It was found that the central
to be less susceptible to hydrolysis than the lactone bond of diethylstilbestrol (2, Figure 43) was impor-
in pilocarpine. tant for the correct orientation of the phenolic and
ethyl groups for binding to the estrogenic receptor.69
This is evidenced by the observation that the cis
isomer of 2 is only 1/14 as active as the trans isomer.70
Structurally or conformationally rigid analogues
(compounds 2-4) were equipotent as estradiol (1,
Figure 43) when injected. Nonrigid analogues (com-
Figure 40. pounds 5-7), however, were found to have little or
no estrogenic activity.71,72
A more recent illustration of this replacement was This concept was extended by the use of the
observed in the evaluation of terbenzimidazoles as methyleneaminoxy methyl moiety (CdNOCH2,
topoisomerase I inhibitors.67 DNA topoisomerases MAOMM) (Figure 42) as a bioisostere of aryl and
are nuclear enzymes that control and modify the other aromatic groups.
topological states of DNA by catalyzing the concerted
breaking and rejoining of DNA strands.68 Topo-
isomerases represent effective pharmacological tar-
gets for the development of cancer chemotherapeu-
tics. Replacement of the phenyl (60a) with 2-pyridyl
(60b), 3-pyridyl (60c), and 4-pyridyl (60d) resulted Figure 42.
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3161

Figure 43.
Various studies associated with the development in this class include ibufenac (11), aclofenac (12), and
of β-adrenergic drugs have supported the utility of diclofenac (13) which are widely used clinically
this nonclassical bioisostere.73-75 Chemically syn- (Figure 45).
thesized analogues of biological catecholamines were
among the first agents used to interact with β-ad-
renergic receptor sites. Analogues of the biological
catecholamines often incorporated within their gen-
eral structure a 1-phenyl-2-aminoethanol moiety (8,
Figure 44). Closely related to these agents is a series
of the 1-(aryloxy)-3-amino-2-propanol derivatives (9,
Figure 44) which are β-adrenergic antagonists.76-77
With regard to these adrenergic drugs, it has been
observed that the aminoethanol portion, -CH(OH)-
CH2NHR is present in both agonists and antagonists.
Thus, it could be inferred from these data that this
portion of these drug molecules plays a significant Figure 45.
role in the ability of these compounds to bind with
the receptor. On the other hand, it has been observed Several β-aminooxypropionic acids were evaluated
that the nature of the aromatic nucleus can signifi- as analogues of arylacetic acids wherein the aryl
cantly influence their agonistic or antagonistic prop- moiety was substituted by MAOMM.80 Of the vari-
erties. Results from theoretical studies78,79 noted that ous analogues evaluated, the (E)-3-[(benzylideneami-
the C3-O2-C4-C5 moiety of the class B type of no)oxy]propionic acid (14, Figure 46) showed similar
β-blocking adrenergic drugs (9, Figure 44), can potency to that of diclofenac (Table 32). The results
electronically and sterically simulate a portion of the of the conformational studies performed confirmed
aromatic ring. Data from these studies showed that the existence of bioisosterism, at least from a steric
the electronic distribution (based on the trend of the point of view. Although the EMP trend, a measure
electrostatic molecular potential, EMP) generated by of the electronic distribution, calculated for one of the
the C3-O2-C4-C5 was similar to that generated by β-aminooxypropionic acids and ibufenac showed that
the aromatic ring of antagonists such as 9. This the MAOMM had a similar reactivity to that of the
suggested that the electronic distribution essential aryl moiety of ibufenac, it was observed in additional
for interaction with the β-adrenergic receptor may studies that this EMP trend was not essential for
not require an aromatic ring. anti-inflammatory activity.

Figure 46.
Table 32. Pharmacological Data of
β-Aminooxypropionic Acid Derivatives
Figure 44. % inhibition in the
compound carrageenan paw edema assay
These results led to the development of the ali- 13 (Diclofenac) 67
phatic oxime ether derivatives (10, Figure 44) which 14 (E)-3-[(benzylidene- 66
showed marked and competitive antagonism at the amino)oxy]propionic acid
β-adrenoceptors in vitro in pharmacological tests.
This success led to the application of this bioisosteric Further, as an extension to these studies, certain
replacement to other categories of drugs. One such β-aminooxypropionyl penicillins and cephalosporin
application has been its use in the aryl acetic acids analogues were synthesized and evaluated for their
which are one of the most widely developed and antimicrobial properties.81 It has been recognized
investigated class of anti-inflammatory agents. Agents that changes on the side chain linked to the β-lactam
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3162 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

nucleus of β-lactam antibiotics exert an influence on is situated spatially in an area which does not exactly
acid stability, resistance to enzyme inactivation, correspond to the area occupied by the aryl group.
potency, and the spectrum of antimicrobial activity. An attempt to optimize these differences resulted in
It is observed among classical β-lactam antibiotics the formal inversion of the atomic sequence CdNOCH2
that those compounds widely used in therapeutic of the MAOMM (20, Figure 49) which lead to a
practice, such as ampicillin, cefalexin, and penicillin different bioisostere, the [(methyloxy)imino]methyl
G (15), all have side chains of an acetamido type, moiety (CH2ONdC, MOIMM) (21, Figure 49).83 This
substituted with an aromatic or a heteroaromatic moiety, in the E configuration, presents greater steric
ring. and electronic analogies to an aryl group as compared
A comparison of the MIC values outlined in Table to MAOMM by virtue of similarities in hybridization
33 shows that replacement of the phenyl group of and geometry.
penicillin G (15) with a β-aminooxypropionyl group
(16, Figure 47) results in retention of biological
activity. The potency against both Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria, however, was reduced by
approximately 50%.
Figure 49.
This similarity explains the retention of β1-adren-
ergic binding affinity and activity (Table 34) on
replacement of the MAOMM (22, Figure 50) with
MOIMM (23, Figure 50). Results from the confor-
mational studies and an analysis of molecular elec-
trostatic potentials have shown a high degree of
homology between these pharmacophoric groups and
no significant differences in the chemical reactivity.
Applications of this replacement (MOIMM) beyond
this class of drugs have not yet been reported.

