Ashley M.

Johnson

November 12, 2008

Negative Effects Displayed by Offspring Exposed to Multiple Prenatal Factors

In January 2009, my first child will be welcomed into this world. There is so much to

learn in such a short period to time and the curiosity that I have about the effects my actions will

have on my child is immense. I understand that the actions of expectant mothers around the

world play a huge role on the outcome of the children they bear. Aspects as important as what

expectant mothers chose to ingest all the way down to where they decide to live play a part in

their offspring’s outcome. The results can be perfectly healthy children or children born with

birth defects or even children born with behavior disorders. According to the information

presented by the Environmental Protection Agency about 120,000 babies or 1 in 33 in the United

States are born each year with birth defects. Webster’s dictionary states that a birth defect is

defined as an abnormality of structure, function or metabolism present at birth that results in

physical or mental disabilities or death. Several thousand different birth defects have been

identified. Statistics presented in the ___________ state that birth defects are the leading cause

of death in the first year of life. Genetic and environmental factors, or a combination of these

factors, can cause birth defects. Amazingly, the causes of about 70 percent of birth defects are

unknown. In many cases, a single gene change can cause birth defects. Every human being has

about 20,000 to 25,000 genes that determine traits like eye and hair color. Genes also direct the

growth and development of every part of our physical and biochemical systems. Genes are

packaged into each of the 46 chromosomes inside our cells. Environmental substances that can

cause changes in these genes or cause birth defects are called teratogens. These include alcohol,

certain drugs/medications, infections, and certain chemicals.

3,000 new chemicals are brought to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for review prior

to their manufacture. There are more than 15,000 chemicals that are produced in quantities

greater than 10,000 pounds per year and 2,800 are produced in quantities that exceed one million

pounds annually. Reports indicate that only 43 per cent of these “high volume” chemicals have

been tested for human toxicity, and only 7 percent have been evaluated for their potential effects

on human development. It is possible that these toxic substances have the capacity to disrupt the

development of all of the body’s organ systems. The nature and severity of that disruption

depends upon many factors. These factors include the type of substance, the level and duration

of exposure, and most importantly, the timing during the developmental process. Early assaults

can lead to a broad range of lifelong problems in both physical and mental health. The essay will

delve into multiple environmental effects on the embryo/fetus, drug interactions with the

embryo/fetus, and the effects different stressors inflict on the embryo/fetus.

There are certain chemicals and toxins expecting mothers are exposed to without their

knowledge. These chemicals and toxins are exposed to the expectant mother through her

environment. Be it the job she works at or the neighborhood she lives in. These toxins can pose

a severe threat to the embryo / fetus without the knowledge of the mother. These substances

come from many places, including contaminants in foods, chemical waste that accumulates in

water and plants, and synthetic materials. These environmental toxins are often heavy metals.

Heavy metals are present in complex chemical mixtures that break down over time, leading to

the release of individual toxins that enter the bodies of embryos/fetus through the placenta and

expecting mothers through eating, skin absorption, or inhalation. They include lead and

mercury. Other dangerous environmental toxins are organophosphates.

Surprisingly dangerous levels of these heavy metals are frequently measured in our

environment. These heavy metals interfere with the construction of the basic framework of the

maturing brain as well as with its function. These toxic effects include disruption of neural cell

migration from one part of the brain to another, as well as the formation of connections among

cells, each of which is essential for building normal brain architecture. Heavy metals also

interfere with neurotransmitters, which are the natural body chemicals that carry signals from

one cell to another. These neurotransmitters are responsible for all brain functions, including

learning, control of emotions, social interactions, and such fundamental processes as movement,

vision, hearing, and touch. The most complex of these functions, which involve thinking and

feeling, are the most susceptible to disruption by toxic exposures.

Lead is a metal that was found for many years in gasoline, paint and other products used

in homes and businesses. Although lead is still present in the environment, the amounts have
decreased greatly since the 1970s when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

banned its use in these products. Women who live in older homes may be exposed to lead in

deteriorating lead-based paint. Many homes built before 1978 were painted with lead-based

paint. Crumbling paint can produce lead dust when the surface is disturbed, especially when it is

sanded or scraped. A pregnant woman also can be exposed to significant amounts of lead in her

drinking water if her home has lead pipes, lead solder on copper pipes, or brass faucets. Other

possible sources of lead in the home include lead crystal glassware and some ceramic dishes,

some arts and crafts materials, certain folk remedies for upset stomach, including those

containing greta and azarcon, vinyl mini-blinds imported from other countries lead solder in cans

of food imported from other countries, old painted toys, and cosmetics containing surma or kohl.

