ALBERT R.

MANiN
LIBRAilY

CORNELL UNIVERSTTY
QC 863.N3""^"""'"""'"-"'"'^

'"•roj'uctory meteorology,

3 1924 002 957 698

 Cornell University
Library

The original of tiiis book is in

tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

the United States on the use of the text.

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INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY
 INTRODUCTORY
METEOROLOGY
PREPARED AND ISSUED
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
DIVISION OF GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

NEW HAVEN
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
MDCCCCXVIII
 COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
 PREFACE.

Meteorology is included in the course of study outlined by the

Committee on Education and Special Training of the War Department
for Students' Army Training Units. The plan involves an intensive
study of the elements of the subject in order to familiarize prospective
Army officers with its chief conclusions and methods. To meet this
requirement Introductory Meteorology has been prepared and issued
under the auspices of the National Research Council with a ,view to
its use in connection with a textbook on Military Geology. It is
recognized that the book is inadequate for the needs of the professional
meteorologists in civil or military service; training in physics and
mathematics is essential in the interpretation of the causes of meteoro-
logical phenomena. On the other hand the book is not intended to be
elementary in the sense ,that it needs no study on the part of students
or elaboration and explanation by the instructor. Instructors will
profit by a study of the books listed in the Bibliography and by con-
sultation with the officials of the local Weather Bureaus.
The manuscript has been prepared by the staff of the United States
Weather Bureau as follows Chapters I, V, VI, VII and VIII by Dr.
:

W. J. Humphreys, Professor of Meteorological Physics. Chapter II

by S. P. Fergusson, in charge of Division of Tests and Repairs. Chap-
ters III and IV by W. R. Gregg in charge of Aerological Investiga-
tions. Chapter IX by J. Warren Smith, Chief, Division of Agricultural
Meteorology. Chapter X by A. J. Henry, Meteorologist and Fore-
caster. Chapter XI and Bibliography by Professor C. F. Talman,
Librarian. Valuable assistance has been given by Professor R. DeC.
Ward of Harvard University and by Dr. Charles F. Brooks of the
Signal Corps School of Meteorology.
Considerable portions of the book are taken verbatim from the pages
of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, particularly from papers on
the Physics of the Air, by Dr. W. J. Humphreys. The Franklin Insti-
tute has also generously provided the electrotypes for 40 illustrations.
The Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, Dr. C. F. Marvin,
has supplied electrotypes for 31 illustrations and otherwise placed the
resources of the Bureau at the disposal of the National Research
Council.
vi INTRODUCTORY METEOr6lOGY.
account of the very short time available for the preparation of
On |

the book it is unlikely that errors and other defects are lacking. Criti-|

cism is invited to' the end that a second edition may show improvement*
and better adaptation to its purpose. Communications may be addressed |

to Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Division of Geqlogy and Geography,

National Research Council.
Washington, D. C.
September lo, 1918.
 1

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.—THE ATMOSPHERE.
Page
Sources of meteorological information i

Composition of the atmosphere 3

CHAPTER II.— MEASUREMENT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL

ELEMENTS.
General considerations 8
Direct-rea4ing instruments 9
Temperature 9
Pressure 9
Direction of the wind : 1

Movement or velocity of the wind 13

Pressure of the wind '.

15
Moisture or humidity of the air 15
Precipitation 15
Evaporation 18
The direction and movements of clouds 18
Self-recording apparatus 20
Pressure 20
Temperature 20
Humidity 20
Wind 20
Precipitation 21
Sunshine and cloudiness 22
Equipment for investigations of the upper atmosphere 23
Heights and velocities of clouds 24
Kites and balloons '
24
Accuracy of instruments and methods of exposure 25
Barometers and barographs .'

25
Thermometers and hygrometers 23
Anemometers 27
Aerological apparatus 28

CHAPTER III.—ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE.

Part I. Vertical Distribution of Temperature.
General statement 29
Cause of temperature decrease with altitude 30
Effects of moisture 32
Other influences 34
Effects of topography
34
Effects of passing highs and lows
34
viii INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Mean temperature gradients in the lower atmosphere 35
Annual range 35
Diurnal range ^
Observations at heights above 5 kilometers 43
Vertical temperature gradients related to surface pressure 48

Part II. Homzontal Distribution of Temperature.

General statement 49
Amount of insolation 49
Variation with distance from sun 49
Seasonal variation with latitude 50
Transmission and absorption 5i

Conduction and convection 5i

Land and water surfaces in relation to reflection, transmission and

absorption 52
Distribution of temperature over the earth 52
Annual range in the United States 55
Diurnal range 55

CHAPTER IV.—ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.

General statement 56
Units of measurement 56
Vertical distribution of pressure 57
Hypsometric equation 57
Vertical distribution of density ( 61
Horizontal distribution of pressure in relation to temperature 64
Effects 'of land and water surfaces on annual range 66
Diurnal and semi-diurnal pressure changes 66
Irregular pressure changes 71

CHAPTER v.—EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION.

Introduction 73
Evaporation .^ 73
Evaporation into still air 74
Evaporation in the open 74
Condensation 75
Condensation due to contact cooling 76
Condensation due to mixing 76
Condensation due to dynamic cooling 77
Principal forms of condensation -j-j

Why the atmosphere generally is unsaturated 78

Summer and winter precipitation 78

CHAPTER VI.—FOGS AND CLOUDS.

Fog 81
Radiation fog 81
Advection fog 82
 CONTENTS. ix

Clouds 83
Classification °3
Cirrus °3
Cirro-stratus "4
Cirro-cumulus .'
°4
Alto-stratus ^S
Alto-cutnulus , °S
Strato-cumulus 85
Nimbus §5
Fracto-nimbus 85
Cumulus • 86
Fracto-cumulus 86
Cumulo-nimbus 86
Stratus 86
Special cloud forms 87
Billow cloud '.
87
Lenticular cloud 87
Crest cloud 87
Banner cloud 88
Scarf cloud 88
Mammato-cumulus 88
Cloud heights 88
Relation to humidity 88
Levels of maximum cloudiness 88
Fog level 88
Cumulus level, foul vyeather type 88
Cumulus level, fair weather type 89
Cirro-stratus level 89
Cirrus level 89
Regions of minimum cloudiness 90
Scud region 90
Intercumulus region go
Alto-stratus region 90
Intercirrus region 90
Isothermal region 90
Cloud depth or thickness 91
Cloud velocities 91

CHAPTER VII.—ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS.

Mirage 92
Rainbows 93
Halos 96
Coronas 98

CHAPTER VIII.— GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Introduction 99
Winds in general , loi
Eflfect of earth rotation 101
X INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Automatic adjustment of winds in direction and velocity loi
General relations of wind to elevation 104
Season of greatest winds ^.... 106
Latitude of greatest winds 106
Hours of greatest and least winds 106
Daily direction of the wind 107
Normal state of the atmosphere 107
Equatorial east to west winds 108
Probable interzonal circulation of the stratosphere 108
Monsoons 108
Trade winds no
Antitrade winds in

CHAPTER IX.— SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Introduction .s 113
Weather 114
Cold waves iiS
Thunderstorms 116
Tornadoes and waterspouts 117
Hurricanes 118
Land and sea breezes 119
Mountain and valley winds 119
Other winds 119

CHAPTER X.—FORECASTING THE WEATHER.

General considerations ^ 120
Forecasting the weather and the temperature 123
Remarks on figures 124
Rain forecasts '

128
Forecasting temperature changes 129
Forecasting strong winds, cold waves, etc 129
Seasonal influence 130
The weather in aviation 131

CHAPTER XL— CLIMATE.

Definition of climate 133
Climatic statistics 133
Factors that control climate 137
Classifications of climate 130
Climatic zones and provinces 141
Changes of climate 144
The climate of France 145

APPENDIX I.

List of works on meteorology 147

APPENDIX II.

International meteorological symbols

150
 1

ILLUSTRATIONS.
Figure Page
1 Sources of Meteorological Information i

2 Launching meteorological kite, Mount Weather, Va facing 4

3 Sounding Balloon facing 4
4 Sounding Balloons '.

facing 4
5 Composition of the Atmosphere at Different Levels 6
6 Mercurial barometer in box 6
7 Anemoscope and anemometer upon standard support 10
8 Portable Draper Anemoscope 12
9 Robinson Anemometer, Weather Bureau pattern' 13
10 Dines' Pressure-tube Anemograph 14
1 Sling-psychrometer 16
12 Lambrecht's Hygrometer 16
13 Richard's Hygrograph facing 16
14 Rain-gauge 17
15 Richard's Aneroid Barograph facing 20
16 Richard's Thermograph facing 20
17 Tipping-bucket Rain-gauge '. 21
18 Thermometric Sunshine Recorder 22
19 Photographic Sunshine Recorder 23
20 Comparative Sensitiveness of Instruments 26
21 Mean diurnal temperature range at Mount Whitney and Independ-
ence, Ga 30
22 Examples of different states of equilibrium 31
23 Adiabatic diagram 33
24 Mean annual march of free air temperatures ., 35
25 Mean summer and winter free air temperature gradients 39
26 Diurnal distribution of temperature, summer half of year 40
27 Diurnal distribution of temperature, winter half of year 41
28 Mean summer and winter free air temperature gradients 45
29 Temperature gradients, winter 46
'30 Temperature gradients, summer 46
31 Temperature gradients over falling and rising air pressure 47
32 Relation of insolation to season and latitude 51
33 Average annual isotherms °C S3
34 Average January temperatures, °F, United States S4
.3S Average July temperatures, °F, United States SS
36 Mean annual march of free air pressures 58
37 Mean summer and winter free air pressures 59
38 Mean summer and winter free air pressures, from sounding balloon
records 60
39 Mean summer and winter free air densities 62
40 Mean summer and winter free air densities sounding balloon records 63
41 Average annual sea level isobars 65
42 Average January sea level pressures 67
xii INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
43 Average July sea level pressures (>7

44 Average daily barometric curves 69

45 Pressure changes, inches, at Drexel, Neb. ."
71
46 Grammes of water vapor 76
47 Radiation fog, Loudoun Valley, Va facing 80
4S Advection fog, seen from Mount Wilson, Cal facing 80
49 Cirrus facing 80
50 Cirrus facing 80
51 Cirro-stratus, and advection fog, seen from Mount Wilson, Cal., facing 80
52 Cirro-cumuli facing 80
53 Alto-stratus, and advection fog facing 80
54 Alto-cumulus facing 80
55 Strato-cumulus, or roll cumulus facing 80
56 Cumulus, seen near Mount Wilson, Cal facing 80
57 Cumulus over island ; facing 80
58 Fracto-cumulus, in Monroe Co., W. Va facing 80
59 Cumulo-nimbus, over Loudoun Valley, Va facing 80
60 Billow cloud facing 80
6i Billow clouds, regular and irregular facing 80
62 Kinds of halos 96
63 Circulation between warm and cold tanks 99
64 Deflection and path of winds in f rictionless flow 102
65 Path of winds in frictionless flow, converging force 103
66 Path of winds in frictionless flow, diverging force 103
67 Weather map of January 9, 1886 121
68 Average Paths and Daily Movement of Lows, January 126
69 Average Paths and Daily Movement of Lows, July 126
70 Supan's Temperature Zones 142
71 Supan's Climatic Provinces 143
 CHAPTER I.

THE ATMOSPHERE.
SOURCES OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION.
The general means of obtaining information in regard to the atmos-
phere, and the vertical distribution of meteorological phenomena are
shown in Fig. Mountains and other irregularities of the earth's
i.

surface make it possible to study the atmosphere minutely and to

obtain continuous records of its temperature, piressure and other

Figure i. Sources of Meteorological Information.

from even below sea level (in the regions

conditions at every elevation
of the Dead and Salton Sea, for instance) up to nearly six
Sea,
kilometers above it. Indeed, many automatic records have been
obtained at the summit of El Misti, Peru, whose altitude is 5852
meters. Occasionally records have been obtained by this means up to
about 7 kilometers, but no higher, as this is the limit to which any
2 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
one has ever yet been able to climb. But all such records, whatever
the altitude, and however carefully taken, are more or less affected

by the surface conditions —they are records of the atmospheric con-

ditions near the surface of the earth. Hence if one would know the
conditions of the free atmosphere he must employ some means other
than carrying apparatus about on the surface of the earth. One
obvious source of information in regard to motion only, and one
extensively used, is the drifting of clouds which occur at all levels
from the bottom of the atmosphere up to 1 1 kilometers, or thereabouts,
in middle latitudes,and often much higher, 15 kilometers or so, in
the tropics, as will be explained later.
There are several methods of determining the elevation, direction
of travel and velocity of clouds, butall depend upon simple processes

of triangulation. Thus simultaneous observations made with transits

on the same spot in a cloudfrom two stations whose elevations and
distance apart are known, obviously furnish all the data necessary for
an easy determination of the height of the particular spot in question,
while a single subsequent observation by either instrument of this
spot, together with the time interval between the first and second
observations, gives all the additional data necessary to the determina-
tion of its velocity —
and direction of travel assuming uniform motion
and constancy of elevation. But the direction and velocity of the wind
at the time and place of observation is practically all the information
about the atmosphere that clouds give, and indeed some clouds, those
that hover on or along mountain tops for instance, do not furnish
even this. Of course one knows that in the midst of a cloud the air
is saturated, or nearly so, and that outside it is unsaturated, but as will

be explained later this has very little significance if one has no

knowledge of the temperature.
However, there are several other sources of information concerning
the free atmosphere; the most fruitful of which is the carrying of
self-registering thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, anemometers,
etc. by means of :

a. Kites, to over 7 kilometers, the record being 7.26 kilometers. Fig. 2.

b. Aeroplanes, to at least 8 kilometers, with still greater altitudes in
prospect.
c. Manned same height, usually, as aeroplanes,
balloons, to about the
but with a maximum
record of roughly 11 kilometers.
d. Sounding balloons, usually to 10 to 20 kilometers, but often higher,
the maximum height reported being 35.08 kilometers. Figs.
3 and 4.
 —
THE ATMOSPHERE. 3

In addition to the above, pilot balloons, small balloons without

apparatus, and said to have been observed up to a maximum elevation

of 39 kilometers, are also used in obtaining, by observations with

transits, the direction and velocity of the wind at diflferent elevations
on clear days.
The registering apparatus sent aloft by the various methods, a to d,
furnishes reliable information concerning the composition (including
humidity), temperature, pressure, direction of motion, and velocity
of the air from the surface of the earth up to the greatest elevations
attained.
Beyond the reach of the pilot balloon, or, for the present, at eleva-
tions greater than 39 kilometers, our information in regard to the
atmosphere is limited to such deductions as properly may be drawn

from the height to which the^ sky is illuminated at the end of twilight,
as deducted from the angular depression of the sun at that time
roughly 75 kilometers ; the paths of shooting stars, rarely if ever seen
as high as 200 kilometers ; and the phenomena of the auroras, those
curious and but partially explained electrical discharges that seldom
occur at a lower level than 90 kilometers or higher than, 300.
The above are all, or nearly all, the sources of our knowledge of the
atmosphere. Up to 35 kilometers above sea level the composition
and condition of the atmosphere are comparatively well known, but
beyond that level both become increasingly uncertain with elevation.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

If we disregard such obviously foreign things as dust, fog, and
cloud, then whatever remains of the atmosphere appears to be ideally
homogeneous, and for many purposes it may conveniently be so treated.
By the average person, perhaps, as formerly by the ancient Greek
philosophers, the atmosphere is supposed to be just what it seems to
—
be an element in the strictest sense, a thing indivisible into dissimilar
parts.
In reality, however, it is not even a single substance, much less a
single element, but a mixture of a number of gases and vapors that
radically differ from one another in every particular; nor are even
the relative percentages of the several distinct constituents at all con-
stant. The story of the chemical conquest of the atmosphere, from the
calcination and combustion experiments of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries that established its complexity down to the refined
analyses of the present day that note and account for even the faintest
 :

4 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
traces, is full of instruction and inspiration. However, it is practicable
to give here only some of the final results.
According to Hann,^ the chief independent gases that are blended
into a dryatmosphere at the surface of the earth, and their respective
volume percentages, are as follows:
Carbon
Element Nitrogen Oxygen Argon dioxide Hydrogen Neon Helium
Volume, per cent .... 78.03 20.99 o-94 0-03 o.oi 0.0012 0.0004

In addition to these, krypton and xenon also occur as permanent

constituents of the atmosphere. There are also many substances,
such as radio-active emanations, the oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and,
above all, water vapor, that are found in varying amounts, but of these
only water vapor commonly forms an appreciable percentage of the
total atmosphere, a percentage that depends chiefly upon temperature
in the sense that, for any given pressure, the higher the temperature
the greater the possible percentage of water vapor. This relation holds
up to the boiling-point of water at the given pressure, when, assuming
saturation, there will be nothing but water vapor present, or its

percentage will become 100.

Because of this relation of water vapor to temperature its volume
percentage decreases from the equator towards the poles, while that
of each of the other constituents of the atmosphere correspondingly
increases. The annual average values, again quoting from Hann, are:
Carbon
Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Water vapor dioxide
Equator 75-99 20.44 0-92 2.63 0.02
50° N 77.32 20.80 0.94 0.92 0.02
70° N 77.87 20.94 0.94 0.22 0.03

Except for the change in the amount of water vapor, the composi-
tion of the surface atmosphere is substantially the same at all parts

of the earth. Its composition at different elevations, however, prob-

ably differs greatly, but a discussion of this subject involves the use
of more mathematics than it is convenient to give briefly. Hence only
the general facts will be presented.
Tablecomputed by the aid of the necessary hypsometric equations,
I,

and Fig. drawn in accordance with this table, give the approximate
5,
composition and barometric pressure of the atmosphere at various
levels. The assumptions upon which they are based are in close
agreement with the average conditions of middle latitudes, and are as
follows
^ Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, sd ed., p. S.
^^
THE ATMOSPHERE.
 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
little with elevation, and where vertical convection, therefore, is prac-
tically absent, the several gases are distributed according to their
respective molecular weights.

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
VOLUME PER CENT
Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 5. Composition of the Atmosphere at Different Levels.

Figure 6. Mercurial Barometer in box.

A number of atmospheric gases—neon, krypton, xenon, ozone,

—are omitted both from Table and from accompanying
etc. I its figure.
This because
is these occur—
all the lower atmosphere, in
any rate at
in quantities too small for graphical illustration in the same diagram
with the principal gases and to the same scale.
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 7

In using this diagram it should be distinctly remembered that it is

supported by direct experimental observations only from the surface
of the earth up to a level of about 30 kilometers, and that, while the
extrapolated values are based upon apparently sound logic and not
mere surmises, they necessarily become less and less certain with
increase of elevation.
The table and the figure bring out a few points not generally realized.
One of these is the fact that the total amount of argon in the atmos-
phere is much greater than the average total amount of water vapor.
Another is the surprisingly small amount of water vapor, especially
in view of the wonderful things it does, and of its vital importance to
life of every kind. There may also be a little surprise that, according
to calculation, the percentage of water vapor reaches a certain maxi-
mum at an elevation of 70 to 80 kilometers, where it is, roughly,
twenty-fold what it is at, say, 11 kilometers. This, however, does not
mean that the total amount of water vapor increases with elevation,
but that it decreases less rapidly than do the heavier constituents, and
more rapidly than the two lighter ones, hydrogen and helium.
 CHAPTER II.