Figure 47.
Table 33. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)
of β-Aminooxypropionyl Penicillins
MIC (µg/mL)
Gram-positive Gram-negative
compound bacteria bacteria Figure 50.
15 0.05 71 Table 34. β-Adrenergic Activity and Radioligand
16 0.10 136 Binding Affinity of MOIMM and MAOMM as
Bioisosteric Replacements
Another recent application of this replacement has β1-adrenergic binding β1-adrenergic activityb
been documented for the morpholine class of antide- compound affinitya Ki (nM) -log IC50
pressants.82 In this study, 2-[(methyleneamino)oxy]- 22 1480 4.52
methyl morpholines (18, Figure 48) were synthesized 23 1040 4.91
as analogues of viloxazine (17). Here the (aryloxy)- a β -Adrenergic binding affinity was measured using rat
1
methyl group of viloxazine is substituted by a [(meth- cortical membranes. b Isolated guinea pig atria was used to
yleneamino)oxy]methyl moiety (MAOMM). In vivo determine β1-adrenergic activity.
and in vitro tests showed that some of these mor-
pholine derivatives possess a pharmacological profile A number of medicinal agents in clinical use
similar to that of viloxazine (17). contain an ester moiety as part of the molecule. The
distribution of esterases in the body is ubiquitous and
several types can be found in the blood, liver, and
other organs and tissues. In many instances, the
prevalence of these esterases causes these molecules
to be highly labile in vivo. Bioisosteres of the ester
moiety have been developed wherein such substitu-
tion can lead to an increase in the hydrolytic stability
Figure 48. of the drug. One such replacement of the ester group
is a heterocycle. The use of a ring in place of a
These earlier studies have shown that the [(meth- noncyclic moiety is a common approach used to
yleneamino)oxy]methyl moiety is a suitable bioiso- increase structural rigidity. When applied to ester
stere for the aryl moiety. It was noted however, that moieties, such bioisosteric replacements can provide
the carbon of the -CH2- linked to the oxygen (20, additional insights into the structural requirements
Figure 49) is of different hybridization (sp3) than the of a specific receptor as well as result in the develop-
corresponding aryl carbon (19, Figure 49) which is ment of analogues with greater stability.
sp2 hybridized. Further, in its preferred conforma- The role of the neuropeptide substance P in the
tion, the unsaturated portion (CdN) of the MAOMM, endogenous response to pain and inflammation has
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3163

received considerable attention in recent years. These binding geometry, presumably the rings listed in
observations have suggested that suitable substance Figure 52 could represent useful bioisosteric replace-
P receptor antagonists (NK1 antagonists) may be of ments for an ester moiety within another series of
therapeutic use in the treatment of several clinical compounds. Unlike the ester moiety, these bioiso-
conditions including arthritis, migraine, postopera- steres would not be subject in vivo to the action of
tive pain, and nausea. (S)-Tryptophan benzyl esters esterases.
such as L-732,138 (24, Figure 51) represent a new Another area in which bioisosteric replacements for
structural class of potent and selective NK1 antago- the ester moiety have been investigated is in the
nists.84 In this molecule the ester linkage is known design of centrally active muscarinic agents based on
to contribute significantly to receptor binding, pre- arecoline (32, Figure 53). Replacement of the ester
sumably via hydrogen bonding.85 group with either 3-alkyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles (33) or
3-alkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles (34) have produced very
potent muscarinic agonists.87-92 Systematic removal
of the heteroatoms in 3-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole gives
isoxazoles and furans (35-37) with a decrease in
affinity for the binding site. Thus, the electronic
effects associated with these heterocyclic rings appear
to be essential for muscarinic activity.

Figure 51.
A series of analogues in which 6-membered het-
erocyclic rings served as bioisosteric replacements for
the ester linkage have been evaluated with the intent
of improving their in vivo stability.86 Although
replacement of the ester by various substituted
piperazines (25, Figure 52) and a variety of five-
membered ring heterocycles (26-30) resulted in a
loss of binding affinity (Table 35), the oxazolidinedi-
one moiety (31, Figure 52) was identified as a useful
bioisostere for the ester linkage and had the greatest
potency with respect to NK1 binding affinity. This Figure 53.
analogue, however was less active than L-732,138 Certain other conformationally restricted com-
(24). pounds based on the bioisosteric replacement of the
methyl ester groups with the 3-alkoxyisoxazoles (38)
and the 3-alkoxyisothiazoles (39) (Figure 54) have
also been found to result in muscarinic agonists with
activity similar to arecoline.93-94

Figure 52. Figure 54.

Table 35. NK1 Antagonist Activity of Five- and On the basis of the structural resemblance of the
Six-Membered Ring Heterocyclic Templates 1,2,5-oxadiazoles and the 1,2,5-thiadiazoles with the
bioisosteric ring human NK1 receptor 3-alkoxyisoxazoles (38) and the 3-alkoxyisothiazoles
(Figure 52) Y binding affinitya (nM) (39), several 1,2,5-oxadiazole (40, Figure 55) and
24 (L-732,138) - 2.5 1,2,5-thiadiazole (41, Figure 55) analogues have been
25 - 4333 evaluated in vitro and found to be selective M1
26 NH 317 muscarinic agonists.95 Recently a series of arecoline
27 N-CH3 153
28 N-CONHCH3 63
29 CH2 203
30 O 22
31 - 11
a Human NK receptor binding affinity measured by dis-
1
placement of [125I]Tyr8-substance P.

