DYNAMICS

1.1 KINETICS
Kinetics is the study of the forces which cause and affect motion (e.g.
gravitation, friction, spring forces, etc.)

1.2 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

For a point mass, Newton’s three laws of motion are defined as follows

1 in the absence of any applied force there can be no change of velocity.

2 F = ma (bold, underlined type indicates a vector).

3 to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

NOTE: Newton’s laws can also be applied to the motion of the Centre of Mass
(CoM) of bodies of finite size. The CoM behaves like a point mass with the
same mass as the object provided there is no moment of the applied forces about
the centre of mass.

1.3 THE ACTION OF GRAVITY

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For an object close to the earth’s surface, g is approximately constant .

1.4 INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE

Whenever the equation of motion (N2) is applied, measurements of acceleration
should be made from a
Newtonian or inertial frame of reference. Such a co-ordinate system

This ensures that acceleration measured by observers in two different inertial

frames of reference will always be the same
For motion of planetary objects, satellites etc, it is appropriate to consider the
inertial reference frame as fixed to the centre of a solar system or galaxy.
For most DYNAMICS problems, we can consider in inertial frame fixed to the
earth. NOTE that in reality, the earth rotates around its own axis, and around the
sun, but the accelerations created by these rotations can be neglected in most
computations.
e.g. Centripetal acceleration of the earth due to its rotation around its own axis
(equatorial):

consider also the centripetal acceleration due to the earth’s motion around the
sun: (assuming a circular orbit):
ar = –Rω2 = – 1.50 X 1011 X [2π/(365 x 24 x 3600)]2 = – 0.006 m.s-2

1.5 FREE BODY DIAGRAMS

STEP 1 Identify the body or system to be considered in isolation, and draw its
outline shape

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STEP 2 Identify all the forces that act on the body, clearly showing the
direction of the force. These would include any applied forces, friction, elastic
(spring), and gravity forces. Remember to include all the reaction forces (N 3)!
STEP 3 Draw the Kinetic Diagram showing the vector of the resultant motion,
given by ma.

Block of mass 50 kg. µ=0.3

2. KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of point masses or rigid bodies. We will
typically be concerned with calculating position, displacement, velocity, etc
where acceleration is determined from a kinetic analysis.

2.1 Kinematic equations in Cartesian co-ordinates

Let, s (x,y,z) = f(t)

r r dsr
s& = v = ,
dt

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 2r r
&sr& = ar = d s = dv
dt 2 dt

Now a , v and s are all functions of one variable only, (time). We can relate a
and v as follows:

This equation is very useful, because it allows us to solve certain problems by

eliminating time, t.

For a general case where acceleration is not constant, but may be some function
of time (or velocity, or displacement),
these kinematic equations can be used to solve problems by integrating
directly:

NOTE: To integrate this, you will need to know the function a(t).

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 EXAMPLE 1

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2.2 Equations of motion – constant acceleration
c.f. GCSE / A level:

u+ v
s= t
2

v = u + at

1 2
s = ut + 2 at

2 2
v = u + 2 as

The derivations of these equations are obtained by integrating Newton’s Second

Law directly. Using gravitational acceleration as an example, we have:

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 dv
a = –g = v
ds

∫ – g . ds = ∫ v. dv

v2
−g s = + const
2

This constant is clearly related to the velocity of the mass when s = 0. If s = 0

when t = 0, the constant must be u2/2.

3.1 FRICTIONAL FORCES

These are forces resulting from rigid bodies moving or sliding over a surface.

Surface exerts an upwards force N on the block, equal to the weight m g

A frictional force F opposes any tendency of motion (i.e. from N2 any

unresolved force) in any direction at right angles to N.

F is of magnitude ≤ µ| N |

F subject to F . N = 0

µ = co-efficient of friction – a material property.