MEASUREMENT OF THE METEORO-

LOGICAL ELEMENTS.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
The more important meteorological elements, easily measureable by
means of simple apparatus, are, the pressure of the atmosphere,
temperature of the air, and velocity of the wind, humidity,
direction
rainfall and cloudiness. Much more
difficult to obtain and requiring

special apparatus in the hands of trained observers, are measurements

of evaporation, solar and terrestrial radiation, atmospheric electricity,
and the vertical distribution of the meteorological elements.
Before undertaking any work, however elementary in character,
even if the equipment required is very simple, students should
familiarize themselves with the bestmethods of taking and recording
observations and the construction and proper use of the apparatus to
be employed. Much useful information concerning these subjects is

easily accessible, in text-books of meteorology,^ catalogues of the

best instrument-makers,^ and particularly in circulars of instruc-
tion published by the various weather services.' Literature of this
kind studied in connection with practical work with instruments ordi-
narily will be sufficient for the needs of an intelligent observer, but
proficiency will be acquired much more rapidly if the student can avail
himself of competent instruction or opportunities of studying the work
of a first-class meteorological station.
Nearly all meteorological studies are comparative, and the most
frequent use of data collected at any station is in comparison with
similar data obtained at other stations; consequently the value of
observations or records is greatest when they are made by trained
observers employing apparatus of standard quality according to
methods approved by the best authorities. But it must not be inferred
that costly or unusual instruments are always necessary. Investiga-

^ See bibliography at end of book, Appendix I.

' Catalogues of Jules Richard, Paris Negretti & Zambra, London
; Henry J. ;

Green, New York; Julien P. Friez, Baltimore; Taylor Bros., Rochester, N. Y.

" See bibliography at end of book, Appendix I.
 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 9

tions of the highest degree of excellence have been accomplished by

means of whose
simple, inexpensive, or even inferior instruments,
errors or defectshad been determined by comparisons with standards.
Instruments of inferior materials or workmanship usually are neither
so durable nor are their errors so constant as those of a standard
quality,"" and require more frequent examinations for defects.

DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS.*
Temperature. —In meteorology, the primary use of the thermometer
is for the purpose of determining the temperature of the free air;
that is, the temperature of the air uninfluenced by the direct rays
of the sun, by heat radiated by or conducted from objects exposed to
direct sunlight, or by artificial heat. The instrument adapted to the
greatest variety of uses is the mercurial thermometer, having a cylin-
drical bulb and graduated upon
its stem. For ordinary purposes
thermometers are graduated to single degrees or half-degrees and
can be read to tenths of degrees by estimate; the errors should not
exceed ±0.2" C. and should be uniform throughout the scale.
The mercurial thermometer becomes useless when the temperature
falls to the freezing-point of mercury, (-39°), and at this point must

be replaced by thermometers filled with alcohol, or (if extremely low

temperatures are to be measured), toluene. Alcohol-filled thermom-
eters are also used in registering minimum temperatures. All ther-
mometers of this kind are less sensitive than mercurial thermometers,
have larger errors and are more liable to get out of order.
Pressure. —The pressure of the atmosphere may be determined very
easily by measuring the length of a column of liquid such as mercury,
glycerine, water, etc., that it will support or the extent to which it will
compress an elastic body. Since, at sea-level the pressure of the air
is 1033.3 grams per square centimeter approximately and the weight
of mercury at 0° C. is 13.596 grams per cubic centimeter, the average
height of a column of mercury whose weight is equal to that of a
column of the atmosphere of the same cross-section is 76 centimeters.
Atmospheric pressures usually are expressed as direct measures, in
standard units, of the length of the vertical mercurial column which
they balance. Recently, however, international authority has recom-

Most of the instruments described in this chapter are in use by the United
*

States Weather Bureau. It is very desirable to arrange with the local observer
for permission to examine the instruments in his office.
 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

PE.CIAU SRASS COUPUNS

Figure 7. Anemoscope and Anemometer upon standard support.

 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS, n
mended that pressures be measured in units of the C. G. S. system," in
which the standard atmosphere is looo milHbars, approximately equal
to a barometric reading of 750 millimeters, the average value at a
height of about 106 meters above sea-level. The pressure in millibars
at any place is a direct percentage of the standard atmosphere and
comparisons are very easily made. Another important advantage
of the millibar is that since it is ( i mb.
smaller than the millimeter ^
0.75 mm.), barometric readings to o.i mb. (0.075 mm.) which are
sufficiently refined for most purposes, can be made without the use of
a vernier.
Of the many different forms of the mercurial barometer the one
devised by Fortin and having a cistern with a fixed zero has come
into general use in meteorology. The pattern of Fortin barometer
employed in the work of the United States Weather Bureau is shown
in Figure 6.

The height of the barometric column is influenced by temperature,

gravity and differences of elevation, for all of which appropriate

corrections must be made before the readings can be used in meteoro-

logical studies.
While for observations of the highest degree of accuracy and uni-
formity the mercurial barometer is indispensable, it is a delicate
instrument and cannot be moved without more or less danger of
breaking or impairing the vacuum.
ii' To meet the demand for a
compact portable instrument, various forms of the so-called aneroid
barometer have been devised, and for certain purposes, such as deter-
mining the pressure during ascensions of balloons, kites or aeroplanes,
no other form of instrument can be used. These instruments are very
sensitive, but at best they are not uniformly accurate and their errors
are so variable that frequent comparisons with mercurial barometers
are necessary in order to obtain satisfactory results.
—
Direction of the Wind. When it is desired to ascertain the direc-
tion of the wind only to four or eight principal points, direct observa-
tions of a well-exposed vane or anemoscope' usually will be sufficient.
Greater accuracy or convenience is gained when the axis of the vane

extends into a room below and indicates changes of direction upon a

dial, or the instrument can be made to record electrically at any place

desired, as does the United States Weather Bureau anemoscope. This

instrument, mounted upon a standard support also carrying an
anemometer, is shown in Figure 7.

"A system of units commonly used in physics, based upon the centimeter as
the unit of length, the gram as the unit of weight or mass, and the second as
the unit of time.
' The terms vane and anemoscope are synonymous.
 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

<^

Figure 8. Portable Draper Anemoscope.

 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 13

When it is desired to study minute changes of direction a recording

anemoscope of the Draper pattern should be employed. A portable
form of this instrument, useful either at permanent or temporary
shown in Figure 8.
stations, is
Movement or Velocity of the Wind. —Two classes of instruments

Figure 9. Robinson's Anemometer, Weather Bureau pattern.

are employed in measuring the energy of the wind, velocity or "rota-

tion" anemometers and pressure anemometers. In the former are
instruments of the Robinson and windmill or "screw" patterns, in
which the movement and velocity are determined from the rotations
of systems of cups or fans moved by the wind. In the latter are the
various pressure plates and instruments of the Lind, Dines, and
14 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Venturi type, which measure the direct pressure of the wind upon
surfaces of known area or upon the liquid in a manometer (pressure-
gauge). Excellent instruments of both classes are in use and yielding
satisfactory results.
For the largest variety of uses, and where it is desired to measure
mean or average velocities, the Robinson anemometer is probably

PRESSURE TUB£
SUCTION TUBE

Figure io. Dines' Pressure-tube Anemograph.

superior to all other instruments, and the pattern adapted by the

Weather Bureau is well suited to different conditions and uses either
as a direct-reading or recording instrument. Details of this instru-
ment are shown in Figure 9, and the customary method of exposure
in Figure 7.

For indicating rapid variations of velocity and for certain special

uses,anemometers of the "windmill" pattern or those of the pressure
type are superior to the Robinson instrument. The most extensively-
 :

MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 15

used windmill anemometer is Richards' anemo-cinemometer in which

a light six-bladed screw or fan makes one rotation while the wind
moves one meter. Of pressure instruments, probably the most satis-
factory is Dines's tube anemometer (Figure 10), in which the pressure
of the wind in a tube causes a change of level of the liquid in a
manometer or operates a float bearing an index or recording pen.
—
Pressure of the Wind. Within a range indicated approximately by
velocities of 3 and 50 meters per second the pressure of the wind
varies nearly as the square of the velocity. In any instance the actual
pressure also depends upon the character and dimensions of the sur-
face and the density of the air which, in turn, is a function of the
barometric pressure and the temperature of the air. At sea-level,
under ordinary conditions, wind-pressures may be determined with
fair accuracy by the formula

P = o.oyasSV
in which P is the pressure in kilograms per square meter, of surface
exposed normally, S the surface in square meters, V the velocity in
meters per second, and 0.0735 a factor determined by experiment.
—
Moisture or Humidity of the Air. For nearly all the purposes of
meteorology the moisture of the air, whether expressed as the dew-
point, vapor pressure, or absolute or relative humidity, may be deter-
mined most conveniently by means of observations of the psychrometer
or dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers. Of the many different forms
of this instrument the sling-psychrometer (Figure 11) is probably the
best for general use.
When the temperature below the freezing-point of water,
falls

observations of the psychrometer require much greater care than is

the case with higher temperatures, and when very low temperatures
prevail other forms of hygrometers must be used. The best of these
are the hair-hygrometers, of which the best-known patterns are those
designed by Koppe, Lambrecht (Figure 12), and Richard (Figure
13). The chief defect of hair-hygrometers is the uncertain change
of zero, which necessitates frequent comparisons with psychrometers
or other standards.'
Precipitation. —The amount of rain is the depth to which it would
accumulate on a horizontal surface if the water remained in the place
where it fell. Any vessel with vertical sides can be used as a rain-
gauge, but greater accuracy is obtained if the amount caught in a

'
Annals, Harvard College Observatory, LVIII, 2, 1906.
 cqi

rt

FiGUBE II. Sling-psychrometer. FiGtJRE 12. Lambrecht's Hygrometer.

l'(

FiGUEE 13. Richard's Hygrograph.

 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 17

receiver of any size is measured in a much smaller tube, for instance,

one having one-tenth the cross-section of the receiver. An excellent
instrument of this kind is the United States Weather Bureau raingauge,
shown in Figure 14.
In the measurement of snow, both the actual depth and the amount
of water the snow contains are important. The water-content is never
constant but under different conditions varies from about five to more

Front Vieu}. TerticaZ S&ctiaru

XCorizanial SecUtm^X-K

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IS 16 17 C=T
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SCALE.
FiGtiRE 14. Rain-gauge.

than 50 per cent. Snow, being much lighter than rain, is much more

difficult of measurement for the reason that the amount caught in

gauges, even those of special design, is seriously affected by wind.
The most accurate method of measurement is to cut a section of known
dimensions from a layer of snow on the ground (taking care of course
to select a place when the covering is of average depth) and determine
snow on a suitable scale
the water-content, either by weighing the dry
or melting and measuring the water as so much rain. In regions
it

where the snow accumulates to great depths, special instruments are

i8 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
necessary, of which the Church sampler is probably the best.* This
instrument is made of steel tubing, of small size, in sections united by
a special coupling so that one section or the entire number can be used
according to the depth to be measured. The depth is measured by a
scale ruled on the tube and the water-content of the sample is found
by weighing the tube and its contents on a scale compensated for the
weight of the empty tube.
—
Evaporation. The phenomenon of evaporation has received much
serious attention within recent years. Consideration of the results
obtained by numerous investigators indicates that practically every
research in this field requires its own special equipment and methods
of work, these depending, for example, upon whether soils, vegetation
or open surfaces of water are to be studied. At the present stage of
our knowledge, all measures must be considered as relative, for even
in the instance of evaporation-pans extensively used, the results depend
very greatly upon local conditions of temperature, moisture, wind, etc.,

and records at different places are not strictly comparable.

—
The Direction and Movements of Clouds. As in the instance of the
winds, the direction of motion of clouds, under ordinary or average
conditions, can be determined to principal points of the compass, with-
out apparatus. But in the instance of slow-moving clouds, or if very
accurate observations are desired, a nephoscope will be necessary. A
simple nephoscope may be made of a circular mirror by securing to
itsrim a scale ruled in points of the compass or (preferably) in degrees
of azimuth numbered from o° south through 90° (west) around to
south again, and cutting a small cross-mark in the center for use as a
zero-point. When in use the instrument is placed upon a table or stand
with its zero or south point toward the north so that a line through the
center of the mirror connecting the north and south points is parallel
to the meridian of the place of observation. Observations of the direc-
tion of clouds are made by noting the movement of their reflected
images from the center to the rim of the mirror; the reading of the
scale at the point toward which the images move is the direction or
azimuth from which the clouds are moving.
The relative velocity, from which the actual velocity of clouds may
be computed, is the distance or space traversed by the cloud image
in a given time when the observer's eye is held at a definite height
above the mirror. One very simple rule is to note the distance, in
millimeters, traveled in one minute by the cloud-image while the eye

' Scientific American Supplement, September 7, 1912.

 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 19

is 16^ centimeters above the surface of the mirror; this distance or

relative velocity multiplied by the height of the cloud in meters and
divided by 10,000 is equal to the actual velocity in meters per second.'
In practically all cases, by dropping the ciphers, the computation can
be performed mentally, as for example, with a relative velocity of
125 mm. and height of cloud of 1500 meters, we have 125 x 15 18.7 =
meters per second. This method of obtaining actual velocities is
accurate only for clouds in the cumulus level or lower, or when the
height known, but will give approximate values for all levels when
is

it is employed by well-trained observers. According to researches by

Clayton, Vettin and others, the relation of cloud-form to height is
constant and universal, and the primary forms are most frequently
formed in five different levels above the earth's surface.^" In the North-
eastern United States these levels, indicated by the prevailing cloud-
form, and their height in meters are: Stratus level, 500; Cumulus
level, 1600; Alto-Cumulus level, 3800; Cirro-Cumulus level, 6600;
Cirrus level, 8900. (See Chapter VI.) Hence, if the relative velocity
is measured of any cloud easily assignable to one of the levels, the
actual velocity can be determined with fair accuracy, particularly if

the time of year and the conditions prevailing at the time of observa-
tion are taken into consideration. Obviously the method becomes
uncertain when applied to ill-defined or intermediate forms, but even
here the skilled observer will obtain results of value.
As suggested by Espy, the heights of cumulus clouds can be com-
puted from observations of the dew-point (Chapter V). In Clayton's
very simple formula the height in meters is obtained by dividing the dif-
ference between the air-temperature and the dew-point by the average
temperature-gradient (or decrease of temperature with increase of
height above sea-level) existing between the earth's surface and the
point where condensation begins, applying a correction for expansion
of the air.^^ The temperature-gradient is approximately 0.97° C. for

each 100 meters of elevation. On account of expansion of the ascend-

ing air the dew-point is lowered 0.2° C. for each 100 meters, con-
sequently, the factor used in computing heights of clouds becomes
o°.77. For example, if the temperature is 25° and the dew-point 10°
we have 25° — 10° =: 15°; 1500-^0.77= 1949 meters, or the height
at which the ascending moisture condenses into clouds.

"Annals, Harvard College Observatory, XLII, 2, pp. 202-203.

"Annals, Harvard College Observatory, XXX, 4, pp. 337-342.
"Annals, Harvard College Observatory, LXVHI, i.
20 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

SELF-RECORDING APPARATUS.
A
continuous record by means of self-recording instruments can
be obtained of almost any meteorological element and when checked
by comparisons with readings of standard instruments becomes the
most useful of all records.
—
Pressure. For most uses, continuous records of pressure from
aneroid barographs of the Richard pattern, Figure 15, are sufficient.
When greater precision is desired mercurial barographs should be
employed. The instruments designed by Sprung,^" Marvin^' and
Draper^* are probably the best known of this class.
Temperature. —Richard's thermograph. Figure 16, in which the
temperature is measured by means of a Bourdon pressure-tube filled
with liquid, is probably the most satisfactory instrument for general
use. Many different scales and degrees of sensitiveness are possible
with this instrument. For special researches, and where great sensi-
tiveness is desired, electrical-resistance instruments have been employed
with success, but are much more difficult of operation.
—
Humidity. Absorption hygrometers, in which the relative humidity
is determined by the changes of length of a strand of human hair,

can easily be so constructed as to give a continuous record, as in the

instance of Richard's hygrograph shown in Figure 13. These instru-
ments are very sensitive, but require more careful supervision than
thermographs or barographs of the same general types.
—
Wind. For recording the direction and velocity the equipment best
adapted to a variety of uses and conditions is the Weather Bureau
anemoscope and anemometer already described, connected electrically
with the meteorograph or "quadruple register" where the direction to
eight principal points, movement of the wind, duration of sunshine and
rate and amount of rain are recorded upon one sheet of paper moved
by clock-work. Electrically-recording instruments are usually to be
preferred where the recording mechanisms must be placed at a distance
from the parts exposed to the wind.
The Dines anemometer, Figure 10, and the Richard anemo-cinemo-
graph possess important advantages over other instruments, in that
velocities are read directly from the records without computation, and
variations in velocity are more obvious to the eye than is the case
with records where a mark is made at the. end of each kilometer, etc.,

^Report of Chief Signal Officer, 1887, Part 2.

^Monthly Weather Review, September, 1908.
"American Meteorological Journal, December, 1884.
 -^^^~

Figure 15. Richard's Aneroid Barograph.

Figure 16. Richard's Thermograph.

 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 21

traveled by tlje wind. Also, these instruments are better adapted to

recording details of gusts and extreme variations than are the Robinson
anemometers.
Precipitation. —The tipping-bucket raingauge, Figure 17, is prob-

FiGUSE 17. Tipping-bucket Rain-gauge.

ably the most convenient for many purposes where it is important

that the record should be visible while rain is falling, but the amount
recorded by instruments of this class varies with the rate of rainfall,
and where the precipitation is chiefly in the form of snow, devices
for melting the snow become necessary. For recording rain, snow.
22 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
hail or mixed precipitation, weighing gauges are best. Successful
examples of kind are the Marvin electrically-recording gauge,
this
the Richard, Draper, and Fergusson instruments, the last three being
self-contained and adapted for use as seasonal instruments.
—
Sunshine and Cloudiness. The thermometric sunshine recorder,
Figure i8, recording electrically upon the quadruple register already
referred to, is employed United States Weather
at all stations of the

Figure i8. Thermometric Sunshine Recorder.