Although this study failed to identify a more potent

bioisostere because of the inability to attain optimal Figure 55.
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3164 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

bioisosteres, where the ester group was replaced by

a 1,2,3-triazol-4-yl (42) or a tetrazol-5-yl group (43),
has been evaluated in vitro for affinity and efficacy
at the muscarinic receptors and in vivo for cholinergic
side effects.96 The structure-activity relationships
within these series are similar. Two compounds
exihibited activity as M1 agonists/M2 antagonists, a
profile of particular interest for drugs in the treat-
ment in Alzheimer’s disease. Further optimization
showed that the position of the substituent in the
1,2,3-triazole or tetrazole ring has a significant Figure 57.
influence on the affinity for muscarinic receptors. The basis of the lead that 5-(4-piperidyl)isoxazol-3-ol (4-
2-alkyl derivatives exerted high affinity, while 1- and PIOL, 53, Figure 58) is a specific low-efficacy partial
3-alkyl substituents resulted in analogues with very GABAA agonist,107-109 several additional analogues
low affinity for the muscarinic recptors. This ex- of 53 were synthesized. The SARs for the 4-PIOL
ample clearly demonstrates the effective use of analogues showed no conspicuous relationships be-
nonclassical bioisosterism in the development of new tween pKa values, receptor affinity, and agonist
drugs which are significantly different from the lead efficacy.110
compound.
Modulators of the central neurotransmitter GABA
represent another class of compounds in which this
concept of cyclic and noncyclic bioisosteres has played
a major role. 4-Aminobutanoic acid (GABA, 44,
Figure 56) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter
in the mammalian central nervous system. This
neurotransmitter functions at GABAA, GABAB, and
probably GABAC receptors.97-99 In order to pharma-
cologically characterize these receptors, a number of
GABAA agonists bioisosterically derived from GABA,
such as muscimol (45, Figure 56),100-101 thiomuscimol Figure 58.
(46, Figure 56),101 and the much weaker GABAA
agonist, isomuscimol (47, Figure 56),101 have been Although these bioisosteric replacements did not
developed. The establishment of specific GABAA provide an analogue with substantially greater po-
agonists is of major therapeutic importance. It is tency, these studies helped characterize several
anticipated that such research may represent the chemically distinct GABAA agonists which exhibited
initial steps in the development of new types of a range of efficacies. These bioisosteric replacements
antiepileptics, analgesics, and memory-improving did provide insight into the spatial geometry required
drugs. The success of bioisosteric modifications in for these agents to maintain their specificity for a
the development of GABA agonists is dependent on given pharmacological target.
the ability of these receptors to tolerate bioisosteric The concept of cyclic and noncyclic bioisosteres has
modifications. Minor structural modifications in also been successfully applied to the development of
these agonistic molecules has frequently resulted in several peptidomimetics. One of the most important
a marked or complete loss of activity.102-103 aspects in the development of potent bioactive pep-
tides and peptidomimetics is the process of elucidat-
ing the active conformation of the peptide. Advances
in molecular biology have led to the identification and
characterization of different subtypes of the same
receptor, each of which are now known to be related
to different physiological phenomena. The ability of
a peptide to bind to a specific receptor subtype may
require a particular conformation of the peptide. For
this purpose, constrained peptidomimetics based on
cyclic structures, constrained amino acids, and mi-
metics of peptide secondary structures have been
Figure 56. used in efforts to duplicate the conformation that will
bind to the specific receptor subtype and elicit a
The bioisosteric bicyclic analogues of these com- specific physiologic effect.
pounds, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydroisoxazolo[5,4-c]pyridin-3- The tripeptide Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2 (PLG, 58) selec-
ol (THIP, 48, Figure 57),101,104 4,5,6,7-tetrahydroisothi- tively enhances the binding of dopamine receptor
azolo[5,4-c]pyridin-3-ol (thio-THIP, 49, Figure 57),105 agonists to dopamine receptors in the mammalian
and 4,5,6,7-tetraisoxazolo[3,4-c]pyridin-3-ol (iso-THIP, central nervous system.111-113 Several lactam ana-
50, Figure 57),106 as well as isoguvacine (51, Figure logues 59, where X was varied to give different sized
57),101,104 and isonipecotic acid (52, Figure 57),104 have or functionalized lactam rings, were synthesized and
been characterized as GABAA receptor ligands. found to enhance the binding of the agonist 2-amino-
A further extension of the series of GABAA agonists 6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (ADTN)
described above led to another bicyclic series. On the to dopamine receptors.114,115 On the basis of this
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3165

study it was postulated that the bioactive conforma- fective, in those instances where the role of the
tion of PLG is a type-II β-turn. In order to test this phenolic hydroxyl group is to act as either a hydrogen
hypothesis conformationally restricted bicyclic thia- bond acceptor or donor. Such bioisosteres are also
zolidine lactams (60, 61, Figure 59), that restrict the effective when moderate hydrophilicity is correlated
torsion angles to values which are close to those of with improved biological activity.
an ideal type-II β-turn, were synthesized and were A widely used nonclassical bioisosteric replacement
more effective than PLG in enhancing the binding for the hydroxyl group is the alkylsulfonamido group.
of the dopamine receptor agonist ADTN to dopamine The acidity of the exchangeable proton of the phenolic
receptors.116 hydroxyl group and an alkylsulfonamide is compa-
This example demonstrates how cyclic bioisosteres rable. Further, the -N-H portion of the sulfonamide
could be used in place of noncyclic structures in is able to align itself, in relation to the receptor, in a
peptides to restrict the torsion angles and evaluate manner closely approximating the phenyl -O-H
the bioactive conformation essential for physiological grouping (Figure 60). An illustration of the success-
activity. ful use of this replacement is in its use in a series of
compounds that possess a similar biological profile
to that of structurally related phenolic ethanol-
amines.118