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Thus if a force other than the normal force acts on the block to move it, the
frictional force will act to oppose this force. Usually, F is independent of v
to first approximation, but the surface may heat up, thereby changing µ.
(Also once the bLock is in motion, the frictional force might drop slightly
and this is termed the ‘dynamic friction’)

NOTE: The line of action of | F | is through the bottom of the block i.e. at the
point/surface of contact, NOT through the CoM.
There are other forms of friction, for example due to fluid drag:

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 EXAMPLE 2

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 EXAMPLE 3

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4.1 ACTION OF ELASTIC FORCES — SPRINGS
Consider a simple spherical mass suspended by an ideal elastic spring (no
damping) in a gravitational field. If disturbed from the equilibrium position, the
resulting motion in the absence of any external forces is termed free vibration.

The mass is given a downward displacement from

the equilibrium position, and then released. At
some time t, the mass has a vertical distance z from
its equilibrium position. Assume the spring has an
elastic constant, k (N/m): The mass will be subject
to an elastic restoring force

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This is a second order differential equation relating the displacement, z, with
time. To obtain the explicit relationship it is necessary to integrate twice. We
then obtain:

z(t ) = asin( ωn t + α)

where a and α are constants. (a) is known as the amplitude. The value of α
(known as the phase angle) will depend on the instant from which time is
measured and/or the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. This is
arbitrary. For example, suppose that when

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 NOTE: • The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position (i.e. the
amplitude) will remain constant with time, only in the absence of
damping forces. This is usually not true in reality.
• The frequency is independent of the amplitude of vibration.
This type of motion is called SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION, because the
acceleration is proportional only on the displacement from some fixed point

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A 50 kg piece of electric equipment is supported on four springs each of stiffness 7500 N/m.
The base on which the equipment is placed is subject to vertical vibrations characterised by
xB=0.002cos(50t) m. Determine the amplitude of the movement of the equipment if there is no
damping.

EXAMPLE 4

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 EXAMPLE 5

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5.1 CURVE-LINEAR MOTION – ROTATION

First we look at the special case of 2-D motion around a point at fixed radius

Consider the diagram adjacent. The natural

unit of angular measurement is called the
“radian”, and is defined, for small angles
∆θ, as:

Here v is the component of velocity in the circumferential or angular direction.

Also known as the tangential speed, vθ.

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Centripetal acceleration and force

(a) (b)

Consider the motion of a point P, moving along a circular path of radius r and
centre O, with a constant angular velocity ω rad/s. The object moves at constant
tangential speed vθ = r ω, but the velocity is not constant, because the direction
is changing.

If P moves from position 1 to 2 in a short time ∆t, as shown, then the arc P1P2
will subtend a very small angle, ∆θ. The change in velocity is shown on the
diagram (b) as the vector difference OP2 – OP1. If ∆θ is very small, then the
vector P1P2 can be computed by assuming it to be an arc of a circle of radius vθ.

This is called CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION, directed towards the centre

of rotation O.

From N2, a force must exist to produce this acceleration. This is called
CENTIPETAL FORCE.
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By N3, an equal but opposite force must exist – the CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,
equal in magnitude but directed outward. For example, if you drive in a
roundabout, the centrifugal force is the force you exert on the roundabout. The
centripetal force is that which the roundabout exerts on you to keep you turning
in a circle.

5.1 CURVE-LINEAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

If the motion of a rigid body or particle is along a curved path, it can be
convenient in engineering problems to describe the motion in terms of polar (2-
D), or cylindrical (3-D) co-ordinates.

Polar co-ordinates
If point P is the position of an object along a motion path at an instant t, then
the position of the object may be defined by the radius, r, at an angle θ, with
its direction given by the unit vectors as shown in the diagram adjacent:

POSITION:

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 VELOCITY:
The velocity at point P, at time t is To determine u&ˆ r :
r
dr r&
= r = r&uˆ r + ru&ˆ r
dt For very small ∆t, ∆θ:
(chain rule) ∆uˆ r ≈ ∆θ ur uˆ θ = ∆θuˆ θ
{
=1

given that: ∆ uˆr  ∆θ 

lim = lim   uˆ θ
∆t→ 0 ∆t ∆t→ 0 ∆t 

then
u&ˆ r = θ& uˆ θ

ACCELERATION:
The acceleration at point P is
r
dv &r&
= r = &r&uˆ r + r&uˆ& r + r&θ& uˆ θ + r&θ&uˆ θ + rθ& uˆ& θ
dt