Bureau. Where electrically-recording apparatus is not available, the

photographic instrument shown in Figure 19 can be substituted for the
thermometric. The chief defect of the latter instrument is that the
blue-print paper used for record-sheets is not always of uniform qual-

ity and and unless allowance is made for this the records
sensitiveness,
are not strictly comparable. Only freshly-sensitized paper should be
used. The Campbell-Stokes recorder, employed as a standard in
Europe, consists of a spherical lens so mounted in a circular frame
that a strip of cardboard, also held by the frame in the focus of the
lens, is charred by the concentrated rays of the sun. The duration,
 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 23

and under certain conditions the intensity of bright sunshine, are

determined by the length of the space charred. Records from this
instrument probably are more uniform and therefore more nearly com-
parable than are those of other sunshine recorders.
The only instrument suitable for recording the cloudiness at night
is the Pickering pole-star recorder, which is a camera of long focus,
pointed continuously toward the polar-star.^^The shutter is kept open
during the entire night and the apparent motion of the star about the
true pole is photographed in the form of an arc of a circle. On clear
nights the star-trail is continuous and on nights more or less cloudy

Figure 19. Photographic Sunshine Recorder.

it isbroken wherever the star is obscured for an appreciable time by

the clouds. Records from such instruments are very much to be
desired, for the reason that at the present time the few instruments
in operation are in Eastern states and little is known concerning the
variations of cloudiness at night.

EQUIPMENT FOR INVESTIGATIONS OF THE UPPER

ATMOSPHERE.
With the possible exception of measures of clouds, the more
important advances in the study of the upper atmosphere (a branch
of meteorology to which the name "aerology'' has been given) began

" Quarterly Journal, Royal Meteorological Society, October, 1905.

24 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
with the use of light self-recording instruments, carried by sound-
ing balloons (1893) and kites (1894). While much excellent equip-
ment of all kinds has been suggested and employed, general experience

so far has been insufficient to develop standard forms of instruments;

each institution or organization usually having prepared its own.
—
Heights and Velocities of Clouds. ^These data are obtained almost
entirely by triangulation, by means of simultaneous observations at two
stations a known distance apart, measurements of negatives from
photogrammeters (theodolites equipped with cameras), soundings by
kites or balloons or from observation of the shadows of clouds or the
illuminated under surfaces of clouds over well-lighted cities. In simple
triangulation, two stations are equipped with transits having sighting
tubes instead of telescopes, and connected by telephone so that the
observers can identify the clouds to be measured. Synchronism of
observation is best obtained by securing to the transmitter of one tele-
phone a telegraph sounder connected with a clock beating seconds,
so that both observers may hear the beats.^' The photographic methods
are much more difficult and a description thereof seems unnecessary
here. The last two methods, except in rare instances of dense or well-
defined upper clouds, are applicable only to lower clouds, but are very
easy, requiring only a simple alt-azimuth (an instrument for measur-
ing altitudes and azimuths) or protractor for measuring altitudes.^'
A further application of the last method would be to illuminate clouds
at night by means of a powerful search-light, which, under favorable
conditions might be used in the measurement of clouds as high as the
alto-cumulus level.

—
The most important method of securing infor-
Kites and Balloons.
mation concerning the higher atmosphere is that in which light record-
ing instruments are carried aloft by kites, balloons or aeroplanes. A
very important advantage possessed by kites is the ease with which
records at definite heights may be secured. The Hargrave kite, in
its various modifications, has come into general use in aerology,
and
in Figure 2 is shown the pattern employed by the Weather Bureau,
with the meteorograph or recording apparatus secured between the
cells. The meteorograph records atmospheric pressure (from which
the height is computed), temperature, humidity and wind-velocity;
also, the direction of the wind is determined from the position of
the kite, observed with a transit or theodolite.
The kites are flown by
steel music wire controlled by a special power reel or windlass,

"Annals, Harvard College Observatory, XLII, 2, p. 194.

"Annals, Harvard College Observatory, XXX, 3, p. 207.
 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 25

equipped with devices for indicating or recording the length of line

in use and the tension or pull exerted by the kites. From observations
of the length of the line and the angular altitude of the kites, the
vertical or linear height is easily obtained. The greatest elevation
reached by kites, so far, is 7260 meters.
Captive balloons afford the same class of data as do kites, but are
so sensitive to variable winds that their use is comparatively limited
and the heights attained are lower. The best method of using such
balloons is to reel out the line so rapidly that the balloon rises as a
free balloon until the weight of line equals the lift, then drawing it

to earth. A very sensitive recording instrument is necessary, and

usually the wind-velocities recorded are uncertain.
By means of sounding balloons (Figures 3 and 4), particularly the
small expanding balloons devised by Assmann, recording instruments
have been carried to a maximum height of 35000 meters.^^ Tempera-
ture and pressure, from which the height is computed, and occasionally
humidity, are recorded and the direction and velocity of the wind can
be determined from observations of the balloon as it rises or falls.
Pilot-balloons, exactly similar to but much smaller than sounding
balloons, and carrying no instruments, are also used to measure the
direction and movement of the upper air. The exceptional height of
39000 meters has been attained by balloons of this kind. The heights,
etc., are determined by triangulation.

ACCURACY OF INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF

EXPOSURE.
Barometers and Barographs. —Readings by good observers of
barometers of the ordinary "station" pattern should agree within
0.06mm., and the differences between readings of good barometers
should not exceed 0.13 mm. Standard barometers, having tubes
15 mm. in diameter, or larger usually, can be depended upon within
0.04 mm.
Records of aneroid barographs in good condition should be accurate
within 0.6 mm., and the errors of mercurial barographs of the Sprung,
Marvin and Draper patterns ordinarily should not exceed 0.2 mm.
Concerning the exposure of barometers and barographs, the only
requirement of importance is that these instruments be kept in a well-
lighted room where the temperature is uniform.
—
Thermometers and Hygrometers. The errors of good thermom-
" Annals, Harvard College Observatory, LXVIII, i.
 26 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
eters, even those filled with alcohol, are small, usually not exceeding
a few tenths of a degree; and are easily corrected by comparisons
with standards. Such instrumntal errors are far less important than
those due to faulty exposure.
The accuracy of observations of humidity, particularly at low
temperatures, depends very greatly upon the ventilation of the instru-
ments. The greatest accuracy is attained when both psychrometers
and hygrographs are continuously ventilated, for often the larger
differences found between standard and recording instruments are
due to actual local differences of condition in the instrument shelters,

or differences in sensitiveness, particularly if there is little or no wind.

During calms, in practically all closed louvred shelters, such as the

13'
3 Minutes

c
12

11

10
 MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 27

mean change indicated by the line b. If the standard thermometer is

read at li or e or / the thermograph apparently will have an error of

-fo.8°, — 1°.4 or ±0.0° respectively, the amount depending entirely
upon the difference of sensitiveness. Probably the only safe way to
allow for such differences is to use for a standard temperature the
mean of several readings at intervals of a few seconds. Any important
displacement of a record-sheet will be indicated by an excess of cor-
rections having the same sign at the beginning or end of the record.
—
Anemometers. The accuracy of records of wind-velocity depends
upon several considerations whether mean or average velocities or
:

individual gusts are to be measured, in which case the sensitiveness of

the instrument and the method of registration are important the fric- ;

tion of moving parts, which is most ifnportant at low velocities and ;

in the instance of Robinson anemometers, upon the dimensions and

proportions of the cups and supporting arms. Since the beginning,
nearly all Robinson anemometers have been rated on the supposition
that the cups move with one third of the wind's velocity (that is, in
moving a cup through a distance of one meter the wind would travel
3 meters) ; but recent studies show that the factor 3.00 holds only
for very small instruments making about one turn for each meter of
wind, and decreases to 2.45 a,nd 2.20, respectively, in the Weather
Bureau pattern, making one rotation for each 3 meters, and the Kew
pattern, of which one rotation is equal to 1 1. 5 meters.^" Furthermore,
the factors of instruments whose cups are small relative to the length
of arm are nearly constant, while those of instruments having large
cups on comparatively short arms vary according to the velocity. Rec-
ords made by Weather Bureau anemometers should be corrected by
means of the table prepared by Professor Marvin. Corrections for
Robinson instruments of other dimensions can be determined by direct
comparisons with standards, or if a standard is not available, approx-
imate factors may be based upon those given above for three different
sizes of this instrument.
Nearly all anemometers properly rated can be used for the measure-
ment of the average or mean velocity of the wind, but when it is
desired to measure rapid variations or extreme velocities there should
be employed only the lightest or most sensitive (usually the smallest)
rotation instruments or those of other forms in which the weight
of the moving parts is small compared with the surface exposed to
'°
American Meteorological Journal, April and July, 1889, February, 1891 ;
Quarterly Journal, Royal Meteorological Society, July, 1892; Annals, Harvard
College Observatory, XL, 4.
28 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
the wind.^' In the instance of the Dines anemometer, the sensitiveness
and the recorder;
varies with the length of tubes connecting the head
and if must exceed lo meters the standard pattern must
this length
be replaced by one of which both pressure head and transmission
tubing are larger.
—
Aerological Apparatus. Instruments carried by kites or balloons
must be very sensitive in order to record changes of condition while
moving through the air; also since at great height^ it is impossible
to secure comparisons with standard instruments, the ranges or scale-
values of the various elements need to be determined with great care
under conditions approximating those of the upper air. The
artificial

effect,on the records of temperature and hi^midity, of the direct rays

of the sun, which are very intense at great elevations, must be elim-
inated by insulating the thermometric and hygrometric elements from
parts of the instrument exposed to the sun; and the anemometers
should be exposed in such a manner that they are not shielded by any
part of the kite or balloon and are not influenced by changes of level.'"
Under favorable conditions the records obtained from instruments of
this kind are as accurate as those obtained from fixed instruments at
the ground.

"American Meteorological Journal, April and July, 1889, February, 1891;

Quarterly Journal, Royal Meteorological Society, July, 1892; Annals, Harvard
College Observatory, XL, 4.
'°
Annals, Harvard College Observatory, XLH, i ; XLIII, 3.
 CHAPTER III.

ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE.
PART I. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
TEMPERATURE.
'GENERAL STATEMENT.
Long before systematic observations of free air conditions were made
it was in a general way well known that, on the average, temperature
decreases with altitude. During the past 50 years such observations,
with increasing refinement of methods and apparatus, have not only
conclusively demonstrated that this belief was well founded, but
have also determined with considerable accuracy the amount of this
temperature decrease to heights of 5 kilometers and with fair accuracy
up to about 30 kilometers. These observations include those made
at mountain stations, and in the free air by means of kites and bal-
loons. The former have been obtained from eye readings and from
self-recording instruments ; the latter almost entirely from self-record-
ing instruments, known as meteorographs (see Chapter II). Obser-
vations at mountain stations do not give accurately the conditions of
the free air, because of the influence of the mountain itself through
its absorption and emission of radiant energy; also in upon its effect
air circulation and the courses taken by passing areas of high and
low pressure. For example, the diurnal range of temperature at a
mountain station, although much smaller than at a low land station,
shows nevertheless a maximum in the afternoon and a minimum in
the early morning (Figure 21), whereas in the free air, the times of
these extremes are entirely different from those of the earth's surface
(p. 42). In the annual range no such decided difference appears to
exist, although even in this case the times of maximum and minimum
temperatures on mountains, viz. July and January, respectively,
:

agree closely with those at low land stations, whereas in the free air
there is considerable retardation, amounting to about one month at
altitudes of 4 to 5 kilometers.
30 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
CAUSE OF TEMPERATURE DECREASE WITH ALTITUDE.
The change of temperature with altitude is primarily due to dynamic
heating and cooling. By this is meant that, if air is compressed, work
is done on it and its temperature is expanded it does work
raised, and if

.and is cooled. A familiar example of heating due to compression

jg„ 12 123456789 10 11 12 1 23456789 10 11 12xpm

 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 31

of unsaturated not materially affected by gain of heat from the

air, if

surrounding air or by loss of heat to it, the expansion when rising,

and contraction, when falling, are such that a change of temperature
of approximately 1° C. per 100 meters change in altitude is produced.
This change is known as the "adiabatic rate," and may be briefly
defined as the change in temperature brought about by a change in
density, or, in other words, the actual temperature of the mass of air
under consideration is changed, but its potential temperature (tempera-
ture due to position) remains unchanged. Under such ideal condi-
tions any mass of air that may be moved up or down will remain
 ;

32 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
instabilitybeing proportional to the extent of the variation from the
adiabatic rate. For example, during calm, clear nights the temperature
is often lower at the earth's surface than above it. This condition is
called an "inversion" of temperature, or, a -change with altitude the
opposite of that which normally occurs, viz. : decreasing temperature
with increasing altitude, and is, of course, characterized by great
stability. In the afternoon, on the other hand, excessive heating often
produces what is called a "super-adiabatic" condition, or, a change
with altitude in excess of i" C. per lOO meters, and is marked by
pronounced instability. The curves in Figure 22 illustrate these dif-
ferent states. AB represents the adiabatic state, or neutral equilibrium
CD, an inversion, or stable equilibrium; and EF, a super-adiabatic
state, or unstable equilibrium. Examples of stable and unstable
equilibrium may also be seen in Table 2.
Effects of Moisture. —As a matter of fact, the atmosphere is never
entirely free from moisture and, as the specific heat of water vapor
is nearly twice that of dry air, it is evident that the adiabatic rate of
temperature will diminish in proportion to the amount of water vapor
present; moreover, as the capacity of air^ for water vapor is a func-
tion of its temperature, the adiabatic rate of moist air also diminishes
with increasing ten;perature. This decrease is very small for all con-
ditions of humidity, until saturation, i. e., condensation of the water
vapor, occurs. When this state is reached, a marked decrease in the
adiabatic rate takes place, due to the "latent heat of vaporization"
or "latent heat of fusion" (or both, depending upon whether the
temperature is above or below freezing) that is set free. This change
in the adiabatic rate is well shown in Figure 23, constructed by Neu-
hoff. The straight diagonals represent the adiabatic rate of change
for dry air, 1° C. per 100 meters; the broken lines, moisture content
in grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air; and the dot and
dash lines, saturation adiabats, at the various temperatures from
—30° C. to +30° C, and for altitudes from sea level to 7 kilometers.
In order to grasp the significance of this effect of moisture on the
adiabatic rate it is essential to know the meaning of the expression
"latent heat." Briefly, it represents the energy, or work, required to
change any substance from the solid to the liquid state, or from the
' Although customary to speak of the capacity of air for water vapor, in
it is

no effect in this respect, except in so far as its tempera-

reality the air itself has
ture affects that of the water vapor. In other words, a cubic meter of space
without air can contain exactly the same amount of water vapor as it can, if
air is present, providing the temperature is the same in both cases.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 33

liquid to the gaseous state. This change from one state to ai;iother
is not accompanied by a change in temperature, the heat used being
merely a form of energy by means of which the change is brought
about. But, when the reverse process occurs, this stored up energy
is released as heat and there is consequently a rise in temperature.

10° *^s° .-;o° -t-;;* +50'

4-00

750
-30° -25° -20° -15° -10° -5°' 0° +5° +10° +15* +20° +25° +30°
TEMPERATURE C.
DRY ADIABATS SATURATION CURVES SATURATION ADIABATS
Figure 23. Adiabatic diagram (Neuhoff).

Thus, when water is converted into water vapor, no temperature

change occurs, but, when this water vapor condenses as fog, cloud,
rain, etc., the so-called latent heat is given up, and the temperature of
the air rises. The energy given up when water changes from the
gaseous to the liquid state is called latent heat of vaporization; when
from the liquid to the solid state, latent heat of fusion when from the ;

gaseous directly to the solid, i. e., at temperatures below freezing, both

forms are liberated.
34 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Now air, in rising, sooner or later reaches a height at which its

reduced temperature causes condensation of water vapor and conse-

quent setting free of latent heat. Conversely, when air in which con-
densation has already taken place descends, it becomes warmed
dynamically to a temperature at which evaporation and therefore
absorption of heat occurs. In the case of descending air in which
condensation does not exist, however, its temperature continues to

rise until it reaches a level of the same temperature as that which it

itself has acquired. Since descending air on the average is drier than
ascending, because of the rain, etc., that has fallen out of the latter,
the adiabatic gradient for dry air holds to a greater elevation as a rule
in descending than in ascending air.
Other Influences. —^Although moisture exercises the greatest effect
upon temperature decrease with altitude, there are certain other causes
which should be briefly considered. Of these the most important are
the character of the earth's surface, or topography, and the movements
of passing areas of high and low pressure, with their attendant changes
in temperature, cloudiness, etc.
Effects of Topography. —
Evaporation from land areas usually is
less than from water surfaces. Moreover, the specific heat of land
surfaces is relatively low. Hence they become heated to a much
greater extent during the day and summer and cool to a lower tempera-
ture during the night and winter. In addition, the character of the
earth's surface exerts a considerable influence, black soils absorbing
and radiating more readily than light colored soils. These effects are
large at and near the earth's surface, but relatively small at heights
of a kilometer above it (p. 51).
—
Effects of Passing Highs and Lows. The movements of Highs
and Lows bring to a locality marked changes in temperature and
moisture which sometimes extend to great altitudes (Chapter IX).
The changes are, however, greatest at the surface for the most part
and therefore the vertical temperature gradient undergoes consid-
rable alteration, being least during extreme cooling at the earth's sur-
face,and greatest during extreme heating. For example, a winter
i. e., an area of high pressure, is usually accompanied by
anticyclone,
abnormally low temperatures at the earth's surface with a marked
inversion or increasing temperature with increasing altitude at higher
levels. On the other hand, a cyclone, i. e., an area of low pressure,
is relatively warm at the surface, but the temperatures ordinarily
diminish with altitude, at any rate up to the top of the cloud layer,
above which there is usually a moderate inversion.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 35

MEAN TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS IN THE LOWER

ATMOSPHERE.
Annual Range. —The most systematic and complete exploration of
the air up to about 5 kilometers has been made by means of kites.
These observations have been obtained principally in the United States
and Europe and are well distributed throughout the year. At higher

FiGUBE 24. Mean annual march of free air temperatures, °C, above Mount
Weather, Va., altitude 526 meters. (Lines extended to sea level by extrapola-
tion.)

levels observations have been made almost wholly by means of sound-

ing balloons. These are fewer in number, but, on the other hand,
smaller variations occur in the temperature gradients at great heights
and therefore a smaller number of observations suffices to give very
satisfactory information at those altitudes. In the discussion of tem-
peratures up to 5 kilometers, greatest weight will be given to the kite
observations, because of their greater number and better distribution.
Figure 24 shows the annual march of temperature as observed at
36 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Mount Weather, Va., during the five years July i, 1907, to June 30,
1912, inclusive.^ An examination of this figure indicates that the
annual range is greatest at the earth's surface, 526 meters above sea
level, and decreases to a little more than half its surface value at the
5 kilometer level. In the figure, the lines have been extended by extra-
polation to sea leveP and, if these values are considered, it is seen
that the annual range at this and the 5 kilometer level is in almost the
exact proportion of 2 to i. The reason for this is readily apparent in
the relatively small gradients in the lower levels during the winter
as compared with those during the summer. It should not, of course,
be understood that this relation will apply at all places. For example,
the annual range at Drexel, Nebr., at both the surface and the 5
kilometer level is much larger than at Mount Weather, because of the
continental character ofits climate, and the proportion in the range

at the surfaceand the 5 kilometer level is somewhat greater than two

to one. In Europe, on the other hand, due to the effect of the Atlantic
Ocean, the annual range at both levels is comparatively small and the
proportion approximately six to five. In tropical regions* the annual
range is less than 2° C. both at sea level and at the 5 kilometer level.
Another striking fact brought out by the figure is the rapid cooling
at all levels during the month of October in contrast with the rela-
tively slow warming during the spring months, due to the greater
diathermance of the atmosphere, i. e., its ability to transmit heat
during the former than during the latter period. The surface maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures occur respectively in July and
January. At higher levels, especially above 3 kilometers, there is a
retardation of about one month in these extremes.
Table i average seasonal and annual temperature
contains the
gradients, in degrees centigrade per 100 meters as observed at Mount
Weather, Va.,^ Drexel, Nebr.,' Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston,
Mass.,'' and at several stations in Europe.^ The figures given show
^Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, Vol. 6, pp. 111-194; also
Monthly Weather Review, January, 1918, pp. 11-20.
°For values at various heights from sea level to 7 kilometers see Monthly
Weather Review, January, 1918, pp. 11-20.
*Results of Registering Balloon Results at Batavia, by van Bemmelen.
" Mount Weather Observatory, Vol. 6, part 4.
Bulletin of the
"Not yet published; based on 2J^ years' observations.
' Annals of the Astronomical Observatory, Harvard College, Vol. LVIII, part
1, P- 59-
°Die Temperaturverhaltnisse in der freien Atmosphare. Wagner, in Beitrage
zur Physik der freien Atmosphare, Band 3. Heft 2-3.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 37

Table I.