Many people are exposed to lead on the job. These jobs include painters, plumbers and those

working in smelters, auto repair shops, battery manufacturing plants or certain types of

construction.

Exposure to high levels of lead during pregnancy contributes to miscarriage, preterm

delivery, low birth weight and developmental delays in the infant. Lead is harmful even after

birth. Children exposed to high levels of lead may develop behavioral and learning problems,

slowed growth and hearing loss. Lead can have adverse effects on several specific aspects of

brain development as well. These include the formation and sculpting of the networks of

connections among brain cells as well as the process by which fatty tissue forms insulation

around nerve fibers like the insulation around the electrical wires in a house. The disruptive

effects of lead are due largely to interference with the normal function of several important

neurotransmitters, including dopamine, glutamate, and acetylcholine. The primary functional

deficits resulting from lead exposure, which have been demonstrated through repeated studies in
both humans and animals, include a range of problems in learning, behavior, and the ability to

focus and sustain attention.

Mercury is a metal that is found naturally in several forms. It is a shiny, silvery-white

liquid used in thermometers. Mercury can evaporate and become a colorless, odorless vapor. It

can combine with other material to form compounds that are dangerous to human health. People

can be exposed to mercury by breathing in air, eating food or drinking water contaminated with

mercury. Mercury can also enter the body through the skin. Mercury occurs naturally in the air

we breathe. It can also be released into the air by burning of waste , burning of coal in power

plants, and certain industrial processes. Currently, emissions released by coal-fired power plants

are the most important source of environmental mercury in the United States. Mercury in the air

eventually falls back to earth and builds up in oceans, lakes, rivers and streams. The fish in these

waters absorb the mercury. When people eat these fish, they are exposed to mercury. People can

also be exposed to mercury in other ways. Three types of exposure are dental fillings, broken

thermometers, and broken fluorescent and high-intensity light bulbs.

Mercury can damage many parts of the body, including the nervous system, the lungs, the

kidneys, vision, and hearing. The seriousness of the risk depends upon how much mercury a

person is exposed to. The risk is greater for fetuses and children than for adults. Babies who are

exposed to mercury while in the womb can suffer severe damage to the nervous system and may

die. They may have brain damage, learning disabilities and hearing loss. Mercury disrupts brain

development by inhibiting important enzymes and preventing certain cells from dividing to

produce more neurons and support cells. Research shows that mercury also increases the

vulnerability of the brain to the adverse effects of other toxins at levels that are otherwise thought

to be below dangerous thresholds, thereby producing a so-called “double hit.” As for all
neurotoxins, the degree to which developing brain architecture is disrupted by mercury

ultimately depends upon the timing and level of exposure, each of which is influenced by the

source of the toxin.

Organophosphates are common ingredients in insecticides used widely in agricultural

regions and by professionals for control of insects. The most widely investigated of the

organophosphates, chlorpyrifos (CPF), kills neurons, causes defects in neural cell migration, and

reduces connections among brain cells. Other organophosphates also affect the production of

neurons, supporting cells, and neurotransmitters. Thus, organophosphates disrupt a wide range of

processes that are essential for the formation and function of brain circuits. Although animal

research demonstrates that organophosphates produce microscopic changes that are difficult to

detect, studies of functional outcomes in both animals and children demonstrate that modest

changes in brain architecture caused by exposure to CPF can lead to measurable problems in

learning, attention, and emotional control. These substances have all been exposed to the

expectant mother by her environment and circumstances that are hard for her to avoid but there

are some causes of birth defects which are easily avoidable. These are recreational drugs and

medications.