Figure 59.
Figure 60.
B. Nonclassical Bioisosteric Replacements of
Functional Groups Notable examples of β-adrenoceptor agonists in
which a 3-hydroxyl group has been replaced with
In this section possible nonclassical bioisosteric bioisosteric groups (Figure 61) include albuterol (63,
replacements for different functional groups will be 3-CH2OH), soterenol119 (64, 3-NHSO2CH3), and car-
discussed. As can be the case for any bioisostere, not buterol120 (65, 3-NHCONH2). Isoproterenol (62, Fig-
all of these replacements will necessarily result in a ure 61), the prototype of the β-adrenergic agonists,
compound with comparable biological activity to the is widely used clinically as a bronchodilator; however,
template drug. However, in those instances where it is not a β2-selective agent. In addition this catechol
such replacements have resulted in retention of is rapidly metabolized by catechol O-methyl trans-
biological activity, the examples as outlined in this ferase (COMT) which catalyzes the methylation of
section may encourage the use of these isosteres in the m-hydroxy group.121 Attempts to increase the
future structure activity studies. duration of action of this class of agents by preventing
this route of metabolism has resulted in the replace-
1. Hydroxyl Group Bioisosteres ment of the m-hydroxyl with bioisosteres such as the
Nonclassical bioisosteres for phenolic hydroxyl methanesulfonamido, hydroxymethyl, and ureido
groups generally do not resemble this functional groups, resulting in agents with potent and selective
group in terms of size or potential as a strong activities (Figure 61).
electron-donating group. Several nonclassical bio-
isosteres for the phenolic hydroxyl group are listed
in Table 36. Molar refractivity is an index of relative
size. While the hydroxymethyl bioisostere most
closely approximates the size of the phenolic hydroxyl
group, it remains significantly different. In terms of
these nonclassical bioisosteres, only the urea bio-
isostere is an electron-donating substituent. Thus,
these nonclassical bioisosteres are unlikely to be
suitable in those instances where biological activity
is adversely affected by increased molecular size or
is strongly dependent on electronic parameters.
These nonclassical bioisosteres tend to be most ef-

Table 36. Aromatic Substituent Constants for

Hydroxyl Group Bioisosteres117 Figure 61.
bioisosteres σp π MR A more recent illustration of bioisosteric replace-
OH -0.37 -0.67 2.85 ments for a phenol was observed in a study designed
CH2OH 0.00 -1.03 7.19 to evaluate the D1- and D2-receptor affinity for a
NHCONH2 -0.24 -1.30 13.72 series of N,N-di-n-propyldopamine (DPDA) analogues
NHCOCH3 0.00 -0.97 14.93 (Figure 62).122 In this study, a number of analogues
NHSO2CH3 0.03 -1.18 18.17 in which a hydroxyl group was substituted with
NHCN 0.06 10.14
nonclassical bioisosteric replacements were evaluated
-0.26
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3166 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

R- and β-adrenergic receptor antagonist127-128 pro-

vides further evidence for the successful use of the
indole phenol bioisosteric replacements.129

Figure 62.
Table 37. Ligand Binding Data for
N,N-Di-n-propyldopamine (DPDA) Cogeners
Hill coefficient,
compound X Y pIC50a
66a OH (DPDA) OH 7.65 Figure 64.
66b NHCHO OH 6.94
66c NHCOCH3 OH 5.10 The indolo analogue 71 of labetalol (70) was found
66d NHCONH2 OH 5.15 to reduce blood pressure in spontaneously hyperten-
66e NHSO2CH3 OH 7.87
66f NHCOCH3 H 4.69
sive rats, without causing a decrease in heart rate.
66g NHCONH2 H 4.87 The antihypertensive activity of these compounds is
66h NHSO2CH3 H 5.45 related to their ability to hydrogen bond to the
a Negative logarithm of the concentration required to pro- adrenergic receptors. The importance of a hydrogen
duce 50% inhibition in EDTA-washed rat strital membranes atom on the indole nitrogen atom is again evidenced
using [3H]spiperone by the fact that the N-methylated analogue 72 is
inactive. While both 70 and 71 are antihypertensive
(Table 37) for their ability to bind to the D2-receptor agents, there are differences between these molecules
in rat striatal membranes. with respect to their lipophilicities and pKa values.
In this illustration, it is evident (Table 37) that the While the phenol derivative is acidic, the indole
methanesulfonamide (66e) appears to be a suitable analogue is almost neutral. These differences may
bioisosteric replacement for the 3-hydroxyl group of partially explain the subtle differences in pharma-
DPDA. The formamide group (66b) also serves as a cological activity between these compounds. Labe-
bioisostere in this series, but this analogue exhibited talol, in contrast to 71, shows no significant β1-ISA
lower affinity for the D2-receptor than DPDA. Both and therefore exhibits negative chronotropic activity.
of these bioisosterically derived compounds also Bioisosteres have also been developed as replace-
demonstrated in vivo cardiovascular and renal pro- ments of both hydroxyl groups of catechols. Several
files that were consistent with selective D2-receptor examples are illustrated in Figure 65.3
agonism.
Certain nitrogen heterocycles can serve as potential
bioisosteres for the phenolic moiety. Heterocycles,
such as pyrrole, indole or benzimidazoles, that have
a proton attached to a nitrogen atom and whose lone
pair of electrons is involved in maintaining aroma-
ticity, have proved particularly effective. Benz[e]-
indole (67, Figure 63), the pyrrolo analogue of the Figure 65.
dopaminergic agonist (69),123-125 displays potent The success of L-dopa in the treatment of parkin-
dopaminergic properties, is orally active and has a sonism resulted in the search for analogues of dihy-
droxyphenylalanine which would exhibit fewer side
effects. Some of these hydroxypyridine and pyridine-
quinoid-type compounds are listed in Figure 66.130-133

Figure 63.

