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141 views43 pagesMATH1411 Section 1 Solutions
Solutions for 1st-year university maths exercises
Uploaded by
demorachCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 43
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS
MATH 1141
HIGHER MATHEMATICS 1A ALGEBRA.
Section 1: - Complex Numbers.
1. The Number Systems.
Let us begin by trying to solve various algebraic equations. Suppose we only know about
the set of natural numbers (written as N). Then we can solve the equation z— 3 ~ 2 and
obtain the solution x = 5. On the other hand, if we try to solve the equation +3 =2 then
there is no solution! To solve this equation we need a larger set of numbers which includes
the negative whole numbers as well as the positive ones. This set is called the set of integers
and is denoted by Z. Continuing this idea:
[In@ [e+3=2]ae=2
No solution
Ge w=?
No solution
TR: e+1=0
No solution At each stage in the above we are able to solve each new type of equation by extending the
set of numbers in which we are working. Hence, to solve the equation 2? = —1 we introduce
@ new symbol i (much as we introduced the symbol V2 to solve z* = 2.) We define i to be
the (complex) number whose square is —1. ie. # = —1. Using this new symbol, we can now
solve x? = 1 to obtain solutions x = +i, Furthermore, we can define the complex numbers
by:
Definition: The set of all numbers of the form a + bi where a,b are real numbers and
i = 1 is called the set of all complex numbers and denoted by C.
Summary of Basic Rules and Notation:
Let z
+ ib,w = c+ id be complex numbers. Then
() z£w= (ato) +idbea)
(i) zw = (ae ~ bd) + i(ad + be)
(ii) 2 = 228 x id = ootneiteno
(iv) Re(z) =a, Im(2z)
fi Example: 2 = 2—-4i,w=3 +3, find 2+,
eh
@ Ex: Simplify (1+ 6)®
CP: Let n be an integer. By considering cases, simplify i" + 241 4 71? Q&
© Bivwawed Koomulag
GeeSnr Ber sven
ES) x< 2 eke rors
eae5 = Sh aelw 4 Sew" w
cuekag te eR e
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vw
(= +) = 2 rey on = Ww «re We. at
Ww w
A Cet a
w
NS, cs a a ww .
wee
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\.(*
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©, As with the set of real numbers and the set of rational numbers, if we add, subtract, multiply,
or divide (with the exception of division by 0) any two complex numbers, we again obtain
a complex number. This property is called closure. The complex numbers are closed under
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (not by 0). A set of objects which has
these (and a number of other properties) is called a field in mathematics, The real numbers
and the rational numbers also form fields, but the integers do not, since they are not closed
under division. ‘The natural numbers are not closed under subtraction.
The above examples are all infinite fields. In addition to these, there are finite fields, which
you will study in more detail in higher years. Here are some simple examples.
Definition: Given two integers a,b, we can write
=bg+r, with O acvixcadi —
=> (andy sG-di co.
Reuse x Qe {a teed.
We weed do shew ai
We \ovee, aa =O,
Gre “ = beg a by 7 a
we yay
Ss at eo —» aaa oe
5 ust as Ae a
<> Cee-D (ete ea =o.
OL Se DHOH LEO
= AREY 248
ah 2 2 Zz. a= @)
Vake bbikemie® formule
OH= Goede OS
AL xed
w
a ch cn
wee Lh. AQ » (weadyo
\
Sh Ae
Oo hk wet div a
SB Woe da ba &
2. wy RA Oy
a ES Example: To show just a little of the power of complex numbers, we seek to find a simple
closed formula for (") 5 (2)+ (7) tet (0)
where n is an integer divisible by 6.
‘We begin by noting that if w is a complex cube root of unity then 1+w* +w** can only take
the values
Now expand out (1+w)” and (1 +)".
Hence if € is the largest integer such that 3€ < n we have
()*(3) + @) ++
Finally, if n is a multiple of 6,
(2+ (L+u)" +(1+0%)")
cole CP: Suppose n > 1 is a multiple of 4. By expanding (1+4)",(1—a)",(1+1)®, and (1-1)",
find, in as simple a form as you can, the sum
(a) + (2) + @) ++)
Polynomial Equations:
We can now solve ALL quadratic equations.
Ex: Solve
4x +1=0and 2? —32+(3+1) =0.
