Solutions Manual

(Part 1, Chapters 1-4)

for

Modern Flight Dynamics

1 st Ed.

by

David K. Schmidt

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 Table of Contents

Page

Problem Solutions for Chapter 1 3

Problem Solutions for Chapter 2 20

Problem Solutions for Chapter 3 50

Problem Solutions for Chapter 4 64

Problem Solutions for Chapter 5 79

Problem Solutions for Chapter 6 88

Problem Solutions for Chapter 7 117

Problem Solutions for Chapter 8 133

Problem Solutions for Chapter 9 173

Problem Solutions for Chapter 10 187

Problem Solutions for Chapter 11 230

Problem Solutions for Chapter 12 255

Problem Solutions for Chapter 13 279

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 Problem Solutions for Chapter 1

1. Consider the vehicle discussed in Example 1.2. Assume that the vehicle’s translational and

rotational velocities V and ω V,E are constant. Show that the acceleration of the wing tip with

respect to Frame E is atip = ω V,E x (ω V,E x rtip).

V
ω V,E

Frame V

rtip
RV

Rtip
Frame E

Solution: In Example 1.2 we found that for a rigid vehicle the wing-tip velocity with respect

to Frame E is

dR tip
dt
(
|E = V + ! V , E " rtip )
By definition, the tip acceleration with respect to Frame E is the time rate of change of the

velocity vector with respect to that frame. Differentiating the above vector with respect to

Frame E we have

d ! dR tip $ dV ! d' V , E drtip $

a tip ! |E #
dt " dt
|E & =
% dt
d
dt
(
|E + |E ' V , E ( rtip =
dV
dt
|E + #)
" dt
|E ( rtip + ' V , E ( | &
dt E %

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 (Note that here is a perfect example of why we need to keep track of the frames with respect

to which we are taking the derivative.) But as stated

dV
| =0
dt E
and
d! V , E
|E
dt

drtip # drtip &

Therefore, a tip = ! V , E " |E = ! V , E " % |V +! V , E " rtip (
dt $ dt '

which for a rigid vehicle reduces to the solution sought, or

(
a tip = ! V , E " ! V , E " rtip )
2. Consider a tilt-rotor vehicle shown in Figure 1.7. The engines and rotors on the ends of the

wings are being rotated relative to the wings at the rate ω tilt. Using the vehicle and propeller

velocities discussed in Example 1.3, and appropriately defined position vectors, show that the

velocity of the tip of a propeller may be expressed as

Vtip = V + (ω V,E x rengine) + (ω V,E + ω tilt) x rhub + (ω V,E + ω tilt + ω prop) x rtip

where ω Prop is the propeller speed, or its rate of rotation about its hub.

Solution: From Example 1.3 and Figure 1.5, we have the vehicle velocity given by

dRV
V! |
dt E

and the velocity of the propeller tip given by

dR tip
Vtip = |E
dt

Similar to the definitions of the various vectors in Figure 1.5, let’s sketch the tilt-rotor

vehicle as shown below.

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 Frame V

rEngine ω prop

RV
rtip
rhub

Rtip ω tilt
Frame E

Now note that the position of the tip with respect to the origin of Frame E may be

written as the following vector sum.

R Tip = RV + rEngine + rhub + rtip

So the tip velocity with respect to Frame E is simply the time rate of change of the above

position vector with respect to Frame E. Taking that derivative we have

dR Tip dRV drEngine dr drtip

|E = |E + |E + hub |E + |
dt dt dt dt dt E

Now imagine two additional intermediate frames being introduced here (though not

shown for clarity). The first frame, Frame Engine, is fixed to the engine with origin located at

the engine pivot, and rotates with the engine relative to Frame V at the velocity ω tilt. The

second frame, Frame Prop, is fixed to the propeller with origin located at the propeller hub,

and rotates with the propeller relative to Frame Engine at the velocity ω prop.