To determine u&ˆ θ :

For very small ∆t, ∆θ:

∆uˆ θ ≈ ∆θ uθ ( −uˆ r ) = − ∆θ uˆ r
{
=1

∆ uˆθ  ∆θ 
given lim = lim   (− uˆ r )
that: ∆t→ 0 ∆t ∆t→ 0 ∆t 

uˆ& θ = − θ& uˆ r
then

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Using uˆ& θ = −θ& uˆ r , u&ˆ r = θ& uˆ θ and grouping terms

r
a = ( &r& − rθ& 2 )uˆ r + ( r&θ& + 2r&θ& )uˆ θ or

r r
a = a r uˆ r + a θ uˆ θ

r r
where, a r = &r& − rθ& 2 , aθ = r&θ& + 2r&θ& This last term is the

Coriolis term.
r
The magnitude is: | a |= ( &r& − rθ& 2 ) 2 + ( r&θ& + 2r&θ& ) 2

EXAMPLE 6

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Cylindrical co-ordinates

If a particle moves along a space curve, which includes motion in z direction,

then we can develop the above relationships for cylindrical co-ordinates r, θ,
and z.

The z co-ordinate is identical to that used in Cartesian co-ordinates, and since the
unit vector defining its direction, uˆ z , is constant, the time derivatives of this
vector are zero. Therefore position, velocity and acceleration are written in
cylindrical co-ordinates as follows:

POSITION rP = r&uˆ r + zuˆ z

VELOCITY v = r&uˆ r + rθ& uˆ θ + z&uˆ z
r
ACCELERATION a = ( &r& − rθ& 2 )uˆ r + ( r&θ& + 2r&θ& )uˆ θ + &z&uˆ z

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 EXAMPLE 7

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6.1. WORK & ENERGY, POWER, and MOMENTUM

6.2 WORK AND ENERGY

A force is said to do work, or transfer energy, when it moves its point of
application. The amount of work done is the scalar product of the force, F, and
the displacement, s, of its point of application:

If the force varies during the displacement, the work done is the area under the
|F| vs. |s|cosθ graph.

NOTE: Work is a scalar quantity, but remember to take the force component in
the direction of the displacement!

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Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. Mechanical energy may be
stored within a body in three different forms: (1) potential energy, (2) strain
(elastic) energy, and (3) kinetic energy.

Potential energy
is the energy possessed by a body because of its position in a “force field”. For
example in a gravitational field, if a body of mass m is raised to a vertical height h
above a datum level, a force mg is required to lift it. Thus the work done in raising
the mass is F. s = mgh. This amount of energy is stored in the mass and is
recoverable by allowing the mass to fall and do useful work in the process.

Strain Energy
is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its elastic deformation. When a spring
is stretched beyond its natural (free) length, the force required during the extension,
increases uniformly from 0 to kx,

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Kinetic energy
is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. If a body of mass m
has a velocity v, a force must have been required to accelerate the body from
rest to that velocity.

Conservation of energy
Initial energy + energy added = final energy + energy removed

This applies to any system. In a dynamics problem, the initial and final
energies will be made up of potential, kinetic and elastic energies. Energy can
be added or subtracted by external forces, (e.g. friction, which turns mechanical
energy into thermal energy (heat). This is sometimes called the work done W.
For a system with external forces acting on it, we can write a Work Energy
Equation

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 EXAMPLE 8

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6.3 POWER AND EFFICIENCY
Power is defined as the amount of work performed or energy transferred per
unit of time. The instantaneous power is defined as:

The (mechanical) Efficiency of a “machine” is defined as the ratio of the output

of useful power, to the input power supplied:

power output
ε=
power input

or, for work done at a constant rate and efficiency

energy output
ε=
energy input

NOTE: By the second law of thermodynamics, the efficiency of any machine is

always less than 1

7.1 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSES

Consider a particle of mass m which is subject to several forces. Newton 2 for

the particle can be written as:

dv
∑ F = m a= m
dt

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where a and v are the acceleration and velocity of the particle at time t.
Rearranging terms and integrating, we get
t2 v2 t2

∑ ∫ Fdt = m ∫ dv or ∑ ∫ Fdt = mv 2 − mv1 (constant mass)

t1 v1 t1

For problem solving, we can re-write this impulse-momentum equation:

Which states that the initial momentum of the particle at t = t1 plus the vector
sum of all the impulses applied to the mass during the time interval t1 to t2 is
equal to the final momentum of the particle at t = t2
t2

∫t
The integral I = Fdt in this equation is defined as the linear impulse I.
1

NOTE: the impulse vector acts in the same direction as the force, and is a
measure of the effect of the force during
the time for which the force acts.

Impact
Impact occurs when two bodies collide with each other during a very short
interval of time, causing very large impulsive force to be exerted between the
bodies. Nonetheless the impulse I = ∫ F dt is finite. There are two types of
impact: central impact where the direction of motion of the colliding bodies is
along the line of impact, and oblique impact where the motion of at least one
of the particles is at an angle to the line of impact.

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 central collision oblique
collision

Consider an inelastic, central impact between two objects A, and B. We cannot

apply conservation of energy (because collisions are usually inelastic), but we
can make use of the impulse momentum equation.

For a system of particles, the principle of linear impulse and momentum can be
written as:
t2

∑ mi (v i )1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt = ∑ mi (v i )2
t1

If we assume the sum of the external impulses acting on the system to be zero,
then By N3, at impact, the objects both experience an impulse of magnitude |I|
but in opposed directions.

Before Collision After

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where the sum is over all objects in the collision.

In any such collision, each particle will undergo deformation and restitution
(relaxation). During the deformation, each particle will exert an equal but
opposite deformation impulse Id on the others, while during the restitution
period a restitution impulse, Ir pushes the particles apart.

The particles will either return to their original shape or remain permanently
deformed. In reality, the physical properties of any two bodies are such that the
magnitude of the deformation impulse is always the greater, i.e. |Id| > |Ir|

In most cases, the initial velocities of the particles will be known, and it will be
necessary to determine their final velocities. In order to do this, we need
information which relates the initial to the final velocities based on the nature of
the collision itself.

For a central collision we can define a coefficient of restitution,

v b2 − v a2 (v )
e= , or e = rel 2
v a1 − v b1 (v rel )1

that relates the relative velocity of the two objects just after the collision to that
just beforehand:

NOTE for an oblique collision this equation applies only along the line of
impact.

The coefficient of restitution will depend on the nature of the forces, and on the
nature of the particles themselves, thus
it is system dependent. For example, the value of e can be a function of
velocity, surface roughness, etc.

Oblique impacts

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When oblique impact occurs, particles move away from each other with
velocities having unknown directions as well as unknown magnitudes. If the
initial velocities are unknown, then four unknowns are present, (vA)2, (vB)2, θ2,
φ2

To solve such problems, first establish the y-axis at the intersection of the plane
of contact and the plane that contains the vectors vA,1 and vB,1. The x-axis is
along the line of impact.

The impulsive forces act only in the x-direction

Resolve the velocity or momentum vectors into

components along the x- and y-axes. It is then possible
to write four independent scalar equations to determine
(vAx)2, (vAy)2, (vBx)2, (vBy)2.

• momentum is conserved along the line of impact

i.e. ∑ m(vx )1 = ∑ m(v x )2

• The coefficient of restitution, e applies to relative

velocities only along the line of impact (x-axis).

• Momentum is conserved in the y-direction because

no impulsive forces act in this direction

The magnitude and the angles θ2, and φ2, of the final resultant velocities, (vA)2,
(vB)2, can then be found by determining (vAx)2, (vAy)2,(vBx)2, and (vBy)2

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EXAMPLE 9

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Example 10

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Example 11

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Example 12

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