Note also that we can find ‘new solutions’ to old equations such as 2° — 1 =
Both of these are examples of the following remarkable theorem:
Theorem. (Fundamental theorem of algebra, FTA)
Suppose p(t) = ant” + an 12"! + +--+ ay + ag is a polynomial, whose co-efficients
4q,°*+ ,@1,@ ar all real (or complex) numbers, then the equation p(«) = 0 has at least
one root in the complex numbers,
Corollary: The equation p(x) = 0 has exactly n (complex) solutions in the complex num-
bers (counting multiplicity) ~ —
(The last proviso ‘counting multiplicity’ refers to polynomials which may, for example, have
factors such as (x — 2)* in which case the root x = 2 is counted four times.)
The above result tells us (among other things) that we do not need to find any larger
set of numbers if we want to solve polynomial equations. The complex numbers contain all
the roots of every polynomial. ©
—
©
Bre dx dA =O
i Vanek
C ats yee ES KET SEN EACH
Ba Ee SN
<= ye 2) ASS
on
ana - Ss 7
w= SENATE EA
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Qay= ew Cyadyt > s=O
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Suloslilude_ Rew VV
(es5 APD (usw aan
BR Dbva sea VP Blucv) ae
Ye af “D(a =h
Assume Ove moO = We 4 av as
Nl. owe on :
racers ar a {v2 wre.
shite Sgro. Solution of Cubics:
‘The FTA tells about existence, but doesn’t give us the machinery to actually find the roots
of a polynomial. For quadratics we have the quadratic formula, what about cubies?
‘The first thing to observe is that every cubic equation x3 + px? + gx + r = 0 can be re-
written in the following form:
Ppartb=0, depressed
4
This is achieved by the change of variable, x = y — 2 ‘J cubic!
Example: Remove the square term in
Dba +043
Put r=y+2
Cardano stole from Tartaglia, the secret of solving the cubic. He made the change of variable
1 =u—v. It is technically easier to put. 2 =u-+v
Example:
Find the real root of 2° +32 = 1 Strange things can happen when we apply this method to cubics which have three real roots.
Example: Solving r* — 6x + 4 = 0 which has x = 2 as one of it roots.
Square Roots:
@) Solve 2? = —3 + di. Go + me
=P ante ant bye My + ==
< ae De (&-2d “LGAs
OD
”2 OP Bat d =O >
“Mey on « Jy — 2 Oo
~Lt
Xam Vase
oO) zt m= tg oun
At)
ee yh dey , =
we RH —_—=> \.. ~ fe B
dey =k
au low yh J
ales y= —4
By qe Q=h q be 4 oo
we ire eC Se HAH orm
A 2é Conjugates: When solving a quadratic equation (with real roots) over the complex num-
bers, you will have observed that the solutions occur in pairs, in the form a+ bi and a — bi.
There are called conjugate pairs. We say that,a—bi is the conjugate of a+bi (and vise-versa).
To represent this, we use the notation z = a+ bi, Z = a—bi. This conjugate operation has
the following properties:
i zEw
ii, w=
iii, (§)
= z if and only if z is real.
Re(2). B-SZ- ZIM? ,
‘You will prove these and similar results in the tutorial exercises.
Viztz
Also note that repeated application of (ii) gives (a+ bi)” = (@¥ bi)”.
The Argand Plane:
Complex numbers can be represented using the Argand plane, which consists of Cartesian
axes similar to that which you used to represent points in the plane. The horizontal axis is
used to represent the real part, and the vertical axis, (sometimes called the imaginary azis),
is used to represent the imaginary part. For example, the following points have been plotted:
3, 21, -3 + 2i, 4 + i.
KadiMer 4
Sulolracien aP
CombReye Numbers
corre speucl do
+3 42% 2 SS vn
crea Mery
Ati
Complex numbers then are 2-dimensional, in that we require two axes to represent them,
Observe that a complex number z and its conjugate eee each other
in the real axis. We lose the notion of comparison in the complex plane. That is, we cannot say whether one
complex number is greater or lesser than another.
‘You have already seen that complex numbers can be expressed cither in Cartesian Form,
a+ ib,a,b€R. We can also specify a complex number z by specifing the distance of z from
the origin and the angle it makes with the positive real axis.
This distance is called the modulus and written as |z| while the angle is called the argu-
‘ment and written as Arg(z). We insist, to remove ambiguity, that —7 < Arg(z) <7.
Pythagoras’ theorem gives:
Ifz=a+bi then |2|=Vath. = \| QS
Care must be taken to find the correct argument. It is easiest to find the related angle 6 such
that tan@ = [8] and then use this to find the argument in the correct quadrant recalling
that we use negative angles in the third and fourth quadrant.
Ex: Find the modulus and argument of z= —1 + iV3 and w = 1 -2i
Properties of Modulus:
‘The modulus function has the following properties:
(i) zw
(i) | = jap Provided w #0.
(iii) le
0e7=0.