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 Now, we may write the various velocities on the right-hand side of the above

expression as follows:

dRV
| !V
dt E

drEngine drEngine
dt
|E =
dt
( ) (
|V + ! V , E " rEngine = ! V , E " rEngine )
# dr &
drhub
dt
dr
( ) ( ) (
|E = hub |V + ! V , E " rhub = % hub |Engine + ! Engine,V " rhub ( + ! V , E " rhub
dt $ dt '
)

drtip drtip # drtip &

dt
|E =
dt
(
|V + ! V , E " rtip = %
$ dt
) ( ) (
|Engine + ! Engine,V " rtip ( + ! V , E " rtip
'
)
The second expression above relies on the fact that for a rigid vehicle the location of the

engine pivot is fixed in Frame V. The third expression can be further expanded to find that

drhub
dt
dr
( ) (
|E = hub |Engine + ! Engine,V + ! V , E + rhub = ! Engine,V + ! V , E + rhub
dt
)
This expression relies on the fact that the propeller hub remains at a fixed position with

respect to Frame Engine. (It does not remain at a fixed position with respect to Frame V,

however.) Finally, the fourth expression becomes

drtip drtip # drtip &

dt
|E =
dt
( )
|Engine + ! Engine,V + ! V , E " rtip = %
$ dt
( )
| prop + ! prop, Engine " rtip ( + ! Engine,V + ! V , E " rtip
'

(
= ! prop, Engine + ! Engine,V + ! V , E " rtip )

Here we have assumed a rigid propeller, in which case the propeller tip remains at a fixed

position with respect to Frame Prop.

Collecting all the terms, the expression for the tip velocity becomes

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 ) (( ) (( )
dR Tip
dt
( ) )
|E = V + ! V , E " rEngine + ! Engine,V + ! V , E + rhub + ! prop, Engine + ! Engine,V + ! V , E " rtip

which is the solution sought.

3. Consider a manned simulator consisting of a sphere on the end of an arm that rotates at a

velocity ω(t) relative to the ground. Inside the sphere is the seated subject of the experiment,

and under the seat is a three-axis accelerometer measuring the acceleration environment

experienced by the subject, or the acceleration of the seat with respect to a ground-based

coordinate frame (assumed inertial). Sketch the simulator showing the relevant coordinate

frame(s), vectors, velocities, and accelerations, and determine the components of the inertial

acceleration vector experienced by the subject.

Solution: As described, the sketch for the simulator is as shown below. Note that an

intermediate frame, Frame Arm, has been introduced, and this frame is fixed to the arm and

rotates with it.

ω

Sphere

XA
Simulator rAccel VSeat
Base YA
Frame Arm
ZA
RBase
YE
XE Frame E
RAccel Location of
Accelerometer
ZE

Assuming the location of the accelerometer remains fixed with respect to the arm (or

the accelerometer is always located along the arm axis), the position of the accelerometer

with respect to the origin of Frame E may be written as

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 R Accel = R Base + rAccel

The inertial velocity of the accelerometer is the time rate of change of this position vector

with respect to Frame E. This velocity, which is taken to be the same as VSeat, is given by

dR Accel dR Base dr # dr &

VSeat ! |E = |E + Accel |E = 0 + % Accel |Arm + ! " rAccel ( = ! " rAccel
dt dt dt $ dt '

assuming the arm is rigid.

The acceleration of the seat with respect to Frame E (assumed inertial) is then

dVSeat d d! dr
a Seat !
dt dt
(
|E = |E ! " rAccel =
dt
)
|E " rAccel + ! " Accel |E
dt

d! # dr &
=
dt
(
|E " rAccel + ! " % Accel |Arm + ! " rAccel (
$ dt '
)

d!
= (
| " rAccel + ! " ! " rAccel
dt E
)
The first term on the right of the above result is not zero if the rotation rate of the arm ω(t) is

not constant. Since

! = "! k E = "! k A
then
d!
| = "!! k E = "!! k A
dt E

Also, letting rAccel = rAccel j A

iA jA kA
d!
we have | " rAccel = #!! k A " rAccel j A = 0 0 #!! = rAccel!! i A
dt E
0 rAccel 0

and

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 ( ) ( )
! " ! " rAccel = #! k A " #! k A " rAccel j A = #! k A " rAccel! i A