longer duration of action than 69. The effectiveness

of the pyrrolo ring of 67 as a bioisosteric replacement Figure 66.
for the phenolic hydroxyl group has been ascribed to
the ability of both groups to hydrogen bond to a 2. Carbonyl Group Bioisosteres
common acceptor nucleus on the dopamine recep- Carbonyl group bioisosteres for the purposes of this
tor.126 Evidence for the involvement of the hydrogen review refer to replacements which have been used
bond formation being related to the success of this primarily for the aldehyde or ketone moiety (Table
bioisosteric replacement was provided by the lack of 38). The difference in the electronegativity between
activity observed with the N-methylpyrrolo analogue oxygen and carbon associated with these functional
68. groups results in a partial positive charge on the
Examination of the antihypertensive activity of the carbon atom while the oxygen acquires a partial
pyrrolo analogue 71 of labetalol (70, Figure 64), an negative charge. Comparison of the substituent
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3167

constants associated with isosteres for the carbonyl on the drug which have a major impact on the
group illustrate that these nonclassical bioisosteric interaction that occurs with the pharmacophore.
replacements are generally electron-withdrawing The sulfoxide and the sulfone moieties have in-
moieties that are relatively large in size. creasingly been used as nonclassical divalent bio-
isosteres of the carbonyl group.140-145 In addition,
Table 38. Aromatic Substituent Constants for the
Carbonyl Group Bioisosteres134
metabolic oxidation of a pharmacologically active
agent which has a thioether incorporated within their
bioisosteres σp π MR structure results in the formation of corresponding
SOCH3 0.49 -1.58 13.70 sulfoxide and sulfone analogues. In many instances,
SO2CH3 0.72 -1.63 13.49 these are more potent than the corresponding sul-
CHdNOH 0.10 -0.38 10.28 fides. The greater size associated with the sulfone
CHdNOCH3 0.30 0.40 14.93
moiety has also been shown to be a factor that
modulates biological activity. This was illustrated
In the section on monovalent isosteres (hydroxyl- in the development of novel aldose reductase inhibi-
thiol interchanges), the pharmacological basis leading tors related to sorbinil (83, Figure 68).
to the development of different classes of antagonists Sorbinil is a spirocyclic hydantoin that exhibits
of Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) was discussed. LTB4 has activity as a potent inhibitor of the enzyme aldose
been implicated as a potential mediator of inflam- reductase.146 On the basis of this property, a number
mation. Elevated amounts of LTB4 have been found of spirohydantoin aldose reductase inhibitors have
in human psoriatic plaque135-136 and in the colonic been studied.147 In an attempt to simulate the rigid
mucosa of patients with inflammatory bowel nature of a spirocyclic hydantoin with a nonspirocy-
disease.137-138 Levels of LTB4 in these tissues appear clic compound several analogues (84, Figure 68) with
to correlate with the extent of disease. The design different substitutions at the 2-position were synthe-
of potent and selective antagonists of LTB4 has been sized and evaluated for their ability to inhibit aldose
proposed for the development of new therapeutic reductase.144 Comparison of their IC50 values in
approaches for the treatment of these diseases or any Table 40 reveals that the sulfone analogue is the
condition where LTB4 may play a role as a pathologi- most potent analogue, with significantly greater
cal mediator. A series of benzophenone dicarboxylic activity than the thioether and sulfoxide analogues.
acids (Figure 67) were synthesized as potential The sulfone moiety in this instance hinders the
inhibitors of LTB4 to its receptors in intact human rotation of the hydantoin ring, forcing it to be aligned
neutrophils.139 Replacement of the carbonyl with a in a manner similar to that of the spirocyclic hydan-
variety of polar and nonpolar bioisosteres led to toin sorbinil.
marginal changes in binding affinity (Table 39).

Figure 67.
Table 39. Receptor Affinity of LTB4 Receptor Figure 68.
Antagonists with Modified Linking Groups
Table 40. Biological Activity of Nonspirocyclic
percent inhibition of specific Hydantoin Aldose Reductase Inhibitors
compound X [3H]LTB4 binding (µM)
compound X IC50a (µM)
82a CdO 85
82b CdNOH 84 83 Sorbinil 0.12
82c (CdO)NH 73 84a SO2CH3 0.05
82d S 67 84b SOCH3 0.25
82e SO 71 84c SCH3 0.62
82f SO2 79 a Concentration that causes a 50% inhibition of human

placental aldose reductase with glyceraldehyde as substrate.

It was observed that the oxime (82b, Table 39)
showed activity most similar to that of the corre-
sponding benzophenone (82a, Table 39). The activity Another example of the use of carbonyl bioisosteres
of the amide-linked (82c, Table 39) and the sulfur- is illustrated for a novel series of thiazolidine-2,4-
linked derivatives (82d-f, Table 39) was also similar diones that were evaluated as potent euglycemic
to that of the benzophenone. While the sulfoxides agents. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
and sulfones are recognized as nonclassical bioiso- (NIDDM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by
steres suitable for replacement of a carbonyl group, hyperglycemia as well as insulin resistance and/or
thioethers such as 82d are not. However, the lack impaired insulin secretion.148,149 Most commmonly
of any significant difference in activity upon replace- used agents in the therapy of NIDDM are the
ment of the carbonyl with either a thioether, sulfoxide sulfonylureas.150,151 CP-86,325 (85a, Figure 69) is
or sulfone, which differ widely with respect to their representative of a relatively new class of glucose-
polarities and hybridization, suggests that this por- lowering agents.152 Several bioisosteres in which the
tion of the molecule is not critically involved in LTB4 ketone moiety of CP-86,325 has been replaced, have
receptor binding. This example illustrates how bio- been synthesized and evaluated for their ability as
isosteric analogues can be used to identify those sites glucose-lowering agents (Table 41). While these
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3168 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