(iv)
10 . ;
_ a a
I= {is BS Jee = he
w= sea J5
Leo vy
QW = Tolan 2 = = dew! 2 ey) OAD is, wilt ~oxakes) a>
=> OP LON => Owe OR =O
—> Cesd . Cass S= eat bd =D.
On He oor round)
Re c> =Re (eis) (c-idS) =
= Re (ec stadt (lee-addSy —
2ac« bd Qer>
Se | DABS Ww sight ~ansled <>
=> Pe WBS =o.
Now
a ee
lepl = GPE -
= G-BLAB) =
~ ha mae — Pa + F —
= \a\7 ft ~ 2Re (ore =
oa Example: (Sums of squares)
We can write the integer 5 as 2? +1? = |2+ |’. We can also write the integer 13 as
2 +3? = [2+ 3:/?, Hence
‘Try doing the same for 17 and 29.
CP: Use the idea above (not expansion) to prove that (a?-+b?)(c?-+d2) = (ac—bd)?+(ad-+be)?
and conclude that, in general, the product of any two numbers which are each the sum of
two integer squares, is itself the sum of the two integer squares.
This begs the question: What numbers can be written as the sum of two integer squares?
This is a hard problem. Experiment with prime numbers and make a conjecture.
CP: Suppose A and B are two points in the complex plane corresponding to the com-
plex numbers a = a+ ib and § = c+ id respectively.
Explain why the triangle QAB is right-angled if and only if
la = BP = lo? + (a
Show that if triangle OAB is right-angled then ac = —bd. Deduce that if triangle OAB is
right-angled then Re(aB) = 0
ul Properties of the Argument:
We can distinguish between the principal argument of 2, written Arg(z), which is uniquely
defined and takes values between —7 and = (excluding ~r), and the more general argument,
written arg(z), which is a set of values, We have Arg(z) = arg(z) mod 2r, which means
that we'can recover Arg(2) from arg(z) by adding or subtracting the appropriate multiple
of 2r.
‘The Argument function has the following properties:
(i) Arg(zw) = Arg(2)+Arg(w) mod 2n.
(ii) Arg(z/w) = Arg(z)—Arg(w) mod 2n.
The proofs of these will become apparent later.
Ex: Suppose |a| < 1, use a diagram to explain why |Arg(}#2) | < 3
12 Polar Form:
(r(cos@ + isin 8)
From the diagram, we can see that the complex number z can be written in the form
2 = 1(cos6 + isin 4), where r is the modulus of z and @ is the argument of z. For example,
‘the complex number 1 —i can be written as
®
ra
Yo 5) = Von
This is sometimes called the polar form of z, You will need to be able to convert a com-
plex number from cartesian form, (a + bi), into polar form and vice-versa, For example,
V3(cos ¥ + isin 3) = 8 +48
You may have seen the abbreviation cis to represent cos@ + isin@. You should not use
that here, since your tutor may not know what it is. This form is NOT generally used in
books beyond High School. Moreover, as we shall see, this polar form, is really a stepping
stone to a much better form which involves e. One important fact about the polar form is
a remarkable result called:
De Moivre’s Theorem:
For any real number @, and any integer n, we have
08nd + isin nd.
(cos@ + isin)"
The proof of this, looking at the various cases of n is given in the algebra notes. The method
of proof by induction is used. Note that the result also holds for n rational which we will
find useful later than finding roots
In fact
Let us see how useful this result can be: >
Ex: Let = 1 ~iv3. Find 2”. Cees Sx«t uD) Cees aiShudd
S = Cos(Q+D + Laid QD
13 Let us write de Moivre’s theorem as follows:
Let f(0) = cos9 + isin 6, then (f(8))" = f(n8). Also f(0) = 1
Euler did the following:
He supposed we can differentiate the function, treating i just like a real number.
If we momentarily ignore the logical difficulties involved then_f’(9) = i(cos 0 + isin
Comparing this with $(c!) = ie, we can see then that this fanction seems to have prop-
erties that are very similar to the exponential function e“. We will therefore define:
Definition: e' = cos@ + isin (and hence e~ = cos@ — isin 4)
‘This formula is sometimes called Euler’s formula. We shall take it to be a definition
of the complex exponential.
Thus, any complex number z can be expressed in the polar form
z=re@ .
where r is the modulus and 6 the argument of z. For example, z = 1 —
This last formula is quite remarkable since it links together the four fundamental constants
of mathematics. In a very important sense, this is the best way to write complex numbers.
‘We have used the term polar form in two different senses. From now on, when I sey polar
form, | will (generally) mean this ential form. You ought to be able to convert a
complex number from cartesian form to polar form and vice-versa.
