FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
VSI
The VSI records the rate of change of static pressure
Is a capsule fed with static pressure in a case also fed with static.
The metering unit, a very small gap ( hole ), permit the retard needed for the
differential pressure between the capsule and the case
The differential pressure is maintained as long as the aircraft continues to climb
or descent but once level, the pressures equalize and returns again to zero
The difference in pressure ( since the gap is capillary ) persist for about 6-9
seconds. So is unreliable
A change in static pressure can lead to a false judgment giving an indication of
climbing or descending ( particularly during take-off, go-around and in
turbulence )
A static blockage will cause the VSI to read zero during climb or descent
The IVSI ( inertial VSI ) differ from the simple VSI. It counters the lag including in
the static line two weights with springs. This acceleration is also sensed during
normal accelerations so is a disadvantage
Not reliable in more than 40’ banking turns or while changing the load factor in
turn but is reliable in a steady turn
Most VSI and IVSI displays a logarithmic scale
On start-up it must read zero and within the specified limit
If there is an ADC ( air data computer ) the barometric height is displayed as
vertical velocity
A modern aircraft can also use IRS
Pilots in modern aircraft can program the autopilot and the flight director
system APFDS, the flight management system FMS, the ground proximity
warning system GPWS
All this is converted into electronic display EFIS
ALTIMETER
Indicate the altitude by detecting changes in static air pressure
1) simple altimeter 2) sensitive altimeter 3) servo altimeter
In the simple altimeter static pressure is fed to the instrument casing by a tube
and the capsule inside the case expands as the aircraft climb since there is less
pressure and vice versa. The capsule is connected to a rotating needle by a
system of linkages. You can set the correct pressure trough a subscale
Simple altimeters are calibrated to read only under ISA conditions at all heights
At high altitudes, where the pressure change is small, simple altimeters is
unreliable. The linkages fail to transmit changes in static pressure instantly so
there is a time lag in recording rapid altitude changes
The capsule itself is not perfectly elastic so will distort differently for large
increases and decreases in altitude HYSTERESIS ERROR
Any change of sea level pressure from the datum set on the altimeter subscale,
will give an incorrect altitude reading BAROMETRIC ERROR
When temperature differs from ISA, there can also be an error
TEMPERATURE ERROR
If the static line becomes blocked, the pressure inside the instrument cannot
change so whether climbing whether descending no changes in altitude are
displayed
There are 5 pressure datum:
QFE: when you put in the subscale a value that zeros the altimeter on the
airfield datum or if you put the actual pressure at the airfield elevation
QNH: when the subscale setting permits the altimeter to read aircraft altitude
above MSL and therefore airfield elevation. Is like QFE reduced to a sea level
with ISA temperature values.
Airfield QNH must be set on the altimeter when departing from an aerodrome
in controlled airspace. There is also regional QNH.
QFF: like QNH except it uses the actual station temperature to calculate the sea
level pressure, not ISA
QNE: is not an altimeter setting but is the height shown at touchdown on the
altimenter with 1013mb set on the subscale
Standard setting is 1013,25mb or the equivalent 29.92 inches
The sensitive altimeter uses the same principles as the simple altimeter but
increases the sensitivity by having more pointers
Later instruments have a digitiser box to send flight level information to the ATC
transponder ( is a sensitive altimeter )
Servo assisted altimeters increase the accuracy of the system
When the I bar is disturbed, one of the E bar produces a greater voltage than
the other one. This resulting voltage difference is fed to an amplifier then to a
servomotor which through a feedback system repositions the I bar so that the
air gaps are once again equal. The servomotor displacement is a measure of the
capsule expansion.
Simple altimeters usually are single pointer; sensitive altimeters began with 3-
needle displays but since they are difficult to read by pilots under stress, later
types and servo assisted altimeters have a digital and single needle redout.
TEMPERATURE
At temperatures above ISA separation will be greater and vice versa
Calculate barometric and temperature errors separately and first the barometric
errors
In air temperature that differ from ISA, the altimeter error will be approximately
4ft per 1000ft of height above the pressure datum for every degree of deviation
from ISA
It is only in temperatures below ISA that the altimeter will overread and the
error will be dangerous
In temperatures of ISA -15’ C or lower corrections must be applied for DH/DA or
MDH/MDA or for MSA….
Ground elevation will be touchdown elevation
MACHMETER
Approaching the speed of sound, the airflow around changes dramatically and if
the aircraft is not designed for supersonic flight it can have a loss of control,
instability or stall
The speed of sound MACH 1.0 does not remain constant. It’s speed decreases
with decreasing temperature
So it cannot be measured against TAS or IAS
Machmeter gives the pilots an indication of his speed relative to the speed of
sound so that the dangerous area can be avoided
At high altitudes it is usual to cruise not at an IAS but at an indicated Mach
number, often around 0.82 to 0.87
That’s why Mach number indications are often incorporated in the ASI
LSS = Local speed of sound
LSS = 38.94 x radice quadrata di T the answer is a TAS
Is also possible to do Mach Number = TAS/LSS
The second method involves navigation computer
The Machmeter suffers only from instrument and pressure error
Density and temperature error are self-compensated
If the pitot source becomes blocked, it shows the same error as an ASI. The
mach number will remain unchanged until static pressure changes in a climb or
descent. In a climb the airspeed capsule will have excess static pressure trapped
so will over read and vice versa
If is the static sources that is blocked, during climb excess static pressure is
trapped in the case and the Macheter will under read