86a with respect to their ability to antagonize LTE4-

induced contraction.
b. Replacements Involving the Entire Carboxylate
Functional Group. In 1932, it was discovered that
Prontosil (87, Figure 71) was able to provide cures
of streptococcal infections in mice.155 The active form
of Prontosil was later proven to be p-aminosulfanil-
Figure 69. amide (88).156
Table 41. Euglycemic Activity of Various Ketone
Isosteres
% glucose
dose normalization in
compound X (mg/kg) ob/ob mousea
85a CH2CdO (CP-86,325) 1 100 Figure 71.
85b CH2SO2 5 69
85c CONH 5 64 The mechanistic basis for the antimicrobial activity
85d CH2C(NOH) 5 100
85e CH2C(NOMe) 5 100
of sulfonamides is their ability to act as competitive
inhibitors of the incorporation of p-aminobenzoic acid
a Ciglitazone was dosed at 50 mg/kg as a positive control
associated with the formation of dihydropteroic acid,
and results are reported as the percentage of glucose normal-
ization compared to the standard ciglitazone-treated group
thereby, ultimately inhibiting the biosynthesis of
(100% at 50 mg/kg) and the vehicle treated group (0%). dihydrofolic acid (Figure 72).157 Thus, one of the
earliest synthetic antibiotics developed consisted of
an antimetabolite in which a nonclassical bioisostere
bioisosteres did retain activity as euglycemic agents, replaced a carboxylic acid moiety.
none of these analogues exhibited potency similar to While sulfonamides represent one of the first
85a153 (Table 41). nonclassical bioisosteres used to replace the carboxyl
3. Carboxylate Group Bioisosteres group, there has been increased interest in the use
Nonclassical bioisoteres for the carboxylate group of tetrazole as a nonclassical bioisosteric replacement
consist of replacements which involve (a) only the for carboxylate groups. Table 43 outlines a compari-
hydroxyl portion or (b) both the hydroxy and carbonyl son of the physicochemical properties of the carboxyl
fragments of this functional group. group and its anionic derivative with those of the
a. Replacements Involving Only the Hydroxyl Por- tetrazole in both its neutral and anionic state.
tion. The types of nonclassical bioisosteres used for Replacement of the carboxylic acid moiety with a
the replacement of the acidic hydroxyl group of a tetrazole is well known and has increasingly been
particular carboxylic acid are similar to the nonclas- used with success within different classes of medici-
sical bioisosteres which have been previously outlined nal agents. Comparison of these groups at physi-
for phenolic hydroxyl groups. This subclass of bio- ological pH reveals that the tetrazole group is almost
isosteric replacements used in place of the carboxy- 10 times more lipophilic while having similar acidity,
late group will, therefore, not be reviewed in detail. pKa ) 4.9, to that observed for carboxylic acids (pKa
The determination of suitable replacements for the 4.2-4.4).
carboxylate group is often based on the ability of the Table 43. Aromatic Substituent Constants for
bioisostere to possess similar acidity and to exhibit Carboxylic Acid Bioisosteres117
similar physicochemical properties. Replacement of bioisosteres σp π MR
the hydroxyl moiety of a carboxylic acid with a phenyl
OH 0.45 6.9
sulfonamide, for example, results in the formation C
-0.32
of a sulfonimide. The estimated pKa values for O
sulfonimides are similar to that of an aryl carboxylic –O 0.00 -4.36 6.0
acid. A recent example of the use of this bioisoteric C
O
replacement is in the development of indole derived H 0.56 -0.48 15.6
leukotriene antagonists (Figure 70).154 As indicated N N
in Table 42, there is little difference between the N
N
sulfonimide derivative 86b and its parent compound –N N 0.35 -3.55 14.6
N
N

A recent study of second generation benzodiazepine

CCK-B (cholecystokinin) antagonists (89, Figure 73)
Figure 70. can serve as an illustration of the bioisosteric re-
placement of the carboxylate group with a tetrazole
Table 42. Biological Activity of
7-[6-Hexanamidoindol-1-yl]heptane Derivatives moiety resulting in enhanced potency due to the
reduced hydrophilicity.158 The effect of increasing
% antagonism of 8 nM
compound X LTE4-induced contraction
lipophilicity, upon replacing a carboxylic acid with
tetrazole, on CCK-B receptor binding can be seen in
86a OH 53 Table 44. Further replacement with an oxadiazolone
86b NHSO2Ph 58
ring in place of the carboxylic acid resulted in even
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3169

Figure 72.

greater potency at the CCK-B receptor (Table 44). the pendant phenyl group and the sulfone was noted
The greater activity of tetrazole and the oxadiazole as being responsible for the increased potency of
is attributed to the optimal placement of the polar analogue 90c as compared to analogue 90d (Table
substituent facilitating a favorable interaction within 45).
the CCK-B receptor.

Figure 74.

Table 45. Biological Activity of Indole Acid

Figure 73. Leukotriene Antagonists
Table 44. Receptor Binding Affinities and Solubility test %
Properties 3-(Phenylureido)-1,4-benzodiazepines concentration antagonism
compound X Y (10-7 M) of LTE4
R IC50a (nM) CCK-B solubility, mg/mL
90a H COOH 100 44
OH 6.69 4.7 90b H SO3H 100 48
C 90c H CONHSO2Ph 1 42
O
90d H SO2NHCOPh 100 37
H 1.02 3.74
N N
N Table 46. LTE4 Antagonism of Indole Acid
N Leukotriene Antagonists
H
O
0.266 0.41 test %
N concentration antagonism
O compound X Y (10 M)
-7 of LTE4
N
90e OCH3 COOH 10 59
a
Concentration of compound required for half-maximal 90f OCH3 1H-tetrazol-5-yl 10 50
inhibition of the binding of [125I]BH CCK-8s to receptors in 90g OCH3 CONHSO2CH3 100 100
guinea pig cortical membranes. 90h OCH3 CONHSO2Ph 1 100