Note the following important facts:
(i) The conjugate of the complex number z = e" is given by =
(ii) e# (9+2k") where k is an integer.
‘We can write cos@ and sind in terms of the complex exponential as follows:
Otel ; og
Do and sing = FF —
cos @ =
4 — ro Cees sc
ae e (cay eran (- w®S) ~
=
a ~
& eis ae aac
a
Sa4H~ ee Sete We Whey BE CWS
S
= -Je+i
oe
We de. = $3 228
2
Ae) Directoy,
GD Q-UB) = (4B Be
by wher feo, ge MOET OB)
\e= aed 3 a“
\HR HO
ki
(SY) Cvatady ~ojze
Tas Cy = Van
) 1O_
22 From the polar form, we can deduce the properties of modulus and argument which we
listed earlier. Let z = re and w = re then zw = ryrze**2) from which it follows
that
Jew| =|zllw| and Arg(zw) = Arg(2)+Arg(w) mod 2n.
Ex: Convert z = 2c", w = 3c" to Cartesian form:
Ex: Evaluate the product (1+ #)(1 — iv3) in two ways to show that cos %
The rules for multiplication of complex numbers in polar form tell us that when we
multiply two complex numbers together, rotation and stretching are involved. In particular, since i= e*¥, multiplying a complex number by i has the effect of rotating z anti-clockwise
about the origin, through an angle of 00°
Ex: Find the complex number obtained by rotating (4 + 2i) anti-clockwise about the
origin through #.
More generally, to rotate complex number anticlockwise around 0 through an angle 4, we
multiply it by e”.
Ex: Rotate 3 —# anticlockwise about 0 through an angle of §
CP: Suppose wi,w2 are two complex numbers such that 0 < Arg(w;) < Arg(w2). Show
that the triangle in the complex plane whose vertices are given by the origin, w; and w» is
equilateral if and only if w? + w3 = wrw2. (Hint: Try to write wz in terms of w, using the
rotation idea.)
16 ‘The Triangle Inequality:
‘The modulus operation has a number of other useful properties, but two very important
ones are:
Reverse deiona Re
ii. (The Triangle inequality), |z1 + 22] < |zi| + lzal eR -
I will leave you to prove the first of these and look at the second:
Proof of (ii):
Ex: Prove that every root of the polynomial p(z) = 24 +z +3 lies outside the unit circle in
the complex plane.
17 CP:
a. Find an upper bound on the maximum of the modulus of p(z) = 425 — 2z +1 over all
complex numbers z which lie on the unit circle,
b. Prove that |z; + za] 2 ||zi| — |zol|- (Hint: Start with |z1| = |z; + 22 — zal).
¢. Hence find the minimum value of the modulus in (a). (Note that there are two things
to prove here.) Get MAPLE to plot the real and imaginary parts (use trigonometric polar
form) of p as z moves around the unit circle.
Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers:
Ex: Find (1 — vi)",
To find roots of complex numbers, we will use the polar form. Note that to find the nth
root of a complex number , we are really solving 2" = a and so we will convert a into polar
form. Such an equation will have n solutions! (by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.)
‘To get all of these solutions we express a in polar form, using the general argument, not the
principal one. An example will make this clear.
Ex: Find the 7th roots of —1
18 (e\-2.|~ ee x25 =
~ ey Sy et Sy =, SSL =
= \s\raRe (B=) + YT
Deserve \Re@e =| = \a\ ie
Wea a lat we) A
@ Resume oppose. Ve,
PRy=o Flee
he a \ehal =
S>D>- dea.
_Coutvedie len
BS) ya Sd ely |a,-8
SS (ape) = lah be| If we plot these complex numbers we see that they lie on a circle radius 1 and are equally
spaced around that circle.
Ex: Find the 5th roots of 4(1— 4)
19 Appli
tions to Trigonometry:
wuler’s formula gives a dramatic relationship between the exponenti
rinctions,
and trigonometric
We can exploit this to deduce useful relationships and identities in trigonometry.
<< Fx: Find an expression for cos 58 in terms of sines and cosines.
Observe that one can also easily obtain corresponding formula for sin 5@ by taking the imag-
inary parts of both sides.
‘Web Activity: Use Google to find some information about the Chebychev Polynomials
(there are various spellings of Chebychev) and see how they are related to the above example.
Ex: Taking the problem the other way round, express sin® @ in terms of sine and cosines
of multiples of 8.