Mean seasonal and annual temperatures and temperature gradients at Mount

Weather, Va., Drexel, Nebr.j Blue Hill, Mass., and in Central Europe.
Altitude,
38 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 39

the other seasons the gradients are much steeper at all place's. For
the year the mean value from the surface to the 5 kilometer level is
approximately 0.5° C. per 100 meters, or about half the adiabatic

TEMPERATURE,
-14
-- -12 -10
-- -I--
-202468
.- -- -
'C.
10 12 14 16 16 20 22 24 26

11126
Q

5^2
40 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
A. M. P. M.
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 41

A. M. P. M.
42 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Diurnal Range. —Observations of diurnal range of temperature and
other elements at different altitudes have been made at Mount Weather,
Va.,° and at Drexel, Nebr. These observations cannot be success-
fully made except under certain favorable conditions of wind and
weather. They may be said to represent fairly well conditions during
relatively clear weather, when radiation is most active and irregu-
larities due to changing winds, storms, etc., are least in evidence.
Figures 26 and 27 show the average diurnal range of temperatures
for the summer and winter halves of the year at certain specified
levels, as observed at Mount Weather. The lowest curve in each
figure shows the characteristic diurnal range at the surface, viz.:
maximum temperature about 3 to 4 p. m. and minimum temperature
about 4 to 6 A. M., the exact time of these extremes depending on the
season. At the 1000 and 1500 meter levels in summer and at the 1000
meter level in winter this relation still persists, although the range is
much smaller. The surface effect is felt to a greater height in sum-
mer than in winter because of the greater convectional activity during
that season. Above these levels a reversal occurs : the maximum tem-
peratures occur in the early morning and the minimum temperatures
during the afternoon. The explanation of this is fairly simple. Dur-
ing the daytime the earth's surface is heated by solar radiation and
the air in contact with it is forced to rise. As it rises, more or less

condensation occurs in the form of detached cumulus clouds and the

water vapor in these clouds absorbs whatever terrestrial radiation
there may be with the result that but little of this radiation reaches
the higher levels. Air being a poor absorber of solar radiation, little

heat is gained from that source. During the night, on the other hand,
rapid cooling occurs at the earth's surface, the air in the cloud layer
descends somewhat and in so doing is heated dynamically with the
result that evaporation takes place. Thus a certain amount of terres-
trial radiation is able to pass through the layer in which during the
day there was condensed water vapor and this radiation is to a cer-
tain extent absorbed by the Air at higher levels and produces the
nocturnal maximum. Observations at altitudes above 3 kilometers
are not sufficiently numerous to determine the height to which this
diurnal effect extends, but in one series at Fort Omaha, Nebr., with
sounding balloons^" there is evidence to show that it is not felt above
5 or 6 kilometers. Referring again to figures 26 and 27, it is apparent

° Bulletin of the Mount

Weather Observatory, Vol. 6, part 5.
"Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 44, pp. 247-264.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 43

that between the surface and the 1060 meter level there is a very
small vertical gradient during the night and a very large one during
the afternoon. If we consider these values in greater detail, i. e.,

by shorter altitude intervals, we find that the gradients amount to a

strong inversion at about 100 meters above the surface at night and
a super-adiabatic condition in the afternoon, the latter extending to
about 400 meters. Table 2 shows mean gradients for summer and
winter as observed at 2 a. m. and 2 p. m. at and near Mount Weather,
Va., during clear weather.
44 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
extending down to the 5 kilometer level above the earth's surface, the
temperature gradient is approximately 7" C. per kilometer and does

not vary greatly for different places or seasons.^^ The height of the
base of the stratosphere does vary, however, with latitude, season
and surface pressure conditions. The seasonal variation may, in a
sense, be considered a latitude effect, the height diminishing in pro-
portion to the distance of any given locality from the thermal equator.
In Table 3 may be found the average summer, winter and annual
heights of the base of this region as observed at different places.

Table III.

Average Summer, Winter and Annual Altitudes of the Base of the Stratosphere.
Altitude
Lati- Summer Winter Annual
Place tude Km. Km. Km,
Omaha, Nebr. , 41 . .
12.5 lo.o 11.2
St. Louis, Mo 39 12.0 lo.s 11.2
Avalon, Cal , 33 16.0
Southern Canada 45 13.0 , lO.o 11.5
Southern England 51 lO.S
Continental Europe SO ii.o
Melbourne, Australia , 38 lo.o
Batavia, Java , 7 17.0

Associated with this difference in height of the stratosphere is a

corresponding difference in its temperatures, these being lowest as a
tule when the altitude of the base of the stratosphere is greatest. Thus,
in the equatorial regions they are somewhat lower than —80" C. and
do not vary materially throughout the year. As
greater distances from
the equator are reached, the stratosphere is found to have a lower
altitude and a higher temperature. In middle latitudes, the annual
range in the height is, roughly, 2.5 kilometers, but in this case obser-
vations do not agree as to the relation of temperature to this seasonal
change in height. Thus, European observations give, on the average,
a higher temperature in summer than in winter, whereas the reverse
of this has been found to exist in Canada. In the United States,^^

"As mean gradient from the earth to the S

stated earlier in this chapter the
kilometer level about 5° C. per kilometer. This gives a mean gradient, from
is

the earth's surface to the base of the stratosphere, of 6° C. per kilometer

approximately.
^ For seasonal values at various altitudes from sea level to 32 kilometers, see
Monthly Weather Review, January, 1918, pp. 11 to 20.
 .

ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 45

-TEMPERATURE, °C.
-60-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 10 20 30
25 » .

f .; ,
Alt
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 47

as shown in Figure 28, there is little difference in the mean tempera-

tures of the two seasons. The reason for these variations is not clear
and more observations are needed to establish them definitely. If

2ft

a
!7

£S

a
u
a
a
a
!0

19

U
17

IS

U
u

11
 I

48 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
to the effect of lower clouds upon the diurnal range at different levels,
as pointed out on page 42.
Vertical Temperature Gradients Related to Surface Pressure. —In
"Physics of the Air," Chapter IV, Humphreys has grouped a large
number of observations, obtained at four stations in Europe, accord-
ing to the surface pressure conditions prevailing at the times of the
ascensions. The results are indicated in Figures 29 and 30 and are,
briefly, as follows: (i) the altitude of the base of the stratosphere
is greater when pressure at the earth's surface is high than when
it is low; and near the earth's surface in winter, and
(2) except at
even including these levels in summer, the troposphere^' is warmer
and the stratosphere colder during high than during low barometric
pressure at the earth's surface. The second statement is true par-
ticularly for the central portions of highand low pressure areas, but
does not apply equally well to the regions more distant. In fact, the
opposite is true in the eastern and southern quadrants of highs and
lows, these reversals increasing with the distance from their centers,
due to the wind circulation about them. This relation of temperature
to increasing and decreasing pressure at the earth's surface is well
shown in Figure 31, based on sounding balloon observations made in
the United States.^* The solid lines represent mean temperatures
over falling pressures, i. e., between a receding high and an approach-
ing low; and the dashed lines, over rising pressure, i. e., between a
receding low and an approaching high. Table 4 gives similar results,
as determined by means of kites to an altitude of 4 kilometers.

Table IV.

Mean seasonal free air temperature over falling and rising air pressure, as
observed at Mount Weather. Va.
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Altitude Falling Rising Falling Rising Falling Rising Falling Rising
Meters. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure. Pressure.
=C °C °C °C °C °C
526 10.2 8.2 20.9 . 19.8 13.2 9.3 —°C 0.3
°C
I.O
1000 8.4 4.5 17.8 16.6 ii.s 5.7 0.0 —3.8
2000 4.0 — O.S 12.0 II. 7.4 2.0 — 1.6 — 6.2
3000 —1.6 —5.4 6.6 S.6 2.8 — 2.S —6.4 —10.6
4000 —7.6 —10.8 0.5 0.2 —3.5 —8.2 —12.0 —15.6

13 itn
'"Troposphere" is the name given to the lower part of the atmosphere, in
which, on the average, temperature decreases with altitude, as distinguished from
"stratosphere," the upper part of the atmosphere, which is characterized by
nearly isothermal conditions.
"Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, Vol. 4, part 4.
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 49

The explanation of the higher temperatures, in the troposphere,

over falling than over rising pressure is found in the southerly

component in the winds under the former conditions and the northerly
component under the latter. These components are found to persist
to great altitudes, although less decidedly at higher than at lower
levels.

PART II. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION

OF TEMPERATURE.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
The earth receives practically all of its heat from the sun, and since
the atmosphere is heated to some extent by incoming solar radiation
and to a still greater extent by outgoing terrestrial radiation, it follows
that insolation (the name generally given to the sun's radiant energy
or heat) is entirely responsible for the heat of the earth's atmosphere.
It is true that some heat
is received from the interior of the earth and

from other heavenly bodies than the sun, but the amount of this heat
is too small to be considered.It has been estimated to be insufficient
to change atmospheric temperatures by more than 0.2" C.

AMOUNT OF INSOLATION.
The immense amount of radiant energy or heat emitted by the sun
can be realized when we consider that the earth receives only about one
two-billionth part of it. All the rest, except similar small proportions
that are intercepted by the other planets, is lost in space. In spite of
this constant giving up of energy, no diminution has been observed
during the time that measurements have been made, and there is every
reason to believe that the heat received by the earth will be practically
constant for ages to come. In the course of millions of years, how-
ever, this energy will gradually diminish and eventually will cease
altogether.
Variation with Distance from Sun. —The amount of insolation
received by the earth as a whole varies slightly during the year because
the earth's orbit, or path around the sun, is not a circle but is slightly
elliptical. Its eccentricity is small, so that, the sun being at one focus,
the earth is only about three million miles nearer the sun at one time
 : :

50 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
than another. The average distance is nearly ninety-three million miles.
The time of nearest approach, or perihelion, occurs near the begin-
ning of the calendar year (January 2 in 1919), and the time of
greatest distance, or aphelion, near the middle of the year (July 2 in
1919). The result is that the earth as a whole is receiving most heat
during the winter and during the summer of the northern hemi-
least
sphere. The difference amounts to about 7 per cent., or, in other
words, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the sun.
Seasonal Variation with Latitude. —Because of the inclination of
the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic and, further, because this
axis always remains parallel to itself as the earth revolves around the
sun, it follows that the various parts of the earth's surface receive
the sun's rays at different angles in the course of each year. This
inclination of the axis amounts to 66j^°, or, in other words, it is 23^4°
from the vertical (the vertical being regarded as a line perpendicular
to the plane of the ecliptic). The change thus brought about in the
presentation of the earth to the sun causes an apparent migration of
the latter through 47" and gives rise to our seasons. Thus, the sun's
rays fall perpendicularly at the tropic of Cancer on June 21, at the
equator on September 23 and March 21 and at the tropic of Capricorn
on December 21. This migration gives rise to three important results
(I ) The thermal
equator, as distinguished from the geographical
equator, moves northward and southward with the sun and materially
affects the general planetary circulation (see Chapter VIII) (2) ;

The sun's rays fall more and more obliquely on the surface of the
northern hemisphere, as the sun moves southward, and vice versa in
the southern hemisphere, thus varying the amount of energy per unit
of surface, not only because these rays are spread out more, as their
angle of incidence diminishes, but also because somewhat greater
absorption occurs by reason of their longer path through the atmos-
phere; and (3) the relative lengths of day and night change greatly
throughout the year. The amount of this change is shown in the
following table

Latitude 0° 17° 41° 49° 63° 66J^° 67°2i' 69°5i' 78°ii' go°
Duration 12 hrs. 13 hrs. 15 hrs. 16 hrs. 20 hrs. 24 hrs, i mo. 2 mo. 4 mo. 6 mo.

A
diagrammatic representation of the relation of insolation to
season and latitudeis given in Figure 32, reproduced from Davis'

Elementary Meteorology. With these general considerations in mind

we can now take up the various ways in which insolation, or the sun's
 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. SI

radiant energy, aifects the earth's atmosphere. The most important

of these are: transmission and absorption of solar and terrestrial
radiation; conduction and convection.
Transmission and Absorption. —Only part of the insolation inter-
cepted by the earth becomes effective in heating the earth's surface
or its atmosphere. Observations by Abbot and Fowle^" show that
about 37 per cent, of it is reflected by clouds, by the surface of the
earth and to a slight extent by the atmosphere itself. large pro- A
portion of the remaining 63 per cent, is transmitted by the atmosphere

Figure 32. Relation of insolation to season and latitude.

directly to the earth's surface without loss by absorption. What little

absorption does take place is almost altogether due to the water vapor
present, although a small amount may be taken up by carbon dioxide,
ozone and dust particles. There is practically no absorption by pure,
dry air. Much of the insolation that reaches the earth's surface is
absorbed and then reradiated. This so-called terrestrial radiation of
long wave-lengths, or "heat rays," is more readily absorbed by the
atmosphere than is the solar radiation of short wave lengths, or "light
rays," and, in fact, is responsible in large measure for the temperature
of the air. The extent of this absorption depends upon the amount of
water vapor present and therefore varies greatly from time to time
in its effect at various levels.
—
Conduction and Convection. ^Air in contact with the earth's surface
is heated or cooled by conduction, and therefore its temperature varies

in the same sense as that of the earth's surface, although not neces-

^ Annals Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, 2, p. 163.

 ;

52 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
sarily to the same extent. Conduction from one layer of air to another
also occurs, but the amount of this is slight. As soon as the air next
the earth's surface becomes heated, its density diminishes and it is

forced by the denser portions of air above or adjacent to it to rise until

it reaches a level where its charged density, i. e., the density it acquires
as it rises, is the same as that of the surrounding air. This, process
is called convection one of the most important agents in the
and is

vertical distribution of temperature. It may equally well be said to

be one of the most important, if not the most important, in determining

the horizontal distribution of temperature over the earth.
Land and Water Surfaces in Relation to Reflection, Transmission
—
and Absorption. ^Water surfaces reflect about 40 per cent, of the
insolation that reaches them, and transmit the rest to lower depths and
where it is absorbed. Much of the heat that is absorbed, hgwever, is
used in evaporating the water and is therefore stored up as latent heat
some of the remainder is distributed by the constant movement of
the water. The net result is that the water surface, and therefore the
air above it, maintains a relatively constant temperature. Land areas,
on the other hand, reflect and transpiit very little insolation and there
is practically no evaporation. The specific heat of land is low, and,
moreover, there is no, movement, as in the case of water, whereby the
heat received can be convectionally distributed either horizontally or
vertically. Hence, land areas become strongly heated during insola-
tion and similarly cooled in its absence. The nature of the soil and
the vegetation on it'hjve considerable effect in this connection. A
ploughed field becomes hotter than a green pasture, and shale under-
goes greater temperature changes than does limestone.
—
Distribution of Temperature over the Earth. The combined results
of the various influences thus far discussed can best be seen if we
examine a few typical charts that give mean values based upon wide-
spread and, in some cases, long continued observations. Figure 33
shows average annual temperatures over a large part of the earth's
surface. The effect of the obliquity of the sun's rays outside of the
tropics is apparent in the decrease of temperature toward the poles;
the effect of land areas, in the curving of the isotherms poleward over
continents and in the location of the thermal equator. Charts for the
summer and winter seasons, not reproduced here, show the relative
influences of land and water to even better advantage. In the north-
ern, or land, hemisphere, the isotherms are crowded closely together
in winter, and spread apart widely in the summer, whereas, in the
southern, or water, hemisphere, their annual variation is small. In
the tropics this variation is, of course, least of all.
Figure 33. Average annual isotherms, °C (after Buchan).
54 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

Figure 34. Average January temperatures, °F, in the United States.

Figure 35. Average July temperatures, °F, in the United States.