= #rAccel! 2 j A

So the inertial acceleration vector of the seat is

d!
a Seat = ( )
| " rAccel + ! " ! " rAccel = rAccel!! i A # rAccel! 2 j A
dt E

4. A point mass, with constant mass m and instantaneous position vector p relative to the origin

of an inertial Frame I, is acted upon by an external force f as well as gravity g. Assume that

another coordinate Frame M has its origin fixed to m, and has instantaneous orientation

relative to the inertial frame given by the Euler angles φ, θ, and ψ as defined in this chapter.

Let the inertial velocity of m be denoted as v, a vector with components in Frame M given as

% iM )
dp ' '
| = v = ! vx vy vz # & j M *
dt I " M M $
'k '
M

( M+

Likewise, assume f has components in Frame M given as f x , f y , and f z . Also assume

M M M

that Frame M is rotating with respect to Frame I at the rate ω M,I, which has components in

Frame M given as ! x , ! y , and ! z . Using Newton’s second law, derive the three scalar
M M M

differential equations governing vx , v y , and vz .

M M M

Solution: Newton’s second law in vector form, Eqn. 1.24, states that

d ! dp $
F=m |I # |I &
dt " dt %
So here we have (1.SM.1)
dv
F=m |I = f + mg
dt

and the situation described is depicted in the sketch below.

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 f

Frame M
m

Frame I

In terms of the parameters given in the problem statement we have

dv dv
|I = |M + ! M , I " v
dt dt

% iM )
dv ' '
where |M = !" v!xM v!yM v!zM #$ & jM *
dt 'k '
( M+

and

iM jM kM
! M ,I " v = ! xM ! yM ( ) ( ) (
! z M = vz M ! y M # v y M ! z M i M + v x M ! z M # vz M ! x M j M + v y M ! x M # v x M ! y M k M )
vx M v yM vz M

Therefore,

' iM +
dv
dt
( (
|I = # v!xM + vzM ! yM " vyM ! zM
$ )) ( v! yM (
+ v x M ! z M " vz M ! x M )) ( v! zM (
+ v yM ! x M )) ) )
" v x M ! yM % ( j M ,
&
)k )
* M-
(1.SM.2)

A stated, we also have the force acting on m given by

% iM )
' '
f = ! fx fy f z # & jM * (1.SM.3)
" M M $
'k '
M

( M+

Plus, letting

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 % iM )
' '
g = ! gx gy gz # & jM * (1.SM.4)
" M M $
'k '
M

( M+

from Eqns. 1.19, we know that

gxM = !g sin "

gyM = g cos"sin #
gzM = g cos" cos#

Substituting Eqns. (1.SM.2)-(1.SM.4) into Eqn. (1.SM.1), and equating iM, jM, and kM

components of the resulting vector equation, we have the desired scalar equations of motion

given by

( M
(
m v!x + vz ! y " v y ! z
M M M M
)) = f xM
" mg sin #

( M
(
m v! y + vx ! z " vz ! x
M M M M
)) = f yM
+ mg cos#sin $

( M
(
m v!z + v y ! x " vx ! y
M M M M
)) = f zM
+ mg cos#cos$

5. Consider the pendulum discussed in Example 1.4. Now add a torsional spring at the pivot

point such that a moment MS is applied to the rod about the pivot, where

$! '
M S = KT & " # ) jI
%2 (

with KT the torsional spring constant.

a. Show that the nonlinear equation of motion is now

$ #'
ml 2!!! + KT & ! " ) + mgl sin ! = 0
% 2(

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 Hint: You can use whatever method you like, but one way is to simply sum moments

about the pivot and include the “inertial force” F = ma acting on the mass (with the

acceleration appropriately defined).

b. Using small-perturbation theory, derive the Reference and Perturbation Sets of

equations associated with the pendulum’s equation of motion.

c. Find all equilibrium conditions for this pendulum.

d. Assess the stability of each of the equilibrium conditions.