Other commonly used isosteres for the carboxylic Among the methoxy analogues (90e-h, Table 46),
acid moiety, besides sulfonamides and tetrazoles, it was also observed that the phenyl sulfonimide
include sulfonate and phosphate. Among these bio- (90h) was 100 times more potent than the methyl-
isosteric replacements, both the sulfonates and phos- sulfonamide (90g). In this study, the tetrazole
phates are more hydrophilic than the carboxylate analogue was also shown to be equipotent to the
anion and are 100% ionized at physiological pH. carboxylic acid. The methylsulfonimide, however,
To illustrate the applicability of these replace- was only one-tenth as active as the carboxylic acid
ments, the literature outlines a systematic structure- derivative (90e, Table 46). The pKa value of the
activity study of the carboxylic acid region in a series methylsulfonamide is similar to that of the phenyl-
of indole- or indazole-derived leukotriene antagonists sulfonamide and the carboxylic acid.160 The in-
(90, Figure 74).154 The peptidoleukotrienes are known creased potency of the phenylsulfonamide compared
to be the active components of the “slow reacting to the methylsulfonamide in this instance was at-
substance of anaphylaxis” (SRS-A).159 SRS-A is tributed to a region of the receptor which specifically
believed to be an important biological mediator in binds the phenyl of the sulfonamide (90h).
several disorders, especially human allergic diseases. The phosphate, as previously noted, can be viewed
Thus, the design and development of selective an- as being interchangeable with the carboxylate moiety
tagonists of leukotrienes presents a potential target and other related bioisosteres. In a recent study, a
for the treatment of asthma. number of functional end groups attached to the
In a series of leukotriene antagonists (Table 45), 9-position of guanine by an alkyl side chain (Figure
it was observed that the sulfonic acid analogue, (90b) 75), were evaluated as phosphate mimics on the basis
was equipotent with the carboxylic acid (90a). Bioi- of their ability to inhibit purine nucleoside phospho-
sosteric replacement with the sulfonimide moiety, rylase (PNP).161 This provided a sensitive method
which has a pKa similar to that of the carboxylic for the evaluation of the ability of these groups to
acid,160 resulted in a 100-fold increase in activity. occupy the phosphate binding site of PNP.
Transposition of the carbonyl and sulfonyl groups The data obtained (Table 47) reveal that the
resulted in a loss of activity which was similar to that sulfonic acid interacts quite well with the phosphate
of a carboxylic acid. The spatial relationship between binding site, while the carboxyl group does not
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3170 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

Figure 77.
Figure 75.
the application of the “transition-state peptidomi-
Table 47. Inhibition of Purine Nucleoside metic” principle. This principle involves the replace-
Phosphorylase by Guanine Analogues ment of the hydrolyzable peptide linkage with non-
compound Y IC50 (µM)a hydrolyzable transition-state isosteres.175 Figure 79
outlines the hydrolysis of a peptide bond with its
91a PO3H2 0.04
91b SO3H 0.18 transition-state intermediate. A series of transition-
91c SO2NH2 100.0 state mimetics of the peptide bond is illustrated in
91d COOH 8.0 Figure 78.
91e CONH2 200.0
a Concentration required to cause 50% inhibition of calf

spleen PNP.

interact as well. The sulfonamide (91c) and the

carboxamide (91e), however, have little affinity for
this binding site. X-ray crystallography studies show
that the binding of the sulfonic acid analogue is
almost identical to that of the phosphate analogues,
as illustrated by the IC50 values. The loss of activity
by substitution of the phosphate with the carboxy
group was specifically related to the hydrogen bond-
ing of the carboxyl group with the hydroxyl of serine
220 and the amide nitrogen atom of methionine 219
of PNP. These interactions pull the guanine moiety
out of the position it normally occupies in the purine
binding site of PNP.
4. Amide Group Bioisosteres
Bioisosteric replacements for the amide represents
an area that is currently the center of focus because
of its implications in peptide chemistry and the
development of peptide mimetics. Peptide bonds and
peptide fragments have been replaced with a wide
variety of structural moieties in attempts to convert Figure 78.
peptides into chemically stable and orally available
molecules. In view of the fact that replacements for Listed in Table 48 are possible bioisosteric replace-
the peptide bonds have been reviewed exten- ments for the amide bond. The ability of these
sively,162-163 only some of the bioisosteric replace- groups to be suitable bioisosteres depends on the role
ments of the amide will be discussed. the amide group plays in eliciting the biological
Esters have been widely used as replacements for activity and the ability of the bioisostere to mimic
amides. In the section on cyclic vs noncyclic bioiso- this role as closely as possible. Two examples will
steres, the use of heterocyclic rings as replacements be discussed, one in which the hydrogen donor and
for the ester moiety has been illustrated. Heterocy- acceptor functionalities of an amide are required for
clic rings such as 1,2,4-oxadiazoles (92),164-168 1,3,4- maintaining biological activity and another in which
oxadiazoles (93),169-171 and triazoles, such as the the amide group functions only as a spacer between
1,2,4-triazoles (94)172 (Figure 76), have also been used two functional groups.
as replacements for amide or ester bonds.
Table 48. Bioisosteres of the Amide Bond
bioisostere formula
amide -NHCO-
reversed amide -CONH-
thioamide -NHCS-
amide homologue -CH2NHCO-
Figure 76.
ketomethylene -COCH2-
urea
Some of the other heterocyclic rings used in pep-
-NHCONH-
methyleneamino -CH2NH-
tidomimetic chemistry include the 2-isoxazoline173 carbamate -NHCO2-
(96, Figure 77) and imidazoline moieties174 (97, thiocarbamate -NHCOS-
Figure 77). ester -CO2-
Another approach that has facilitated the design sulfonamide -NHSO2-
hydroxyethylene -CH(OH)CH2-
and development of HIV protease inhibitors has been
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Bioisosterism: A Rational Approach in Drug Design Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 3171