 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. 55

—
Annual Range in the. United States. Figures 34 and 35 give mean
temperatures in January and July for the United States. The iso-
therms bend southward in the interior during the winter and north-
ward during the summer. Near the coasts the annual range is much
less. The eifects of irregxilar topography are well shown in the west-
ern part of the country and, to a smaller extent, in the region of the
Appalachian Mountains. In most parts of the northern hemisphere
the coldest month is January and the hottest month is July, or, in
other words, the temperature lags behind the times of greatest and
least heat received by the sun. This is due to the cumulative effect
of heat or cold. In the early summer, the atmosphere is still cool
from the effects of the preceding winter and in northern regions
snow covers the ground until late spring. Much of the sun's heat is
required to overcome these influences. When this has been accom-
plished, the effect of insolation increases for a time, even though the
amount received is less than before. In the winter the opposite of this
occurs.
Diurnal Range. —Typical illustrations of this may be seen in the
lowest curves in Figures 26 and 27, pages 40 and 41. The hottest
part of the day occurs between 2 and 4 p. m., when the amount of
incoming radiation is just balanced by that of outgoing radiation, a
case analogous to the one discussed in the preceding paragraph. The
coldest part of the day occurs just before sunrise, or just before
insolation becomes equal to terrestrial radiation. These curves show
conditions on relatively clear days. The range is greater when abso-
lutely clear weather prevails, especially if the relative humidity is low,
and less on cloudy days. When the sky is overcast with low dense
stratus clouds, particularly if rain or snow is falling, the diurnal range
may be less than one degree and occasionally may be entirely masked
by storm conditions, the maximum occurring at night and the mini-
mum during the day. In the interior of continents, where humidity
is low, much larger ranges occur, and near the oceans, where humidity

is high and where, moreover, the tempering effect of the water itself

is felt, relatively small ranges occur, especially if further modified by

land and sea breezes. Other local influences such as mountain and
valley breezes, chinooks, thunderstorms, etc., may at times and often
do produce irregularities in the daily march of temperature, but, on
the average, in spite of all these departures from normal conditions,
the average range for any place follows the general trend of those in
the figures.
 ;

CHAPTER IV.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
General Statement. —Of all the meteorological elements, atmospheric
pressure probably exerts the least noticeable effect upon the average
person. We are immediately and often painfully aware of changes
in temperature, moisture and wind, but almost entirely unconscious
of the ordinary changes in pressure that occur from day to day. Only
when we ascend a mountain or make a an
flight in airplane or a
balloon do we become conscious of effects caused by the large reduc-
tion of air pressure which then occurs. Yet in many respects this
element is highly important. It forces water to rise in a pump, when
the pressure of the air therein has been diminished by means of a
piston its measurement makes possible the determination of altitudes
;

its horizontal variations give rise to winds and the consequent changes

in temperature, moisture, etc., at different times and places; and its

accurate observation over wide areas enables the forecasters to pre-
dict with considerable success the coming weather changes. More-
over, it has in recent years assumed peculiar significance in its relation
to aviation: the aviator is limited in the height to which he can fly
by its effect upon himself and upon the performance of his engine
and plane. As already stated, its measurement enables him to deter-
mine ^.pproximately the altitudes which he reaches.
Early in the 17th century Galileo first observed that there is a limit
beyond which it could not be said that "nature abhors a vacuum."
This conclusion was based upon his discovery that water would not
rise above a certain level in a pump. Torricelli carried this inves-
tigation farther and showed that the height of a column of water that
is sustained by the atmosphere diminished with altitude. In 1643 ^^
substituted mercury for water, and the result was the mercurial barom-
eter which has since been in general use for the measurement of
pressures at the earth's surface. This type of barometer is too heavy
and at the same time too delicate for use in free air observations and
a specially designed instrument known as the aneroid barometer has
therefore been constructed and has been generally adopted for such
work. (For description of barometers see Chapter II, pp. 10, 20.)
Units of Measurement. — Atmospheric pressures have been for the
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 57

most part expressed in terms of the linear height of the mercury

.column, corrected for temperature, gravity, etc., that is sustained by

the pressure of the air at any given time and place. The units gen-
erallyused are the inch and the millimeter. Thus, a standard sea level
pressure at a temperature of melting ice and at standard gravity is
given as 29.92 inches, or 760 millimeters. In steam engineering it is
customary to express pressure in terms of force or weight, like pounds
per square inch, and in these units the average air pressure at sea
level isabout 14.7 pounds per square inch. Recently, meteorologists
in some countries have, for the sake of ready comparison with other
units of force, agreed upon the name "bar" as the proper unit for
expressing pressure. A bar, as defined by the International Commis-
sion for Scientific Aeronautics, is a force of 1,000,000 dynes per square
centimeter. It is equivalent to the pressure of a mercury column of
practically 750.1 millimeters or 29.53 inches.. Hence, standard sea
level pressure, 760 mm., or 29.92 inches, equals 1.0133 bars, or 1013.3
millibars, the millibar being in general use because of greater con-
venience in placing the decimal point. In the present discussion milli-
meters and inches will be used, because of the large amount of data that
have not yet been reduced to units of force.
Vertical Distribution of Pressure. —
As one ascends in the atmos-
phere and less air remains above his level and more and more is
less
found below him. Since all particles of the air are drawn to the
earth by the attraction of gravitation the pressure at any point is
proportional to the weight of the column of air above the level in
question. Since, also, air is compressible the lower layers are much
compressed by the superincumbent weight of the overlying masses
which in turn expand and at great elevations attain conditions of
extreme rarity. From these considerations it is obvious that the pres-
sure of the air must continuously decrease with elevation above the
surface of the earth. While the rate of decrease varies with changes
of temperature and atmospheric moisture, nevertheless there cannot
be inversions of pressure (that is, increases of pressure with elevation)
such as we find in the case of temperature.
Hypsometric Equation. —The orderly manner in which pressure
decreases with elevation can be represented with great accuracy by
means of a somewhat complex formula, known as the hypsometric
equation (p. 61). This equation of relation between the pressure,
temperature, moisture and some other conditions of an air column and
the elevation above sea of the point at which the pressure is observed,
is of the greatest practical importance. It must be used in calculating
 58 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
the height of mountains, kites, balloons, airplanes and in all such cases
where elevation is calculated from observations with barometers,,
barographs, altimeters, etc.

The rate of decrease is according to a logarithmic law which is too

complex to discuss here but which has been set out in more or less
elaborate tables which the observer must use when he wishes to cal-
culate accurately altitudes from observed barometric pressures.

5.0

ALT.

4.5

40
 PRESSURE -Mm.
400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740
5.0
C^
 PRESSURE MM.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
31
 : — - )

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 6i

With the same pressure at the earth's surface, the pressure at any
height above it will vary directly with the temperature, i. e., it will be

higher than normal when the mean temperature of the air column is
above normal and lower when the latter is below normal. This is
because cold air is contracted and a greater proportion of the air
column is found in the lower levels conversely at high temperatures
;
•

the density diminishes, the air expands and a greater proportion of

it is therefore found at the upper levels. These relations are well
shown in Figure 36, based upon observations made at Mount Weather,
Va. Mean pressures at the earth's surface do not vary greatly
throughout the year, being somewhat higher in winter than in summer.
At a definite elevation in the free air, however, pressures are higher
in the summer than in the winter, because the expansion of the air
with its higher temperature of summer lifts more of the atmosphere
above the particular level in the summer time, hence increases the
pressure at that level. This seasonal difference is well illustrated in
Figures 37 and 38, based respectively on observations with kites at
Mount Weather and by means of sounding balloons at various points
in the United States. In the stratosphere the variation decreases
because of the smaller differences in temperature in the two seasons.
(See Chapter III.)
Vertical Distribution of Bensity. —
A knowledge of the density of
the air is of great practical importance in problems connected with
aeronautics, the flight of large projectiles and the study of atmospheric
phenomena. This density varies directly with the pressure of the air
and inversely with the temperature and moisture content. The stu-
dent should learn how to compute the density when the conditions
upon which it depends are known, and as the formula is a simple
one it is given as follows
In metric units the density D in kilograms per cubic meter is

TA ^ ^ B — .378E
= 0.46446 ,
D ^f— (i
.

273 + «
"- ^

in which B = the barometric pressure in mm.

E = vapor j)ressure in mm.
* =: temperature of the air in Centigrade degrees.
For pressures in inches and temperature in Fahrenheit degrees the
same formula becomes

D= 1.3245
^ ^^ ^f (2)
459+t ^
-*

And D is then the density in pounds per cubic feet.

 DENSITY - KG. PER. CU. M.
.72 .76 .80 .84 .88 .92 .96 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28

\^
 DENSITY - KG. PER..CU. M.
0.1 0.2 OJ 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 t.O 1.1 1,2 1.3
25| |25
t: I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 I I I I
I

24

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

^14
UJ
13

1-12

10
64 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Equations (i) and (2) enable us to compute the density for any
conditions of pressure, temperature and moisture content.
from day to day, particularly
Densities are subject to large changes
at the surface, as is shown
Figure 39, from which it appears that
in
the normal annual range at Mount Weather is about 10 per cent.
The range from one day to the next may easily be as large as this,
owing to changes in pressure and temperature, and the extreme range
for the entire year may be 20 per cent, or more. It is higher in the
temperate than in the torrid or arctic zones, higher at lowland than at
mountain stations and much higher over the land than over the oceans.
The range is much less above the earth's surface, however, for, as
previously stated, higher pressures accompany and in fact are the
result of higher temperatures at those altitudes and the two, to some
extent, offset each other in their effect upon the densities. Indeed,
at great heights, as indicated inFigure 40, the annual range in pressure
is sufficiently large to overcome the temperature effect, with the result

that above 9 kilometers the mean densities are higher in summer than
in winter, the exact opposite of that which occurs in the region below

9 kilometers.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure in Relation to Temperature. —
We have already seen that temperature exerts a marked influence on
the vertical distribution of pressure. (See Figures 36, 37 and 38.)
Because of this influence temperature is one of the most important
factors also in the horizontal distribution of pressure. For, when-
ever and wherever the temperature is high, the entire atmosphere
is elevated and the upper portions necessarily flow out over regions
which are colder, thus diminishing the surface pressure over the
former places and increasing them over the latter. Thus, one would
at first thought suppose that pressures in the equatorial regions would
be lowest and that they would increase to a maximum over the poles.
That is what would actually occur on a non-rotating earth, but, as
will be shown in Chapter VIII, this rotation causes the overflowing
air from the tropics to turn to the right in the northern hemisphere,
to the left in the southern hemisphere, thus setting up a circumpolar
whirl and tending to produce very low pressures at the poles them-
selves. The ultimate result of these two influences is a distribution
as follows :A belt of low pressure in the tropics belts of high pres-
;

sure at latitude 30° N. and S. belts of low pressure at latitudes 60°

;

N. and S. and slightly increasing pressure from latitude 60° toward

;

the poles. This planetary distribution of pressure is well shown in

Figure 41.
66 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Effects of Land and Water Surfaces on Annual Range. It will be —
observed from this chart that the belts are not perfectly continuous,
but are interrupted by the continents. This again is purely a tem-
perature effect, the land masses having higher temperature on the
average than the oceans. Their influence is better illustrated by
Figures 42 and 43 which give, respectively, the average pressures over
the United States for January and July. In the interior they are high
during winter and low during summer, because of the seasonal change
in temperature, as compared with that prevailing over the oceans. The
result is that (confining our attention to the northern hemisphere)
we find, in winter, high pressure over North America and Asia, with
a moderate extension of the latter to include Europe, and low pressure
over the northern Pacific and northern Atlantic. In the summer,
pressures are high over the northern Pacific and central North Atlantic
and low over North America and Asia. The annual range is much
larger over the continents than over the oceans, because of the greater
extremes in temperature. The difference would be much greater
than it is were it not for the fact that the viscosity of the atmosphere
is too small to enable it to maintain any considerable pressure gradient.
Summarizing, briefly, it may be said that the annual range is greater
in the temperate zones than in the tropics or the frigid zones, and
greater over the continents than over the oceans, and that these results
are due in large part to the unequal heating of land and water surfaces.
Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Pressure Changes. —Humphreys in
Physics of the Air, Chapter XI, gives the following discussion of these
daily variations "There are two classes of well-defined 24-hour pres-
:

sure changes. One

obtains at places of considerable elevation and is
marked by a barometric maximum during the warmest hours and
minimum during the coldest. The other applies to low, especially sea
level, stations, and is the reverse of the above, the maximum occurring
during the coldest hours and the minimum during the warmest.
"The first class of changes just mentioned, the one that concerns
elevated stations, is due essentially to volume expansion and contrac-
tion of the atmosphere caused by heating and cooling respectively.
Thus the lower atmosphere over that side of the earth which is
exposed to insolation becomes more or less heated, and therefore,
because of the resulting expansion, its center of mass is correspond-
ingly raised. Conversely, during the night the atmosphere cools and
contracts and the center of mass is proportionately lowered. Hence,
so far as this effect alone is concerned, a mountain station 1000 meters,
say, above sea level, will have the greatest mass of air above it when
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 67

Figure 42. Average January sea level pressures, inches, in the United States.

Figure 43. Average July sea level pressures, inches, in the United States.
68 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
the atmosphere helow is warmest or most expanded, and the least
when the lower atmosphere is coldest or most contracted ^that — is to
say, this effect tends to produce, at such stations, barometric maxima
during afternoons and minima about dawn.
"There is, however, another effect resulting from the volume expan-
sion and contraction of the atmosphere to consider namely, its lateral ;

flow. To this, due that daily barometric swing at sea level,

mainly, is

the early evening minimum and the early morning maximum, that
is the reverse of the high-level oscillation. The expansion and conse-
quent vertical rise of the air on the warming side of the earth together
with the simultaneous contraction and fall of the atmosphere on the
cooling side, establishes a pressure gradient at all levels of the atmos-
phere directed from the warmer toward the cooler regions, a gradient
that obviously causes the well-known heliotropic wind —the wind that
turns with the sun —and thus leads to maximum pressures at the coldest
places and minimum pressures But as these regions
at the warmest.
are along meridians, roughly, lo hours, or 150 degrees apart, and
perpetually move around the earth at the rate of one revolution every
24 hours, there must be a corresponding perpetual flow of air, or change
of flow, as above described, in a ceaseless effort to establish an equi-
is continuous, can never be attained.
librium which, since the disturbance
"Barometric records, when averaged for a period of several years,
show conspicuous 12-hour cyclic changes that culminate in maxima,
and minima, at approximately 10 o'clock A. m. and p. m., and 4 o'clock
A. M. and p. M., respectively —the exact hour depending somewhat
upon season, weather conditions. This
elevation, and, presumably,
phenomenon is well by Figure .44, which gives, from
illustrated
hourly values, the actual average daily pressure curve for each month,
and also for the entire year, as observed at Key West, Fla., during
the years 1891-1904.
"Some of the observed facts in regard to this 12-hour cyclic change
of pressure are:

"(a) The amplitude is greatest in the tropics and decreases toward

the poles, approximately as the square of the cosine of the latitude.
"(b) The amplitude is everywhere greatest on equinoxes and
everywhere least on solstices.
"(c) The amplitude is greater at perihelion than at aphelion.
"(d) The amplitude is greater by day than by night.
"(e) The amplitude is greater on clear days and least on cloudy,
"(f) The day amplitude is greater over land than over water.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 69

"(g) The night amplitude is greater over oceans than over conti-
nents.
"(h) Over the tropical Pacific Ocean the forenoon barometric

Figure 44. Average daily barometric curves, mm., Key West, Fla.

maximum is about i mm. above and the afternoon minimum i mm.

below the general average pressure.

"Obviously, other things being equal, both the daily change in tem-
perature and the resulting change in convection are greater in the
 : : ;

70 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
tropics than elsewhere; greater at perihelion than aphelion; greater
during clear weather than cloudy ;
greater over land than over water
and greatest when the time of heating and the time of cooling (day
and night) are equal, and least when these are most unequal or at the
times of solstice. Hence all the above facts of observation strongly
favor, if they do not compel, the conclusion that the daily cyclic pres-
sure changes are somehow results of daily temperature changes. There
are, however, a number of other causes of slight pressure changes, but
apparently only the following have any appreciable value:

"i. Horizontal flow of the atmosphere from the regions where it

is most expanded toward those where it is most contracted.

"2. Interference by vertical convection with free horizontal flow.
"3. Natural or free vibration of the atmosphere as a whole."

From a detailed study of these three factors, the following conclu-

sions are reached

"The course of events at each locality appears to be substantially as

follows

"i. A forced afternoon compression of the atmosphere, followed

by its two together forming
equally forced afternoon expansion, the
one complete barometric wave, with a 10 o'clock maximum and a 4
o'clock minimum, in harmony with the free vibration of the entire
atmospheric shell.
"2. Nondisturbance through the night or during the time of a
single free vibration.
"3. Repetition the following day of the forced disturbances in
synchronism with, and therefore at such time as to reenforce, the
free vibrations.
"The series of disturbances is continuous, forced by day and free
by night, but the resulting amplitudes of the barometric changes are
limited, through friction and through the absence of perfect synchro-
nism, to comparatively small values. Each point upon the atmos-
pheric shell receives at every alternate swing a forced impulse in
phase with the free vibration, and therefore at such time and in such
manner as indefinitely to maintain the vibrations of the atmosphere as
a whole.
"The forenoon maximum and the afternoon minimum are primary
disturbances equally forced but in different ways by the daily increase
of temperature, while the evening maximum and the morning minimum
are secondary disturbances caused by the joint action of the forced
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 71

primaries through the 12-hour free vibration of the atmosphere. In

short, the semi-diurnal swing of the barometer as a result of merely-
—
fortuitous circumstances of the fact that the mass of the atmosphere
happens to be such that the period of its free vibration is approximately
just one-half that of the earth's rotation."

Irregular Pressure Changes. —The most important cause of these

irregular variations is the alternate passing of areas of high and low
pressure. In the temperate zones they occur at all times of the year,
but are best developed and most frequent in the winter. (See Chap-
ters IX and X for a full discussion of their characteristics, movements,
etc.) Figure 45 illustrates the abrupt pressure changes that they may

Figure 45. Pressure changes, inches, at Drexel, Nebr., March 8 to 10, 1918,
inclusive, due to an intense tow followed by a well developed high.

bring to a station over which they pass. In the tropics storms of great
intensity, commonly known as hurricanes, produce very low pressures,
but these are of rare occurrence, or at any rate the frequency with
which they visit any particular locality is small. The relative effect
of highs and lows upon the mean pressure range at different latitudes
in the northern hemisphere for January and July (excluding storms
of exceptional severity) is shown in the following table, copied from
the Barometer Manual of the British Meteorological Office.
72 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Mean Range.
Latitude January July
N. mm. mm.
0° to 23^^° S-io 5-7-5
23^° to 30° 10-16.S 7.5-10
30° to 40° 16.5-31-5 10-15
40° to 50° 31-5-38 15-20
50° to 60° 38-46 20-25.5
60° to 65° 46-43-S 25.5

Other causes of irregular changes are tornadoes and waterspouts,

which, though infrequent and of short duration, may produce abnor-
mally low pressures and thunderstorms, which often occur in certain
;

regions and places and usually cause an abrupt change, usually a rise,
in pressure. The amount of this change is, however, small and does
not materially affect mean values.
 CHAPTER V.

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION.

INTRODUCTION.
The presence of water vapor in the atmosphere is of such vital
importance in the economy of Nature, and the source of so many
phenomena, as to demand a study of, among other things evaporation, :

by which the vapor is gotten into and rendered a portion of the atmos-
phere, mainly from free surfaces, but also from vegetation and damp
soil and condensation, by which in various forms it is removed from
;

the air.

EVAPORATION.
Evaporation, the process by which a liquid becomes a vapor, or gas,
is a result of the kinetic energy of the individual molecules. Some of
the molecules at or near the surface have such velocities and directions
that they escape from the liquid and thus become an integral part of
the surrounding gas or atmosphere ; and as the chance of escape,
other things remaining equal, increases with the velocity, it follows
(a) that the average kinetic energy of the escaping molecules is greater
than that of the remaining ones, or that evaporation decreases the
temperature of a liquid, and (b) that the rate of evaporation increases
with increase of temperature.
Just as the kinetic energy of some of the molecules of the liquid
carries them into the space about, so, too, the kinetic energy of some
of the molecules of the gaseous phase causes them to penetrate into
and thus become a part of the liquid. In reality, therefore, evapora-
tion from and condensation onto the surface of a liquid, though neces-
sarily taking place by discrete molecular units, practically are
continuous processes whose ratio may have any value whatever. As
popularly used, however, and even as very commonly used scientifically,
the term "evaporation'' refers to the net loss of a liquid, and "con-
densation'' to its net gain, so that, in this sense, both are said to be
zero when, as a matter of fact, they are only equal to each other.
In the sense of net loss, which admits of accurate measurement,
evaporation has been the subject of numerous investigations. Vege-
 .