Solution to part a: First, a sketch of the pendulum is as shown below, where the acceleration

of the mass a is

a = l!!!

and the force on the mass f is then

f = ma

KT

g
θ
l

m
f

Summing moments about the pivot, and noting that a positive moment is counterclockwise,

we have the equation of motion given by

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 $# '
! fl ! mgl sin " + KT & ! " ) = 0
%2 (
or (1.SM.5)
$ #'
ml 2"!! + KT & " ! ) + mgl sin " = 0
% 2(

Note that the spring is attempting to hold the pendulum at θ = π/2, against gravity.

Solution to part b: Introducing the reference and perturbation quantities through the

following change of variable

! = "0 + #!

the equation of motion becomes

!! + "#!! + K & ! + "# $ % ) + mgl sin ! + "# = 0

ml 2 !( ) ( ) ( ) (1.SM.6)
T (
0
' 0 2 +* 0

By using the trig identity and making the small-perturbation assumption we have

( )
sin !0 + "# = sin !0 cos "# + cos!0 sin "# $ sin !0 + cos!0"#

Therefore, Eqn. (1.SM.6) becomes, under the small-perturbation assumption,

!! + "#!! + K & ! + "# $ % ) + mgl sin ! + cos! "# = 0

(
ml 2 ! ) ( ) ( )
T (
0
' 0 2 +* 0 0

or (1.SM.7)
& 2 & %) )
'
!!
*
2 !!
(
( ml !0 + KT (' !0 $ 2 +* + mgl sin !0 + + ml "# + KT "# + mgl cos!0"# = 0 )
Noting that the first term in parentheses is the original equation of motion, which the

reference displacement angle must satisfy, we have the reference equation given by

!! + K $ ! " # ' + mgl sin ! = 0

ml 2! (1.SM.8)
T &
0
% 0 2 )( 0

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 And after eliminating this equation from Eqn. (1.SM.7), we are left with the following

perturbation equation of motion.

ml 2!"!! + KT !" + mgl cos#0!" = 0 (1.SM.9)

Since there is only one degree of freedom (θ), there is only one reference and one

perturbation equation.

Solution to part c: By observing the action of the spring, which attempts to hold the

pendulum at θ = π/2, we would expect one equilibrium angle to be a little less than π/2,

depending on the spring stiffness. But it will be interesting to explore whether there are other

equilibrium conditions, and upon what factors the results depend.

The equilibrium conditions are governed by Eqn. (1.SM.8), where equilibrium requires

!! = 0 . Therefore, the equilibrium conditions are all the solutions of

that ! 0

$ #'
KT & !0 " ) + mgl sin !0 = 0
% 2(

or

"
( mgl / K ) sin !
T 0
+ !0 =
2
(1.SM.10)

Since (mgl/KT) > 0, and the functions Θ0 and sinΘ0 are both symmetric about Θ0 =0, we

might expect only one solution to the equation, depending on the value of (mgl/KT). Equation

(1.SM.10) is plotted below, for (mgl/KT) = 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 rad, and there is in fact only one

solution for (-π < Θ0 < π). And we see that as the spring constant gets larger (or mgl/KT gets

smaller), the single equilibrium condition approaches π/2, as one would expect.

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 Equilibrium Constraint Equation
4

3 mgl/Kt = 2.0
mgl/Kt = 1.0
mgl/Kt = 0.5
2
Value of Constraint Equation (rad) π/2
1

π/2
-1

-2

-3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Reference Angle, THETA0 (rad)

However, if the spring constant gets sufficiently small, the solution should approach

the case without a spring, and that case has an uncountable number of solutions at nπ, n = 0,

1, 2, 3, …. And this is in fact the case. Shown plotted below is the solution to Eqn. (1.SM.10)

for (mgl/KT) = 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 rad. And in the latter case we see that there are multiple

solutions (here three for -2π < Θ0 < 2π). Consequently, as the value of mgl/KT continues to

increase, there will be more equilibrium solutions. But again, all equilibrium solutions are

those that satisfy Eqn. (1.SM.10).