Figure 79.
The enzyme acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltrans-
ferase (ACAT) catalyzes the formation of cholesteryl
esters from cholesterol and fatty acyl-CoA. Ac-
cumulation of cholesterol and its esters in coronary
arteries is a prominent feature observed in athero-
sclerotic patients. Further evidence suggests that
ACAT is necessary for hepatic very low density
lipoprotein secretion176 and intestinal absorption of Figure 81.
cholesterol.177 Thus, inhibition of ACAT may be of
therapeutic value in the treatment of atherosclerosis 5. Thiourea Bioisosteres
by reducing the amount of cholesterol absorbed in the
intestine, reducing VLDL secretion, and retarding Thiourea bioisosteres have been successfully em-
the accumulation of cholesteryl esters in the artery ployed in the development of H2-receptor antagonists.
walls.177 In an attempt to define the structural Histamine H2-receptor antagonists have been widely
features for potent ACAT inhibition, a series of oleic used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease. Side
and fatty acid analogues were synthesized with effects such as agranulocytosis observed in early
various bioisosteric replacements of the amide group. clinical studies with the H2-antagonist metiamide
These were evaluated for their ability to inhibit (100, Figure 82) was attributed to the thiourea
ACAT in vitro (Table 49).178 moiety. Replacement with a guanidino group (101,
Among compounds 98e-h listed in Table 49 (Fig- Figure 82) resulted in absorption problems because
ure 80), it was observed that only the urea bioisostere of its high degree of ionization at physiological pH.
98e retained ACAT inhibitory activity in vitro. Ap- Further, bioisosteric substitution with the cyan-
parently, bioisosteric substitutions having both hy- oguanidino derivative provided cimetidine (102, Fig-
drogen bond donor and acceptor functionalities were ure 82), which was twice as active as metiamide as
required to maintain potent inhibitory activity as an inhibitor of gastric acid secretion. The presence
illustrated by the thioamide (98d), carbamate (98f), of a polar nonbasic functional group attached to the
urea (98e), and thiocarbamates (98g) in Table 49. secondary position of an (ethylthio)methyl substituent
The location of the hydrogen bond donor and acceptor on an aromatic heterocycle exists for all four of the
was important for activity since the reversed amide major H2-antagonists which are in clinical use.
(98b) was less potent than the amide. These include cimetidine, famotidine, ranitidine, and
nizatidine.

Figure 80.
Table 49. In Vitro Activity of Bioisosteric Analogues
of 2,4,6-Trimethoxy Anilides of Oleic and Stearic Acid
compound X Y IC50a (µM)
98a NHCO C17H33 0.044
98b CONH C18H35 9.4
98c CH2NH C18H35 >100 Figure 82.
98d NHCS C17H33 0.9
98e NHCONH n-C18H37 0.9 In the continuing search for novel H2-antagonists,
98f NHCO2 n-C18H37 7.1
98g NHCOS n-C18H37 5.7 a series of 2-guanidino-4-pyridylthiazole derivatives
98h CH2NHCONH n-C18H37 >5 (103, Figure 83) were synthesized and evaluated for
a ACAT inhibition in vitro in intestinal microsomes isolated
gastric antisecretory activity.186 Replacement of the
from cholesterol-fed rabbits. cyano group in the cyanoguanidine moiety with
electron-withdrawing groups such as a sulfonylalkyl
In contrast to the previous example, the main group or nitromethine resulted in retention of
function of the amide group in retinobenzoic acids activity. However these analogues were less potent
(99, Figure 81) appears to be in the positioning or than cimetidine (Table 50).
spacing of the m-dialkylphenyl and the p-carboxy-
phenyl group.179
It was observed that amide (sNHCOs) group
replacements179,180 such as sCONHs,180,181
182,183
sSO2NHs, sCOCHdCHs, -NdNs184,185 re-
tained activity, regardless of their electronic proper-
ties or ability to act as hydrogen bond donors. Figure 83.
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3172 Chemical Reviews, 1996, Vol. 96, No. 8 Patani and LaVoie

Table 50. Pharmacological Activities of

2-Guanidino-4-pyridylthiazoles
% inhibition of
X gastric secretiona
cimetidine 53
NHC(dNCN)NHCH3 15
NHC(dNSO2CH3)NHCH3 24
NHC(dCHNO2)NHCH3 18
a Inhibition of histamine-stimulated gastric acid secretion Figure 85.
in the lumen-perfused stomachs of the anesthetized rats.
Table 52. Pancreas Receptor Binding Affinities for
3-(Benzoylamino)benzodiazepines
6. Halogen Bioisosteres compound X -log(IC50)a
The last class of isosteres which will be discussed
105a Cl 8.54
are the isosteres for the halogens. Halogens have 105b CN 7.37
been replaced by electron-withdrawing groups such 105c CF3 7.70
as a cyano or trifluoromethyl group. Replacements a
Micromolar concentration of maximal inhibition of binding
of this type were observed in a series of 1-[(2- of [125I]CCK-33 or [125I]CCK-8 to rat pancreas.
hydroxyethoxy)methyl]-5-benzyluracils (104, Figure
84) that were tested for inhibition of liver uridine IV. Conclusion
phosphorylase (UrdPase).187 Uridine phosphorylase Bioisosteres modulate biological activity by virtue
is an enzyme that catalyzes the reversible phospho- of subtle differences in their physicochemical proper-
rolysis of pyrimidine nucleosides. Uridine phospho- ties. Systematic correlation of physicochemical pa-
rylase is responsible for the degradation of chemo- rameters with observed biological activity has been
therapeutic agents such as 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridylic very effective in highlighting subtle differences within
acid.188 Thus, the development of agents belonging bioisosteric groups which often increase activity. Of
to this class has been of chemotherapeutic interest.189 significance is the ability of these bioisosteric groups
Within the series of 5-benzyluracils, it was suggested to define some of the essential requirements of the
that electron-withdrawing groups at the 3-position pharmacophore. This is especially important when
decreased potency. This hypothesis was supported the synthesis of a large number of drug candidates
by the observation that replacement of the chloro for evaluation is not economically feasible. A number
atom with stronger electron-withdrawing groups of less known replacements have not been reviewed
such as the cyano or the trifluromethyl resulted in because of their inability to demonstrate bioisoster-
less potent analogues (Table 51). ism in more than a single class of agents. In this
review, an attempt has been made to explain the
rationale behind the use of bioisosteric replacements
using examples from current literature. It is hoped
that this systematic approach will facilitate the use
of bioisosteric replacements in future structure-
activity studies.
Figure 84. V. Acknowledgments
Table 51. Uridine Phosphorylase Inhibition of We thank Dr. David Kimball of Bristol-Myers
5-Benzyluracils Squibb, Inc., and our colleagues Dr. Joseph E. Rice
and Ms. Jung Sun Kim in the Graduate Program in
compound X IC50a (µM)
Pharmaceutical Science at Rutgers College of Phar-
104a Cl 2.5 macy for their review and comments.
104b CN 13.2
104c CF3 21.4 XII. References
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