74 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
tation, soil, and the free water surface each ofifers'its own peculiar
and numerous evaporation problems. In what follows, however, only
the free surface will be considered.
—
Evaporation Into Still Air. The problem of evaporation into abso-
lutely still air has been definitely solved by Stefan,^ in special limited

cases. The discussions, however, are necessarily tedious, and in the

end have but little bearing on the evaporation problems that confront
the meteorologist and the engineer, who are concerned with evapora-
tion as it occurs under the variable conditions of out-doors, rather
than under the fixed and radically different conditions of the laboratory.
Evaporation in the Open. —Several hundred papers,^ many of them
giving the results of elaborate investigations, have been published on
the evaporation of water from free surfaces, vegetation, and soil, and,
while no equation has been found that expresses in terms of easily
measurable quantities the rates of evaporation in the open, neverthe-
less several factors that control these rates have been discovered and
more or less approximately evaluated. In the case of free, clean sur-
faces the principal factors are:
(a) Salinity. — It has repeatedly been observed that the evaporation
of salt solutions decreases with increase of concentration, and that
sea-water evaporates approximately 5 per cent, less rapidly than fresh
water under the same conditions.
(b) Dryness of the Air. —Many observations have shown that, to
at least a first approximation, the rate^of evaporation is directly pro-
portional, other things being equal, to the difference in temperature
indicated by the wet and dry bulb thermometers of a whirled
psychrometer.
(c) Velocity of the Wind. —All observers agree that evaporation
rapidly increases with wind velocity, but until recently only empirical
equations have been developed that involve this important factor.
Jeffreys,^ however, has shown that in the case of strictly horizontal
winds the rate of evaporation varies as the square root of the wind
velocity, and as the three-half (1.5) power of the diameter of the
evaporating vessel (assuming it to be circular)
But even this great theoretical advance does not fully solve the
' Sitzungsberichte der K. Akad. der Wis. Wien, 68
(1873), 385-423; and 73
(1881), 943-954
''Livingston, An Annotated Bibliography of Evaporation, Monthly Weather
Review, Wash., June, September, and November, 1908, and February, March,
April, May, and June, 1909.
' Phil. Mag. 35, p. 270, 1918.
 EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION. 75

problem of the effect of wind velocity on evaporation, since in the

open the wind has a variable but important vertical component, the
effect of which on the rate of evaporation must be very different from
that of a strictly horizontal component.
—
(d) Barometric Pressure. Since the pressure of any gas retards
the diffusion of other gas molecules, whether of the same or different
nature, it follows that when the vapor tension is comparatively small
evaporation must vary inversely, nearly, as the total barometric
pressure.
(e) Area of Surface. —
Obviously the total amount of water evapo-
rated must increase with the area of the evaporating surface, other con-
ditions being alike, but not at the same rate. If the evaporation is from
a circular area into absolutely still air it increases as the square root
of the area. If the evaporation is into a strictly horizontal wind it

should, according to Jeffreys' equations, vary substantially as the

three-fourth power of the However, under ordinary outdoor
area.
conditions the rate of total evaporation appears to be much more
nearly, though by no means exactly, proportional to the first power
of the surface.
(f ) Temperature of the Water. —Evaporation increases rapidly with
the temperature of the water, roughly in proportion to the saturation
pressure at that temperature, provided the general humidity of the air
is low. When, however, the water surface is colder than the dew-point
temperature of the air the evaporation becomes negative ; that is, con-
densation obtains. When the air is colder than the water surface,
evaporation may continue into it after saturation has been reached and
thereby produce fog, the process being one of distillation and conden-
sation.
Even when the water is frozen, it still continues slowly to evaporate
(sublime) whenever the air is sufficiently dry, but the laws governing
this sublimation are not well known.

CONDENSATION.
Condensation, the process by which a vaporis reduced to a liquid

or solid, induced by: (a) reduction of temperature, volume remain-

is

ing constant; (&) reduction of volume, temperature remaining con-

stant; (c) a combination of temperature and volume changes that
jointly reduce the total vapor capacity. In the open, water vapor is

condensed: (i) by contact cooling; (2) by the mixture of masses of

air of unequal temperatures; (3) by expansional or dynamic cooling
76 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
due to vertical convection, or, occasionally, other causes, especially
and waterspout funnels.
rotation, as in tornado
Condensation Due —
Contact Cooling. During clear nights the
to
surface of the earth, including vegetation and other objects, loses
much heat by radiation, and thus both it and the air in contact with it
are reduced to lower temperatures, obviously more pronounced the
gentler the winds. After the dew-point has been reached all further
loss of heat, producing now a much smaller proportionate decrease of
temperature, results in the deposition, respectively, of dew and hoar-

FiGURE 46. Grammesof water vapor per saturated cubic metre, at different
temperatures. Bases of shaded portions proportional to precipitation per S°C.
cooling from the temperatures indicated.

frost at temperatures above and below freezing. Similarly, relatively

warm, moist air moving over a snow bank, for instance, may deposit
some of its moisture.
 EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION. 77

Condensation Due to Mixing. —Since the amount of water vapor per

saturated unit volume decreases with temperature more rapidly than
the absolute temperature through the range of atmos-
itself, at least
pheric temperatures (see Figure 46), it follows that the mixture of
two saturated masses of air of unequal temperatures must produce
some precipitation. The amount of precipitation induced in this
manner, however, is surprisingly small; indeed, it seldom can be
sufficient to produce more than a light cloud or fog. The theory
involved in a full discussion of this process of producing condensation
is comparatively simple, but the subject" perhaps not one of great
importance. Those who wish to follow it up can find it in appropriate
treatises.
—
Condensation Due to Dynamic Cooling. As a mass of air rises,
no matter what the cause of this rise may be, it leaves more and more
air below it, and thus has a less and less load of air above it to support.
As the load decreases the rising mass of air expands, but obviously
against whatever the load or pressure may then be. That is it does
work, necessarily at the expense of its own energy its heat. As it —
rises it (including, of course, such water vapor as may be present)
therefore cools. But as the amount of water vapor a given space can
contain under a given pressure rapidly decreases with decrease of
temperature, it follows that the dynamical cooling of a rising mass of
humid air is quite certain to produce condensation (cloud) at a greater
or less altitude.
A complete discussion of this topic is unavoidably tedious and more
or less mathematical. A condensed account with references to original
papers in given in the April, 1918, number of the Journal of the
Franklin Institute.
As a practical rule, however, if T„ is the centigrade temperature
of the surface air and Td the dew point, the height h at which cloud
will begin to form as a result of dynamical or expansional cooling
incident to convection, such as occurs in a heat thunderstorm, is given
by the equation
h = 125
( T„ —
Tj ) meters, roughly.
Principal Forms
of Condensation. —
Condensation assumes many
forms, of which the chief are: (a) Free drops, varying in size all the
way from the fog or cloud particle up to the largest rain drop, or
from mm., roughly, to about 5 mm. in diameter. (&) Dew, water
.03
that has condensed on objects that by any process have attained a
temperature below the current dew-point of the air immediately in
contact with the bedewed objects. The cooling necessary to the for-
78 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
mation of dew usually is owing to loss of heat by radiation, (c)
Frost, a light feathery deposit of ice caused by the same process that
produces dew, but occurring when the temperatures of the objects
on which it forms are below freezing, (d) Rime, a frost-like deposit
of ice, often several inches deep, on the windward sides of exposed
objects. It is formed from impinging undercooled fog particles, and
hence grows straight into the wind, (e) Glaze (ice storm), a coating
of clear smooth ice on the ground, trees, etc. It generally is caused
by the falling of rain on cold (below freezing) surfaces. (/) Snow,
tabular and columnar particles of ice formed in the free air at tem-
peratures below freezing. All are hexagonal in type but of endless
variety in detail —many exquisitely beautiful, (g) Sleet, ice pellets,

mere frozen rain drops (or largely melted snowflakes refrozen), due
to the falling of the precipitation through a cold layer of air near
the surface of the earth, and that rattle when they strike a window,
for instance, (h) Hail, lumps of ice more or less irregular in outline,
and generally consisting of concentric layers of clearish ice and com-
pact snow. As here defined, in accordance with the usage of the
United States Weather Bureau, it occurs only in connection with
thunderstorms and may be of any size up to that at least of a base-
ball, or large orange, such as fell in considerable quantities at Annap-

olis and other points in Maryland on June 22, 191 5.* Indeed much
larger stones have occasionally been reported, and presumably have
occurred. At any rate in some instances stock in the fields have been
killed by blows from hailstones of unusual size.
Other forms of precipitation that should, perhaps, be mentioned
are : graupel, soft snow pellets ; mist, a thin fog ; and drizzle, a light
rain of very small drops.
Why the Atmosphere Generally is Unsaturated. It may, perhaps, —
seem strange that, in spite of the continuous and rapid evaporation
from nearly all parts of the earth's surface, the atmosphere as a whole
never becomes even approximately saturated. This condition, how-
ever, is a necessary result of vertical convection. Obviously, whatever
the temperature and relative humidity of a given mass of air at any
point of its convectional route, its absolute humidity is less then, in
general, than when its ascent began, by the amount of rain or snow
already abandoned by it.^ That is, on the average, air in a convection
circuit descends to the earth dryer than when it previously ascended
from it. In short, convection, because it induces abundant precipita-
tion, is therefore a most efficient drying process; and because com-

*Fassig, Monthly Weather Review, September, 1915.

 :

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION. 79

paratively little precipitation is produced in any other way, convection

alone prevents the atmosphere from becoming and remaining intolerably
humid.
Summer and Winter Precipitation. —Vertical convection, essential
as above explained to all considerable condensation, results from three
distinct causes: {a) superdiabatic temperature gradients, due often
to surface heating; (6) converging winds, as in the front half of a
cyclone; and (c) forced rise from (i) flow over land elevations and
barriers of cold air, (2) underrunning of cooler winds. The first or
thunderstorm type of convection causes much of the summer precipita-
tion of temperate regions, as also nearly all the rain of the tropics,
while the second or cyclonic convection produces by far the greater
part of winter precipitation, except, perhaps, that which occurs along
the windward sides of the most favorably situated barriers. Also,
during the colder season precipitation usually occurs lower down the
barrier slope and may be induced by feebler cyclones or other storms
than in the warmer. This is owing in part to the fact that generally
there is less difference between the actual and dew-point temperatures

during winter than during summer (a condition determined by the

great seasonal temperature changes of continents with reference to the
ocean), and therefore a less convection required in thefirst case than

in the second to induce condensation, and partly to the greater rate

of decrease of temperature with increase of latitude while the days
are 'short than while they are long, a condition that favors winter
by causing a greater fall of temperature during the winter
precipitation
season than any other for a given travel of the wind on the front or
rainy side of a cyclone. That is, usually a less vertical convection and
a less horizontal travel of the air —a feebler storm— suffices to induce
precipitation during winter than during summer.
The contrasts, then, between summer and winter precipitation are
manifold. A typical case may be illustrated by the following table

Contrast Between Summer and Winter Precipitation.

Summer Winter
Rain Usually. Often.
Snow Never. Frequent.
Hail (ice lumps) Occasionally. Never.
Sleet (frozen rain) Never. Occasionally.
On barrier High. Low, and up.
Type of storm Thunderstorm frequently. Cyclone.
Strength of convection .... Strong generally essential. Feebler often sufficient.
Intensity of cyclone Decided usually essential. Slight often sufficient.
 CHAPTER VI.

FOGS AND CLOUDS.

The deposition of dew, the forming of hoar-frost, and the sweating of
ice pitchers, allexamples of surface condensation, show that atmos-
pheric moisture promptly condenses upon any object whose tempera-
ture is below the dew-point. Similarly, volume condensation takes
place in the form of a fog or cloud of innumerable droplets, or ice
spicules, throughout the body of ordinary air whenever by expansion
or otherwise it is sufficiently cooled. But this is not equally true of
all air. Thus, while the first considerable rapid expansion, and there-
fore decided volume cooling, of humid air in a receiver, if recently
admitted unfiltered, is quite certain to produce a miniature cloud, sub-
sequent expansions of the same air produce fewer and fewer such
particles. If the old air is removed and unfiltered fresh air admitted,
the condensations again occur as before; but if the fresh air enters
through an such as a plug of cotton wool a few centi-
efficient filter,

meters long, condensation remains as difficult as in the exhausted air.

The admission, however, of a little smoke restores to the exhausted
and confers upon the powers of condensation.
filtered air full
Obviously, then, cloud droplets form about nuclei that cannot easily
pass through mechanical filters of fine, texture, and microscopic exam-
inations of the residue left on the evaporation of these droplets have
shown the nuclei to consist in large measure of dust particles, both
mineral and organic. Hygroscopic gases, such as the oxides of sulphur
and of nitrogen, may also act as condensation nuclei, but ordinarily
there is abundant dust in the atmosphere (thousands of particles per
cubic centimeter) to provide for all precipitation. It is often urged
that free electrons in the air also act as nuclei about which water vapor
condenses, but, as this type of condensation requires about a fourfold
supersaturation, its occurrence in the open seems extremely improbable.
As stated, volume condensation may be induced in the atmosphere
by any cooling process: whether by radiation, as on clear nights;
mixing warmer with colder masses of air; movement of relatively
warm air over cold surfaces, as in the case of winter south winds
(northern hemisphere) or expansion, owing either to convection or
;

barometric depression. But the cooling process has much to do with

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 l-OGS AND CLOUDS. 8i

determining the extent of the condensation, the kind and amount of

from it, and its general appearance, according to which,
precipitation
chiefly, it is classified.
Distinction Between Fog and Cloud. —^Volume condensation is

divided primarily into fog and cloud, but a sharp distinction between
them that would enable one always to say which is which is not pos-
sible. In general, however, a fog differs from a cloud only in its
location. Both are owing, as explained, to the cooling of the atmos-
phere to a temperature below its dew-point, but in the case of the
cloud this cooling usually results from vertical convection, and hence
the cloud is nearly always separated from the earth, except on mountain

tops. Fog, on the other hand, is induced by relatively low tempera-

tures at and near the surface, and commonly itself extends quite to
the surface, at least during the stage of its development. In short,
fog consists of water droplets or ice spicules condensed from and float-
ing in the air near the surface cloud, of water droplets or ice spicules
;

condensed from and floating in the air well above the surface. Fog is

a cloud on the earth cloud a fog in the sky.

;

FOG.
According to the conditions under which they are formed, fogs
may be divided into two general classes —radiation fogs and advection
fogs.
Radiation Fog. —Fog is likely to form along rivers and creeks and
even in cleared mountain valleys during any still, cloudless night of
summer and, especially, autumn. In the course of a calm warm day
much water is evaporated into the lower atmosphere of such regions,
where in large part it remains as long as there are no winds. Hence
this air, because it is humid, and the adjacent surface of the earth lose
much heat during the night by radiation to the clear sky. In many
cases they cool in the end to a temperature below the dew-point, and
thus induce a greater or less volume condensation on the always-
present dust motes that results in a correspondingly dense fog (Figure
47). Such fog, however, is not likely to occur during cloudy nights,
because the air seldom then cools sufficiently, nor during high winds,
since they dissipate the humidity and also through turbulence prevent
the formation of excessively cold aerial lakes.
The distinctive factor in the formation of this type of fog is the free
radiation of the ground and the lower air by which the latter is
sufficiently cooled to induce condensation. Hence fogs formed in this
82 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
manner are properly termed "radiation fogs," sometimes also called
"land fogs" and "summer fogs."
—
Advection Fog. Whenever warm, humid air drifts over a cold
surface its temperature is reduced throughout the lower turbulent
layers by conduction to that surface and by mixture with remaining
portions of the previous cold air and a correspondingly dense fog
produced. Hence fog often occurs, during winter, in the front por-
tion of a weak cyclone; also whenever air drifts from warm water to
cold — from the Gulf Stream, for instance, to the Labrador Current;
and wherever gentle ocean winds blow over snow-covered land cir- —
cumstances that justify the terms "winter fog" and "sea fog" (drift-
ing on shore in places, and even some distance inland. Figure 48).
Similarly, a cold wind drifting or spreading under and through a
body of warm, humid air also produces a fog, though usually a com-
paratively light one. This explains the fog that frequently forms,
during winter, along the front of a "high," and the thin fog that
occasionally is seen over lakes on frosty autumn mornings, when -the
—
water appears to be steaming actually evaporating into air already
saturated and thus inducing condensation. It also explains the frequent
occurrence of "frost smoke" on polar seas.
If the wind is strong the turbulence extends through a comparatively
deep layer. Hence in the case of warm air drifting over a cold sur-
face if the movement is rapid the total duration of contact between
any portion of the air and that surface is likely to be so brief that but
little cooling can take place and no fog be formed. Similarly, it usually
also happens that fog does not form when the cold wind blowing over
a warm, humid region is even moderately strong. Here the turbulence
mixes the excessive humidity near the surface through so large a
volume that saturation commonly is not produced, nor, therefore, any
trace of fog.
From the above it appears that all fogs that result f-rom the drift-
ing of warm, humid air over cold surfaces, as also those that are pro-
duced by the flow of cold air over warm, humid regions, are but
effects oftemperature changes induced by the horizontal transporta-
tion of air hence the proposed general name, "advection fog." The
;

term advection is preferred to convection because the latter is prac-

tically restricted, inmeteorological usage, to a change of level, whereas
in the case under consideration only horizontal movements are con-
cerned. The contradistinction, therefore, between "advection fog"
and "convection cloud" is obvious, and, presumably, worth while.
 FOGS AND CLOUDS. 83

CLOUDS.
The cooling of the atmosphere by which cloud condensation is

induced most frequently, perhaps, produced by vertical convection,

is

either thermal or forced; often, presumably, by the mixing of winds

of different temperatures occasionally by pressure changes, elevation
;

remaining the same; occasionally, also, by radiation; and rarely, in

the case of very thin clouds, by diffusion and conduction.
Radiation, though productive of many fogs, is excluded from the
list of principal cloud-forming processes for the reason that any mass

of free air that cools in position as it must whenever its radiation

exceeds its absorption, immediately gains in density and falls to a
lower level where, when equilibrium is reached, it actually is warmer

than was before the cooling began, and its relative humidity there-
it

fore lower. Hence it seems that radiation could produce clouds only
when equally active, or nearly so, over an extensive layer of practically
saturated air. If radiation is unequally distributed it tends to evapo-
rate clouds rather than produce them.
Classification. — It is not practical, however desirable, to classify
clouds according to their causes, as in the case of fogs, for it often
happens that the exact cause is not obvious. Hence other bases of
classification have been adopted, especially form or appearance, activ-
ity, and position. Most, but not all, clouds belong to one or other
of the four distinct types, cirrus, stratus, cumulus, nimbus, including
their alto, fracto, and combination forms; alto-stratus, alto-cumulus;
fracto-stratus, fracto-cumulus, f racto-nimbus ; cirro-stratus, cirro-
cumulus, strato-cumulus, cumulo-nimbus.
Cirrus (Ci.). —The name cirrus, literally a curl or ringlet, has been
given to those iibrous white clouds that resemble great wisps of hair
(mares' tails), giant curling plumes (feather clouds), tangled skeins,
and various other things (Figures 49 and 50). These are the highest,
often 10 to 12 kilometers above the earth in middle latitudes and still
higher in tropical regions, the most tenuous, and among the most
familiar of all clouds.
Since cirri usually run far ahead of the rainy portions of cyclonic
areas, and grow denser as the storm approaches, it is obvious that they
frequently result from cyclonic convections that extend nearly or quite
to the stratosphere, where, and for some distance below which, the
rising air is carried forward much faster than the storm center. But
they also are fairly common in the midst of "highs" due, presumably,
to a mechanical or bodily lifting of the upper air of these regions, or
84 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
overrunning of air in the general circulation, and, consequently,
dynamical cooling not only of the stratosphere, ais abundantly shown
by the records of sounding balloons, but also of the topmost portion
of the troposphere where cirri usually form.
It has been suggested that cirri often are caused by cooling in place
by radiation, but, as already explained, this appears to be improbable
for clouds so broken and discontinuous. On the contrary, however,
it seems likely that through free radiation and cooling at night they

often sink to lower levels, get warmer and evaporate. Thermal and,
mechanical convection, therefore, the first prevailing in tropical
regions, the second, presumably, in extratropical, appear to be the
only abundant causes of cirri.