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 Equilibrium Constraint Equation
8

6
mgl/Kt = 4.0
mgl/Kt = 2.0
Value of Constraint Equation (rad)
4 mgl/Kt = 1.0
mgl/Kt = 0.5
2
π/2

-2

-4 π 3π/2 2π

-6

-8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Reference Angle, THETA0 (rad)

Solution to part d.: The stability of the equilibrium conditions depends on the

characteristic roots of the linear perturbation equation of motion, or Eqn. (1.SM.9). If these

characteristic roots have negative real part, the equilibrium condition is stable.

Let’s consider the case with Θ0 = 1 rad, which corresponds to (mgl/KT) = 0.6783 rad.

(We know from the above analysis that for this value of mgl/KT, Θ0 = 1 rad is the only

equilibrium condition.) Now the perturbation equation becomes

( ml 2
) ( ( )
/ KT !"!! + 1 + mgl / KT cos(1) !" = 0 )
( )
0.6783 l / g !"!! + 0.6335!" = 0

The characteristic equation for the above is

( )
0.6783 l / g s 2 + 0.6335 = 0

for which the two roots are s1,2 = ± j 0.934g / l

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 Since we know that g/l is positive, the two characteristics roots are seen to be

imaginary. So the equilibrium condition is stable in the sense that if the pendulum is

perturbed from the equilibrium condition, it will not diverge from it. But it will continuously

oscillate at a frequency of 0.934g / l rad/sec. This conditional is sometimes called

neutrally stable. Other equilibrium conditions would be evaluated in the same manner.

6. Consider an inverted pendulum on a cart, acted on by a force F(t), as shown in Figure 1.8.

•
m
θ

g l

x F(t)
M

Figure 1.8

a. Show that ignoring friction, the two equations of motion governing this system are

l!!! + x!!cos! " g sin ! = 0

(
x + ml !!!cos! " !! 2 sin ! = F(t)
( M + m)!! )
b. Determine if this system has an equilibrium condition for which the reference force

F0 = C (a constant other than zero).

Solution to part a: The free-body diagram, including the accelerations of the pendulous mass

and the reaction forces at the pivot, may be depicted as shown below. Here,

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 ax = x!! f x = m!!
x

a! = l!!! f! = ml!!!

and the centripetal acceleration and force are

ac = l!! 2 f c = ml!! 2

Summing moments about the pivot yields

mgl sin ! " f! l " f x l cos! = 0

or (1.SM.11)
l!!! + x!!cos! " g sin ! = 0

which is the first of the sought equations of motion.

fθ fc
ax
m
fx
ac aθ

g
l
θ

RX X
RZ

Without drawing the free-body diagram of the cart we may simply sum forces in the

X direction to obtain

F(t) ! M!!
x + RX = 0 (1.SM.12)

The reaction force on the pendulum at the pivot, found from summing forces in the X

direction using the above pendulum free-body diagram is

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 RX + f x + f! cos! " f c sin ! = 0
or
RX = ml!! 2 sin ! " ml!!!cos! " m!!
x

Substituting the above result into Eqn. (1.SM.12) yields

F(t) = !ml"! 2 sin " + ml"!!cos" + m!!

x + M!!
x
or
( M + m)) x!! + ml ("!!cos" ! "! 2
)
sin " = F(t)

which is the second of the sought equations.

Solution to part b: Knowing that the reference conditions satisfy the original equations of

motion, we can write the Reference Set of equations as

!! + X!! cos! " g sin ! = 0

l! 0 0 0 0

( M + m)) X!! 0 (!! cos! " !

+ ml ! 0 0
! 2 sin ! = F
0 0 0)
!! = 0 , so !
And for equilibrium X!!0 = ! ! = C and X! = C . The reference equations now
0 0 " 0 X

become

g sin !0 = 0

"mlC#2 sin !0 = F0

The solutions to these equations are Θ0 = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, …, X! 0 = C X , and F0 = 0. So no

equilibrium condition exists for which F0 ≠ 0. However, the cart may be traveling at a non-

zero constant velocity CX.

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