The most common recreational drugs that embryo and fetuses are exposed to are alcohol,

nicotine, and cocaine. These contaminants are known as neurotoxins. They interfere with

chemicals that are necessary for the formation of normal brain architecture. Extensive human and

animal research indicates that each agent causes different functional deficits that are influenced

by the level, duration, and timing of the exposure. Recreational neurotoxins are most damaging

during pregnancy because of the heightened susceptibility of the embryonic and fetal brain to

developmental disruption. Research designed to pinpoint the precise biological impacts of

high prevalence of multiple exposures and the difficulties in conducting careful studies of

individuals who are addicted to illegal substances. Even more important, it is often difficult to

separate the biological impact of fetal exposure to toxic recreational drugs before birth from the

physiological effects of environmental stresses facing children whose parents have a substance

abuse problem, both of which can harm the developing brain. Nevertheless, despite these

research challenges, there is abundant scientific evidence that exposure to dangerous levels of

recreational neurotoxins at particularly sensitive times in the developmental process can disrupt

the architecture of the brain.

Alcohol produces the most devastating disruptions of early brain development. The

brain changes caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy are most evident in the structure

of cell membranes. The cell membrane contains the proteins that are responsible for the ability

of growth factors and neurotransmitters to perform their normal functions. The adverse impacts

of alcohol are so powerful that they also can interfere with the development of organs that often

are spared by other toxic exposures, including those of the cardiovascular, digestive, and

musculoskeletal systems. Thus, high levels of alcohol exposure during pregnancy have been

shown to produce a combination of problems that have been characterized as the “fetal alcohol

syndrome,” According to the National scientific council on the developing child each year

between 1,000 and 6,000 babies are born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) in this country. FAS

is a pattern of mental and physical birth defects that is common in babies of mothers who drink

heavily during pregnancy. FAS is a serious medical condition involving multiple organ systems.

Once again, the timing of the toxic exposure is most important. Alcohol exposure in the embryo

and fetus can cause different kinds of disruptions of brain architecture by killing neurons or
stalling their migration during critical developmental periods. The potential long term functional

outcomes of such disruptions in both human and animal studies include cognitive deficits such as

mental retardation, reduced emotional control, problems with attention, and hyperactivity.

Nicotine exposure from cigarette smoking during pregnancy also has a well

documented adverse

impact on the structure and function of the fetal brain. Nicotine binds to a membrane protein that

is responsible for the function of acetylcholine, a naturally occurring neurotransmitter in the

adult brain that also is present during fetal development. When pregnant women smoke, oxygen

delivery to the fetus is reduced and high levels of nicotine exposure result in decreased overall

growth. Both animal and human studies also have documented cognitive impairments associated

with fetal nicotine exposure, although these effects are significantly milder than those resulting

from alcohol or other toxic chemicals.

Cocaine, is known as a psycho-stimulant. It has been shown to cause functional

impairments in animals and humans who experience prenatal exposure. However, unlike the

adverse effects of alcohol and other neurotoxins that are noticeable in early childhood, the

damage from prenatal psycho-stimulant exposure may not be apparent until later in life.

According to The National scientific council on the Developing child. The specific impact of

exposure to psycho-stimulants in humans has been relatively difficult to investigate, because

pregnant women who abuse cocaine or other psycho-stimulants typically use alcohol and

nicotine as well. Psycho-stimulants act by interfering with the regulation of a class of

neurotransmitters whose activation and inactivation are important for normal function in fetal

brain development. Animal studies demonstrate that psycho-stimulants such as cocaine cause

changes in the maturation of brain cells located in specific circuits that affect the ability to focus
attention and regulate emotion. Most prospective studies of prenatal cocaine exposure in humans

report relatively modest developmental changes in infants and toddlers but measurable problems

with attention, hyperactivity, and mood control as the children are followed into their early teen

years.

A variety of prescription drugs that are safe for adults can cause serious damage to an

immature nervous system. For example, both human and animal studies indicate that prenatal

exposure to valproate, which is used to treat seizure disorders, can cause neural tube defects and

substantial disruption of early brain growth and architecture. Moreover, studies of postnatal

exposure in animals demonstrate both destruction of brain cells and alteration in the formation of

neural circuits involved in cognitive and behavioral functions. As expected from this type of

developmental disruption, valproate exposure during pregnancy can cause mental retardation,

other cognitive deficits, and impaired emotional control. Other medications can contribute to

birth defects. For example, the acne drug isotretinoin (sold under the brand names Accutane,

Amnesteem, Claravis and Sotret) poses a high risk of serious birth defects. A woman who is

pregnant or who could become pregnant should never use this drug.