The excessively low temperatures at which cirri are formed, gen-

erally — 30° C. to —
50° C, necessitate their being tenuous (at such
temperatures there is but little water vapor to condense) and prac-

tically insure (exceptions have been reported^) that they shall consist
of ice needles.
Cirro-stratus (Ci.-St.). —When cirrus clouds thicken, as they usually
do on the approach of a cyclonic storm, they gradually merge into a
broad cloud layer, having the appearance of a more or less continuous
white veil of uneven and often fibrous texture (Figure 51), to which
the name cirro-stratus has been given. Its altitude is nearly that of
the cirrus, of which indeed it is only a dense and extensive form,
though its under surface is not so high. Like its forerunner, the thin-
ner cirrus, it also consists of ice crystals, as is evident from the various
types of halos it forms about the sun and moon.
Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.). —Cirro-cumuli
are small, fleecy cumulus
clouds, generally 6 to 7 kilometers above the surface; that is, in the
lower cirrus region. They usually occur in large numbers, producing
an effect sometimes described as "curdled sky"; frequently, also, in
groups and rows that remind one of the patterns (hot the scales) on
the backs of mackerel. Hence the expression "mackerel-back sky,"
commonly abbreviated to "mackerel sky"
(Figure 52).
Their origin obviously is due chiefly to a single cause local vertical —
convection, induced by unequal local heating. To each convective
rise of the^air there evidently must be an equivalent descent, and if the
heating maxima are numerous the minima between must also be
numerous, thus producing many rising currents, each with its small
cumulus, surrounded by descending air and relatively clear sky.

' Simpson, Qr. Jr. Roy. Meteorol. See, 38 (1912), p. 291.

 FOGS AND CLOUDS. 85

Alto-stratus
(A.-St.). —
The alto-stratus is a thick, grayish cloud
veil (Figure 53), at times compact and fibrous in structure, and again
thinner, like a heavy cirro-stratus, through which the sun or moon
may dimly be seen. Its average elevation is about 4 kilometers. It
may result from the forward running of air forced up by the con-
vergence of winds in the storm area of a cyclone, from the flow of
warmer over colder air, or by mere radiational cooling in place, of a
layer of relatively humid air —humid from the evaporation of alto-
cumuli, perhaps.
Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu.). —The name alto-cumulus has been given to
those detached, fleecy clouds, with shaded portions (Figure 54), often
occurring in closely packed groups and rows, that resemble enlarged
cirro-cumuli. Their average altitude
is approximately that of the alto-

stratus —that —
4 kilometers and they presumably are formed by
is,

local convection, especially during fair, calm summer weather, when

the relative humidity is low.
—
Strato-cumulus (St.-Cu.). Strato-cumuli are large rolls of dark
cloud more or less connected with thinner clouds which together
cover nearly or quite the entire sky (Figure 55). Their bases are
flat and at about the same height, generally 1.5 to 2 kilometers. They
are formed by vertical convection, as is obvious from their rounded
tops and flat bases at approximately the same level —the common
saturation level.
Nimbus (Nb.). —The nimbus is any thick, extensive layer of form-
less cloud from which rain or snow is falling. The average altitude
of its under-surfaceis of the order of i kilometer. It is produced
chiefly by some type of forced convection: the converging of wind
currents as occurs especially in front of cyclonic centers, the upward
deflection of winds by either land or cold atmospheric barriers, and
the under-running of warmer by colder air. In part, however, the
cooling and consequent condensation often is owing to the mixing of
cold air with warm, and to the transfer of warm air to a colder region,
where it is cooled by contact, by mixing with cooler air, and by excess
of radiation loss over radiation gain.
Fracto-nimbus (Fr.-Nb.). —The fracto-nimbus, popularly known as
scud, is that low, detached cloud fragment, too thin and fog-like to
produce rain, that occasionally is seen drifting rapidly beneath a heavy
nimbus at an average elevation of probably not more than 100 to 300
meters. It seems to form only when there is considerable wind, and
appears often to be caused by forced convection over cliffs or other
obstacles.
86 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Cumulus (Cu.). —Thecumulus (Figure 56), often called "wool-
pack," is a dense, detached cloud with a rapidly changing cauliflower
head and flat base at the saturation level of rising air. Its illuminated
portions are snow white, while the shaded parts are unusually dark.
Itsborder is sharply defined and, when near the sun, very bright. The
average altitude of the base is about 1.5 kilometers, and of the top
rather more than 2 kilometers.
Cumuli are produced entirely by vertical convection induced by
temperature differences. Hence they are always frequent in tropical
regions, and also over continents at higher altitudes during summer.
For the same reason, they occur over land most numerously of after-
noons, and at sea late at night. At times rather low cumuli form a
sort of coastal fringe along the locus of upward convection that is, —
a short way out over the sea at night, and a few miles inland during
—
the day that might, perhaps, be called coast cumuli attendants of —
the land breeze and the sea breeze, respectively. They often occur over
reefs and islands (Figure 57), whose presence frequently is thus
revealed while they themselves are still below the horizon. Occasion-
ally they even parallel a large river on either side where there is
rising air over the hills and bottoms and sinking over the cooler water.
Further, since vertical convection depends only on the establishment
of a proper vertical temperature gradient, it follows that cumuli may
also form at high altitudes over the warmer portions of the ocean, or,
indeed, wherever there is a sufficient temperature contrast between the
surface and overlying air to induce strong upward currents.
—
Fracto-cumulus (Fr.-Cu.). During the initial stages, especially,
of their development cumuli often are small, and appear tattered and
torn like detached and dissolving masses of fog (Figure 58). While
in this condition such clouds are often called f racto-cumuli.
Cumulo-nimbus (Cu.-Nb.). —The cumulo-nimbus (Figure 59), a
necessary accompaniment of every thunderstorm, is, as its name
implies, a cumulus cloud from which rain is falling. It is very turbu-
lent and much the deepest of all clouds, being anywhere from i to 4
or even 5 kilometers thick. Its times and places of occurrence and
mode of formation are all the same as those of the cumulus.
Stratus (St.). —The stratus is a low, fog-like cloud of wide extent,
often merging into a nimbus and again clearing away like lifted fog.
Its average altitude between 0.5 and i kilometer. It seems often to
is

result from forced convection due to the underrunning of cold air,

and also, perhaps, to the mixing of humid layers of different tempera-
 FOGS AND CLOUDS. 87

tures. In some cases, that of the "velo" cloud, for instance, in south-
em California, it is only sea fog drifting over relatively warm land.

SPECIAL CLOUD FORMS.

Although it might seem that the above cloud types, including their
numerous gradations and transitions, are exhaustive, there nevertheless
are several occasional forms sufficiently distinct to justify individual
names and special descriptions.
—
Billow Cloud. Billow clouds (Figures- 60 and 61), also called
windrow clouds and wave clouds, occur in series of approximately
regularly spaced bands, generally with intervening strips of clear sky.
They usually the lower cirrus region—that
form in at elevations of is,

6 to —but may occur at any

8 kilometers from the surface— fogs
level
are occasionally billowed—up to that of the higher They are cirrus.
caused by the flow of one air stratum over another of different tem-
perature and density and usually of different humidity.
It has been shown^ that when two strata of air of different densities
or vapor content flow over each other billows of great wave-length
and often of large amplitude are generated in the same manner that
winds produce ocean billows. As the series of waves progress the
atmosphere involved obviously rises and falls, and therefore is sub-
jected to alternate dynamical heating and cooling, with the maxima
and minima temperatures corresponding to the troughs and crests
respectively. Hence when the under layer is wholly or nearly saturated
the wave crests are cloudy and the troughs clear. If, however, the

humidity is not high, it is obvious that wind billows may exist without
the incidental clouds.
It is interesting to note that, although the billow cloud appears to
consist continuously of the same mass, it nevertheless is rapidly evap-
orating on the rear or descending portion of the wave and as speedily
forming on the front or ascending portion.
Other special cloud forms are:
—
Lenticular Cloud. A convex-lens shaped cloud, presumably of snow
particles, often seen in high mountainous regions over the Rocky —
Mountains, for instance.
—
Crest Cloud. A cloud formed along a mountain (and usually rest-

'Helmholtz, Sitz. d. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, 1888, i, p. 646; 1889, ii, p. 761.
W. Wien, Sitz. d. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, 1894, ii, p. 509; 1895, i, p. 361.
A. Wegener, Beitrage Phys. d. fr. Atmos., 2 (1906), p. SS; 4 (1911), p. 23.
88 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
ing on it) by the upward deflection of moist air. Very common in
trade wind regions, as on the island of Oahu.
—
Banner Cloud. A small cloud attached to, and extending out with
thewind from, the leeward side of a mountain peak.
Scarf Cloud. —A wispy fibrous cloud that first forms slightly above
a rising thunder-head, and later mantles the shoulders or drapes the
sides of thegrowing cumulus.
—
Mammato-cumulus. An occasional accompaniment of thunder-
storms, and consisting of numerous downward bulges in the underside
of the spreading cumulus.

CLOUD HEIGHTS.
—
Relation to Humidity. The heights of clouds have been measured
by several obvious methods of triangulation, and from the data thus
obtained it appears, as one might infer a priori, that whatever condi-
tion tends to increase the relative humidity tends also to lower the
cloud levels, since the greater this humidity the less the amount of
convectional cooling essential to condensation. Hence, in general,
each t)^e of cloud is lower in winter than summer, lower over humid
than over desert regions, lower over oceans than continents, and lower
with increase of latitude.
The table on page 89,. copied from Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteor-
ologie, gives the average summer and winter heights of clouds at
places of widely different latitudes.
—
Levels of Maximum- Cloudiness. ^When the frequency of clouds is
tabulated with reference to elevation, maxima and minima are found
with the layers to which they obtain growing thicker with decrease
of latitude. This phenomenon, as a whole, is interesting, but it will
be necessary, in discussing it, to consider the different levels sepa-
rately, since each has its own explanation.
Fog Level. —^As already explained, fogs, whether caused by radia-
tion or advection, are surface phenomena, seldom more than 100 to 200
meters thick. Hence the surface of the earth, because of the bogs
that form upon it, is itself a level of maximum condensation or maxi-
mum "cloudiness."
Cumulus Level (a), Foul Weather Type. —Since the cumulus and
the cyclone nimbus both are due to vertical convection —the first ther-

mal, the second forced — it is obvious that the base of each occurs
approximately at the saturation level; that is, the level at which a
mass of air rising from the surface will have cooled to its dew-point.
 .

FOGS AND CLOUDS. 89

Average Cloud Heights in Kilometers. (The abbreviations apply to cloud names on

pages 83 to SS,)

station Ci.
C^- Ci.;
A.-St. ^- ^^- Nb. ^Nb^.
C- jC"^^ Fr.-
gt.

I. SUMMER, CHIEFLY APRIL TO SEPTEMBER.

Bossekop, 70° N 8.32 6.61 5.35 4.65 3.42 1.34 0.98 3.96 2.16 1.32 .... 0.66
Pavlovsk, 60° N 8.81 8.09 4.60 3.05 1.85 .... 4.68 2.41 1.64 2. IS 0.84
Upsala, 60° N 8.18 6.36 6.45 2.77 3.95 1.77 1.20 3.97 2.00 1.45 1.83 ....
Potsdam, 5^%" N 9.05 8.08 5.89 3.29 3.63 2.16 1.79 3.99 2.10 1.44 1.71 0.68
Trappes, 49" N 8.94 7.85 5.83 3.79 3.68 1.82 1.08 5.48 2.16 1.40. 0.94
Toronto, 43$^" N 10.90 8.94 8.88 4.24 3.52 2.06 1.70
Blue Hill', 42" N .... 9.52 10.10 6.67 6.25 3.76 1.16 1.19 9.03 2.90 1.78 .... 0.51
Washington, 39° N
..id.36 10.62 8.83 5.77 5.03 2.87 1.93 4.96 (2.45) 1.18 .... 0.84
Allahabad, 25^° N
..10.76 .... 11.28 .... 4.50 .... 0.84 .... 1.76
Manila, z^H N u.13 12.97 6.82 4.30 5.71 1.90 1.38 6.4s 1.84 .... 1.06
Batavia (year), 6" S 11.49 10.59 6.30 •••• 5-40 1.74 .... 0.70

2. WINTER, CHIEFLY OCTOBER TO MARCH,

Pavlovsk 8.74 7.09 5.98 .... 3.17 I. so '. 1.60 1. 12 i.oo
Upsala 6.98 5.46 6.13 4.09 4.IS 1.96 0.99 S.iS 1.52 0.71 1.22 0.51
Potsdam 8.07 7.65 5.41 2.99 3.3s 1.42 1.2S 4.74 1.74 0.99 1.02 0.61
Trappes 8.51 5.85 5.63 3.82 4.27 1.61 1.05 3.8s 2.37 1.43
Toronto 9.98 8.53 8.25 4.18 2.50 1.54 1.33
Blue Hill 8.61 8.89 6.16 4.57 3.66 1.60 0.6s .... 1.62 1.54 .... 0.61
Washington 9.51 9.53 7.41 4.80 3.82 2.40 1.80 3.73 2.28 1.20 .... 1.13
Manila 10.63 11.64 ^.42 3.90 4.64 2.32 1.49 3.14 1.82

Clearly, too, clouds cannot form at a lower level, the air there being
unsaturated, —even if drifted in they would evaporate. Further, ordi-
nary thermal convection usually does not extend to much higher alti-
tudes, because the cooling of the rising mass through expansion and
evaporation (the outer portions, at least, of the cloud evaporate)
quickly brings it to or below the temperature of the surrounding air
at the same level, except in the case of the largest cumuli, in which
the amount of evaporation is very small in comparison to the total
condensation. Hence foul weather cumuli and the lower cyclone
clouds mark a second level of maximum cloudiness, commonly i to 2
kilometers above the surface.
Cumulus Level (b). Fair Weather Type. During fair, calm, sum- —
mer weather vertical convection is very strong but, as the relative
humidity is low, the resulting clouds are of the alto-cumulus type.
Hence the alto-cumulus, 3.5 to 4 kilometers above the surface, marks
a secondary or fair weather cumulus level of maximum cloudiness.
Cirro-stratus Level. —
Since the different types of cirrus formed in
the region of a cyclone (the cirro-stratus being, perhaps, the most
frequent) are spread far in advance of the storm itself by the swift
upper winds, it follows that they also mark a level of maximum cloud
frequency.
Cirrus Level. —During fair weather thin cirri often occur, as already
explained, at or near the top of the troposphere, due, probably, to that
marked cooling of the upper atmosphere characteristic of "highs,"
and as these are the highest of all clouds, it is obvious that they denote
 :

90 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
a final level of maximum cloudiness, one whose average elevation in

middle latitudes is about lo kilometers.

—
Regions of Minimum Cloudiness. Between the levels of maximum
cloudiness there obviously must be regions of minimum condensation.
These are
Scud Region. —Since one level of maximum cloud formation, includ-
ing fog, is at the surface of the earth and the next at an elevation of
approximately 1.5 kilometers, the average base height of the cumulus,
it follows that the intervening region is one of minimum cloudiness,
the absolute minimum being just above the highest fog. The name
"scud region" might be appropriate to this space, since "scud" is, per-
haps, the only cloud that occurs in it.
—
Intercumulus Region. The intercumulus region of minimum con-
densation lies, as the name suggests, between the cumulus and alto-
cumulus levels of maximum cloudiness. Its elevation is, roughly, 2.5
to 3.5 kilometers.
Alto-stratus Region.—Ks the alto-cumulus and the cirro-stratus
mark successive levels of maximum cloudiness at the heights of about
4 and 8 kilometers, respectively, it follows, as above that the region
between at the heights of 4.5 to 6 kilometers especially the higher alto-
stratus region, must be one of minimum cloudiness. And this it is,
because (a) it is above the level of diurnal convection and therefore
of most cumulus clouds; (&) the clouds of intermediate level formed
in cyclonic areas are not blown forward so rapidly nor, therefore,
over such wide areas as are the cirri and (c) the atmosphere at this
;

level in anticyclones is nearly always dry, apparently dynamically

warmed, and therefore non-cloud-forming.
Intercirrus Region. —
Since the cirrus region furnishes two successive
levels of maximum cloudiness, a foul (cyclonic) and a fair weather
type, whose elevations are about 8 and 10 kilometers, respectively, it
follows that an intercirrus region of minimum cloudiness must lie
between them at an elevation of, say, 8.5 to 9.5 kilometers.
—
Isothermal Region. Obviously water vapor is not carried in any
considerable amount beyond the limit of appreciable vertical convec-
tion. Hence, there being but littie water vapor present, clouds cannot
form in the stratosphere; that is, beyond an elevation of about 11
kilometers in middle latitudes.

There are, then, five principal levels of maximum cloudiness:

1. Fog level, surface of the earth or water.

2. Cumulus level, height above surface about 1.5 kilometers.
3. Alto-cumulus level, height above surface about 4 kilometers.
 . : :

FOGS AND CLOUDS. 91

4. Cirro-stratus level, height above surface about 8 kilometers.

5. Cirrus level, height above surface about 10 kilometers.

There also are five regions of minimum condensation

1. Scud region, 100 to 300 meters elevation.
2. Intercumulus region, 2.5 to 3.5 kilometers elevation, roughly.
3. Alto-stratus region, 4.5 to 6 kilometers elevation, roughly.
4. Intercirrus region, 8.5 to 9.5 kilometers elevation, roughly.
5. Isothermal region, beyond 11 kilometers elevation.