20 BS (ese BO + PStc8) =
BS
= CaS ATS) =
= Carr + Biles *O SAS + an
Le gy
= COS Ut — Vk
\ B vo
~ NOC texteak® 6 4
~ Seo Shhe 4 (eo
a,
lor SO = CoB = HEPOsie 4
+ 5 CHOshic .
aaa
BWA SB = SLPS —W UolO shes +
* Bem (OSS
» VO ~WO\-
ZO ~
=) ASo = \“ i =
“2a
BIS 8.
=i (e =<" Rane —\0e +
20t ane
-AS _ >
~ Bo
~— 4 OS Zslu 5S — \WiSl a s,
Ze |
AuSE - 5BSuaQ +tloSlu e) Such a formula is extremely useful in i ion, where one might, for example, wish to
integrate sin? 8.
CP: Find a similar formula for sin* 9 cos® 8.
Example: Suppose 0 < 9 < 2 and n is positive integer. Show that
a), Sinn +910
2 2sin §
Use this to find a simple closed formula for
1+ cos@ + cos 26 +... + cos(n8)
(Try to find a similar formula for the sine sum.)
21 Regions in the Complex Plan
In this section we see how to represent regions in the argand plane algebraically. For exam-
ple, the set_A = {z € C : |2| < 3} represents the set of points whose distance from the origin
is less or equal to 2 (NB. [z —a| measures the distance between z and a.) Hence this set
represents a disc radius? centre the origin:
Similarly, the set B = {z € C : |z+1| < 2} represents the open disc centre (—1, 0) radius
22 The set C = {x € C:0 < Arg(z) < #}
separated by an angle of 60°
represents a wedge vertex at the origin, and arms
Note that the origin in NOT included since the argument of 0 is not defined.
Similarly the set D =
point 4 as shown.
Here are some further examples:
€ C: 0 < Arg(z ~i) < } represents a wedge centre the
Ex: Sketch {z € ©: |z-i+ 1] <2}N{z €C: Re(z) > 0}
23 Ex: Sketch {2 € C: |z— 3] < 2}U {2 € ©: Im(z~3i) > 0}
More on Polynomials:
The fundamental theorem of algebra, mentioned above, tells us that in the complex plane,
all polynomials have all their roots. This is a very powerful theoretical tool, but it does not
explicitly tell us how to find these roots for a given polynomial. Moreover, if we know the
roots then we also know how to factor the polynomial. You will need to recall a number of
basic facts about polynomials from High School, which are:
Remainder Theorem: If p(z) is a polynomial then the remainder r when p(z) is di-
vided by x ~ a is given by pla)
Factor Theorem: If p(a
O then (x — a) is a factor of p(z).
It is important to look at what the underlying set is when we are factoring, for exam-
ple, z* — 2 does NOT factor over the rational numbers, but it does over the real numbers,
(x + V2)(« — V2). Similarly, x? + 1 does not factor over the real numbers but does over
‘the complex numbers. From the fundamental theorem of algebra, it is clear that over the
complex numbers, all polynomials completely factor (at least in theory) into linear factors.
Theorem: Every polynomial (with real or complex co-efficients) of degree n > 1 has a
factorisation into linear factors of the form:
P(z) = a(z = a1)(z — a2)-++(z — an)
where a1,09,++* , dq are the (complex) roots of p(2
This result, still does not tell us how to factor. Nor does it tell us much about factor-
ing over the real and rational numbers. For example, does the polynomial 2‘ +4 factor over
the real numbers or rational numbers?
24 The key to factoring over the real numbers, is to firstly factor over the complex numbers
since in the complex plane the polynomial ‘falls to pieces’ into Imear factors.
Ex: Factor 2‘ + 1 over the complex numbers and hence over the real numbers.
Ex: Factor 2° +8 over the complex and real numbers
Note that if the co-efficients of the polynomial are real, then the roots occur in conjugate
pairs. Proof:
From this is follows that
can be factored into a product of real linear
Theorem: A polynomial with real co-efficient
and/or real quadratic factors,
Proof: Factor p(z) over the complex numbers in the form
P(z) = a(e ~ by)--- (@~b,)(@ — ar) —
where the 6;'s are real and the a,’s are complex (non-real). By the above theorem, these
must occur in conjugate pairs. Now each such pair of factors containing the conjugate pairs,
can be expanded, viz:
(c
Now a+a = 2Re(a) and so is REAL, and also aa
we obtain has REAL co-efficients.
is also REAL. Hence the quadratic
26 @) Lek BOD= aay + oe
vet ches asa a eR
Mz<@ a rot se Peo=s
Mow )
© Agt y Sees. td gy =O |
“Tel \ °. .
oka, rar f ©;
KH ee a 4
We * uy Te hy Ee RE =O
Vowever shueg to seq ye eR
ha Ae y) ey yee ye
Se PG