—
Cloud Depth or Thickness. It is known that the thickness of clouds
varies from the 8 or 10 kilometers of the most towering cumulus,
usually associated with a violent hailstorm, down to that of a vanish-
ingly thin cirrus. Systematic measurements of cloud thickness, how-
ever, have not been numerous. The best, perhaps, were made at Pots-
dam and are given in the following table copied from Hann's Lehr-
buch der Meteorologie.
Cloud Thickness.
Cloud A.-St. A.-Cu. St.-Cu. Nb. Cu.-Nb. Cu. Fr.-Cu.
Depth ("Average 510 194 353 (sgo) 2070 669 214
in J Maximum 1310 370 1265 1240 >46oo 2230 430
meters Minimum I 105 SO 50 160 340 90 70
Number of observations 6 18 18 16 21 22 26

—
Cloud Velocities. The velocity of a cloud is the velocity of the air
inwhich it floats, except in the case of a stationary type crest cloud, —
—
banner cloud, et cetera or a billow cloud. With these exceptions,
it therefore is approximately the gradient velocity at the cloud level,

which varies with altitude, latitude, temperature, and pressure distri-

bution.
Average values, observed at certain places, are given in the follow-
ing table also copied from Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie

Average Wind Velocity in Meters per Second.

Cu.-
Ci.- Ci.- Cu. Cu. Fr.-
Ci.
St. Cu.
A-St. Sn. Cu. Nb. Nb. Top Base Cu.
SUMMER, CHIEFLY APRIL TO SEPTEMBER.
Bossekop, 70° N . 18 18 13
Upsala, 60° N . .
(39) 17 5
Potsdam, 5254° N 24 13 II 9
Trappes, 49° N 23 23 IS 13 14
Blue Hill, 42° N 30 30 25 13 13
Washington, 39 N ''
30 27 23 18 16 7
Manila, 14^"
..-
.
N 13 16 3
Batavia (year), 6 S . . 12 19 3

Z. WINTER, CHIEFLY OCTOBER TO MARCH.

Upsala 23 13 18 .. 13 12 6 18
Potsdam 28 20 24 16 16 12 13 28 (14)
Trappes 23 19 27 18 14 11 16
Blue Hill 37 41 36 25 24 13 13
Washington 35 30 33 21 21 15 12
Manila 13 16 3 19 4 8 6
 !

CHAPTER VII.

ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS.
Many curious and beautiful phenomena, of which the mirage, rain-
bow, halo, corona and sky colors are some of the more conspicuous,
are due to the optical properties of the atmosphere and foreign sub-
stances suspended in or falling through it. Only a few of these, how-
ever, will be discussed here and they but briefly. Their practical
importance generally is relatively small and a full discussion of almost
any one requires a considerable knowledge of mathematics and physics.

MIRAGE.
It is a very common thing in flat desert regions, and during the
warmer hours of the day, to see below distant objects and somewhat
separated from them their apparent images, as .though reflected from
a horizontal mirror below the level of the observer—hence the name
inferior mirage given to this phenomenon. It closely simulates, even
to the quivering of the images, the reflection by a quiet body of water
of objects on the distant shore — ^the "water" of course is the image
of the distant low sky —and therefore frequently leads to the false
assumption that a lake or bay is close by. This type of mirage is very
common on the west coast of Great Salt Lake. Indeed on approach-
ing this lake from the west one can often see the rjiilway over which
he has just passed apparently disappearing beneath a shimmering sur-
face. It is also common over smooth paved streets provided one's
eyes are just above the street level. An under-grade crossing in a
level town, for instance, offers an excellent opportunity almost any
warm day of seeing well defined small images that are apt to arouse
one's surprise at the careless way his fellow citizens wade through
pools of water
Since the inferior mirage occurs only over approximately level places
and there only when they are so strongly heated that for a short dis-
tance the density of the atmosphere increases with elevation, it follows
that it is simply a refraction phenomenon. The velocity of light
through the air increases, as is well known, with decrease of atmos-
pheric density. Hence when a level surface is strongly heated the
maximum density of the air and minimum velocity of light occurs at
 ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS. 93

a slight elevation. Clearly then, under such circumstances, rays from

a given point on a low-lying distant object may reach the eye of the
observer (when properly situated) along two very different paths, one
slightly convex upward by which the object is seen substantially in its
normal position, and another slightly convex downward by which the
object is seen as reflected in the surface of a lake.
When the temperature of the air happens to increase very rapidly
with elevation, as it sometimes does, for a short distance, the rays of
light reachingan observer located in this air from a distant object are
often appreciably curved downward. As a result of this, objects nor-
mally beyond the horizon "loom," or come into view; closer ones
"tower," that is, assume unwonted heights, and occasionally also pre-
sent upside-down images, the well knwon superior mirage, as though
reflected from an overhead horizontal mirror. Indeed both the supe-
rior and inferior mirages are often, perhaps usually, "explained" as
due to total reflection in the atmosphere. It is quite certain, however,
that they are owing to refraction and not reflection, as simply and ele-
gantly explained in Professor Hastings' book. Light (N. Y., 1902).
The practical importance ofmirage phenomena, of which there are
many, lies in their and esti-
interference with angular measurements,
mations of distance and direction. Indeed the uncertainty attached
to the positions of objects seen in (or perhaps hidden by) a mirage is
sometimes so great as to render observations of them worse than use-
less. An interesting case of this kind is noted in the report of the
battle of April 11, 1917, between the English and the Turks in Meso-
potamia, in which General Maude, the British commander, says "The :

fighting had to be temporarily suspended owing to a mirage."

RAINBOWS.
It may seem entirely superfluous to describe so common a phenom-
enon as the rainbow, but rainbows differ among themselves as one tree
from another, and besides some of their most interesting features
and naturally so, for the explanations
usually are not even mentioned,
generally given of the rainbow, because of efforts to be simple, may
well be said to explain beautifully that which does not occur, and to
leave unexplained that which does. The ordinary rainbow, seen on
— —
a sheet of water drops rain or spray is a group of circular or nearly
circular arcs of colors (usually said to be 7, but anyone who tries to
(*unt them is not likely to find so many), whose common center is on
the line extended connecting the observer's eye with the source of light.
 —
94 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
A very great number of rcdnbows are theoretically possible, though
only 3 (not counting the supernumerary bows) certainly have been
seen on sheets of rain. The most brilliant bow, known as the primary,
with red outer border of about 42° radius and blue to violet inner
border, appears opposite the sun (or other bright light) ; the next
brightest, the secondary on the same side of the observer, that
bow, is

is opposite from the sun, but the order of its colors is reversed and

its radius — —
about 50" to the red is larger the third, or tertiary bow,
;

which has about the same radius as that of the primary and colors
of the same order, lies between the observer and the sun, but is so
faint that it is rarely seen in nature. The common center of the pri-
mary and secondary bows is angularly as far below the observer as
the source (sun generally) is above it. Usually, therefore, less than
a semi-circle of these arcs is visible, and never more except from an
eminence. A record of close observations of rainbows soon shows
that not even the colors are always the same. Neither is the band of
any color of constant angular width, nor the total breadth of tiie

several colors at all uniform. Similarly the purity and brightness of

the different colors are subject to large variations. The greatest con-
trast perhaps is between the sharply defined brilliant rainbow of the
retreating thunderstorm, and that illy-defined, faintly tinged bow that
sometimes appears in a mist.
All these differences depend essentially upon the size of the drops,
and therefore inequalities often exist between even the several por-
tions, especially top and bottom, of the same bow, or develop as the
'
rain progresses.
Rather narrow bands of color, essentially red, or red and green,
often appear parallel to both the primary and secondary bows, along
the inner side of the and outer of the second. These are known
first

as supernumerary bows. These also differ greatly in purity and color,

number visible, width, etc., not only between individual bows but also
between the several parts of the same bow. No such colored arcs,
however, occur between the principal bows, primary and secondary.
Indeed, on the contrary the general illumination here is perceptibly at
a minimum.
No attempt will be made here to explain the rainbow. Any simple
explanation, as already stated, is misleading. An accurate and ade-
quate explanation of all rainbow phenomena is tedious and in some
parts exceptionally difficult. It will be interesting, however, to con-
sider a few of the more popular questions about the rainbow, as
follows :
 —
ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS. 95

(a) "What is the rainbow's distance?" In the sense of its proxi-

mate origin, the drops that produce it, it is near by or far away accord-
ing to their respective distances, and thus extends from the closest to
the farthest illuminated drops along the elements of the rainbow cone.
Indeed the rainbow may be regarded as consisting of coaxial, hollow
conical beams of light of different colors seen edgewise from the
vertex, and thus having great depth or extent in the line of sight.
(b) "Why is the rainbow so frequently seen during summer and
so seldom during winter?" Its formation requires the co-existence of
rain and sunshine, a condition that often occurs during local convec-
tional showers, but rarely during a general cyclonic storm, and as the
former are characteristic of summer and the latter of winter it follows
that the occturrence of the rainbow correspondingly varies with the
seasons.
(c) "Why are rainbows so rarely seen at noon?" As above
explained the center of the rainbow's circle is angularly as far below
the level of the observer as the sun is above it, hence no portion of
the bow can be seen (except from an elevation) when its angular radius
is less than the elevation of the sun above the horizon. Now during
summer, the rainbow season, the elevation of the sun noon is nearly at
ever3rwhere greater than 42°, the angular radius of the primary bow,
or even 51°, the radius of the secondary bow. A rainbow at noon,
therefore, is, except for very high latitudes, an impossible summer
phenomenon, and, of course, a rare winter one, for reasons given
above, even where possible.
(d) "Do two people ever see the same rainbow?" Theory teaches
and ordinary experience 'shows, that as the observer remains stationary
or moves, so also, other things being equal, does his rainbow. If then,
two observers initially close together should move in opposite direc-
tions each would find his rainbow responding in the same sense as his
shadow, and presently the positions and therefore the identity of the
two bows would become unquestionably different, from which it fol-
lows' that as the eyes of two observers must always be separated by a
greater or less distance their bows must also be correspondingly sepa-
—
rated and different, different in the sense that they have different
positions and are produced by different drops. In short, since the
rainbow is a special distribution of colors (produced in a particular
—
way) with reference to a definite point, the eye of the observer,
and as no single distribution (other than uniform and infinite) can
be the same for two separate points, it follows that two observers do
not and can not see the same rainbow.
 ;

96 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
{e) "Can one same rainbow by reflection that he sees
see the
directly?" An by reflection in a plane stir face is seen by
object seen
the same rays that, but for the mirror, would have focused to a point
on a line normal to it from the eye, and as far back of it as the eye
is in front. But, as just explained, the bows appropriate to two dif-
ferent points are produced by different drops, hence a bow seen by
reflection is not the same as the one seen directly.

HALOS.
As is well known, cirrus clouds and others formed at temperatures
considerably below o° C. usually consist of tabular or columnar par-

Zenith

Figure 62. Perspective view of the sky, showing the sun (S) ; ordinary halo
of 22° (a) great halo of 46° (b)
;
upper tangent arc of the halo of 22° (c)
; ;

lower tangent arc of the halo of 22° (d) ; ordinary parhelia of 22° (e, e')
Lowitz arcs (f, f) parhelia of 46° (g, g')
;
circumzenithal arc (h) ; infra-
;

lateral tangent arcs of the halo of 46° (i) the parhelia circle (m)
; a paran-
;

thelionof 90° (q) plane of the horizon; the observer (0).

;

tides ofice, always hexagonal in type but varying greatly in detail.

Light from the sun or moon obviously takes many paths through the
clearest of such snow crystals, and produces in each case a corre-
sponding and peculiar optical phenomenon. Other similar phenomena
are produced by the reflection of light from the faces of these crystals.
The former, or those due to refraction, are nearly all colored, the
latter invariably white. All such phenomena, however, either pro-
 ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS. 97

duced by refraction or by reflection, are known as halos, the more

common of which, as also one or two of the rarer forms, are illustrated
in Figure 62, in which O is the position of the observer and S the
position of the sun.
Referring to Figure 62, the circle aa around the sun and about 22°
from it is the most- common of the halos. Its colors are substantially
those of the rainbow, red on the side next the sun and blue on the
outer side. Within this halo the sky is less luminous than beyond it.

The circle hh is known as the halo of 46°, that being its distance from
the sun. It, too, is colored substantially as the halo of 22°, but is less

brilliant and far less frequently seen, hh represents what is known

as the circumzenithal arc. It is parallel to the horizon, generally a
little more than 46° from the sun at its nearest point, and has its

center at the observer's zenith. It never forms a complete circle, and

indeed rarely more than one-fourth to one-third of a circumference.
It appears only when the sun's altitude is less than 31°, and generally
can be seen for only a few minutes. It is, however, the brightest
perhaps of all halos and frequently is erroneously reported as a bril-
liant but unusual rainbow. A faint arc, known as Kern's arc, is occa-
sionally seen diametrically opposite the circumzenithal arc, as though
a portion of the same circumference, cc and dd are known as the
upper and lower tangent arcs, respectively, of the halo of 22°. They
undergo great changes in extent and position with the altitude of the
sun. At certain altitudes they merge together into what is sometimes
mistaken .for a circumscribing ellipse, i and i are known as the infra-
lateral tangent arcs of the halo of 46°. and gg' are the parhelia
ee'

of 22° and 46° respectively. When

is on the horizon they
the sun
are on the circumference of the circular halos of 22° and 46°. With
elevation of the sun, however, they separate from these circles farther
and farther. / and /' are known as the arcs of Lowitz, rarely seen
distinctly and rather difBcult and tedious of explanation. qgSg', etc.,
is the parhelic circle. It is produced by reflection of light from the

faces of snow crystals, is colorless, and passes, as its name implies,

through the parhelia or mock suns and is parallel to the horizon with
the zenith of the observer for its center. The vertical line uu' is

known as a light pillar, produced by reflection and there-

and is also
fore white. These are only some of the possible and occasionally
seen halos, but include the more common ones. Together they form
an interesting study, but can not be adequately discussed without a
considerable knowledge of optics and a rather free use of mathematics.
98 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
CORONAS.
Coronas consist of one or more of rainbow-colored rings, usually
of only a few degrees radius, concentric about the sun, moon or other
bright object when covered by a thin cloud veil. They differ from
halos in having smaller (except in rare cases) and variable radii, and
in having the reverse order of colors ; that is, blue nearest the sun and
red farthest away. They owe their origin, not to refraction by ice
crystals, but to diffraction by small water droplets —^the larger the
droplets the smaller the radius of the corona. From the angular size
of a corona it is easy to compute the approximate diameter of the
particles that produce it, but the theory upon which this computation
is based, like all the other phenomena of coronas, rainbows, halos, etc.,
requires special mathematical discussion that generally may be found
only in advanced work on optics. Those therefore who wish to follow
up any of the fascinating topics of meteorological optics must have
recourse to special treatises, most of which are difficult to read, but
which reward the necessary labor to master them.
 CHAPTER VIII.

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE

ATMOSPHERE.
INTRODUCTION.
Atmospheric circulation, whether manifesting itself in a monsoon
or in only a gentle lake breeze, is a gravitatiojial phenomenon induced
and maintained by temperature differences. This can be well illus-
loo INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
either tank to the other. Now let the pipes be closed and let the
water in tank A be equally warmed throughout. It will expand, pro-
vided its original temperature was not below 4° C, and the amount
of. water above each level in A, at and below the initial surface, be

increased in proportion to its distance from the bottom. Hence the

pressure due to gravity is everywhere through the original volume
correspondingly increased —the maximum increase being at the level
of the initial surface. If the lower pipe I be now opened, there still

will be no flow of water from either tank to the other. But if the
upper pipe be opened, water will flow from A
to B, and in so doing
will decrease the pressure on all parts of A
and increase it on all parts
of B. If I is also open, water will flow from B to A. If both pipes
are left open and the water in A
kept constantly warmer than the
water in B, there will be continuous circulation of the water from
A to B through the upper pipe and from B to A
through the lower.
Obviously the same results could be obtained by applying a cooling
process to B instead of a warming one to A. That is, since the circula-
tion in question is a gravitational phenomenon induced by a temperature
difference between the water in the two tanks, it clearly is imma-
terial how this temperature difference is established, whether by heating
the one tank or by cooling the other. Similarly in the case of the
atmosphere. two adjacent columns of air, or the masses of air
If
over two adjoining regions, whether large or small, are kept at dif-
ferent temperatures, there will exist, through the action of gravity,
a continuous overflow from the warmer to the colder, and an under-
flow from the colder to the warmer. Neither does it make any differ-

ence in this case how the inequality of temperature is established and

maintained, whether by heating the one section or by cooling the other.
Clearly then, as the tropical belt of the earth generally is the warmest,
and the higher latitude regions on either side the coldest, there must
be, and are, two branches of the general or planetary circulation of
the atmosphere, covering respectively the northern and the southern
hemispheres. If then the earth were smooth (had no mountains or
other elevations), if its temperature varied uniformly and equally from
—
equator to either pole, and most important of all if the earth were —
non-rotating, the general circulation of the atmosphere would consist
of a steady flow of the upper air towards the poles and of the lower
air towards the equator. But this ideal simplicity does not exist in
any particular, and consequently the actual circulation of the atmos-
phere differs very widely from the simple type indicated.
 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. loi

WINDS IN GENERAL.
Effect of Earth Rotation. —From the fact that the linear velocity
of the surface of the earth decreases from about 1040 miles per hour
at the equator to nothing at the poles it follows that the equator-pole-
ward and return must be thrown very much askew, the
circulation
poleward-flowing portion trending eastward and the return westward.
The result of this is that in middle latitudes the prevailing winds are
from westerly points, and in equatorial regions from easterly points.
When the equatorial air, with an east to west velocity component,
moves toward a polar region, as it does under the influence of the
great temperature contrasts between equatorial and polar regions, it
might seem, as many have assumed, that the air would tend to retain
its original linear velocity around the axis of the earth. But this, too,
is another case where in reality matters are not so simple as at first

they may seem.

Although winds generally between latitudes 30° N. and S., espe-
cially over the oceans, are from easterly points, their westward velocity
with reference to the surface of the earth is only a small fraction of
the actual eastward velocity of the surface. Hence, though blowing
from the east, the air in reality is rotating about the earth's axis in the
opposite direction, or from west to 'east, though not quite so rapidly
here as the earth itself. Asmoves to higher latitudes it comes
this air
closer and closer to the axis aboutwhich it is rotating the axis of —
the earth. Similarly air that moves to lower latitudes gets further
from this axis. Hence what it known as the law of the conservation
of areas applies, except as modified by friction, etc., to the interzonal
circulation. Or, in the terms of the physicist, the angular momentum,
mrw (in which m is the mass, r the distance from the axis of the earth,
and (1) the angular velocity of the earth's rotation), tends to remain
constant, and not the linear momentum, mv (in which v is the west to
east component of the linear velocity).
This subject, like so many others in meteorology, is not simple, but
it is vitalan understanding of the circulation of the atmosphere.
to
Those especially interested might look up its discussion in works on the
physics of the air.
Automatic Adjustment of Winds in Direction and Velocity. —In dis-
cussing the more extensive winds it is convenient to consider the earth
as stationary and the air as moving over it without friction under the
influence of three distinct horizontal forces : (i) The deflective force,
.due to the earth's rotation; (2) the horizontal component of the
102 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
centrifugal force, due to the curvature of the path, and (3) the hori-
zontal or gradient pressure, due to gravity. The firsttwo are at right
angles to the course of the wind and therefore help to control its direc-

tion, but do not alter its speed. The

however that is, the
latter, —
gradient pressure — and the speed. Further-
affects both the direction
more, as the velocity depends upon the horizontal pressure alone, and
as the other forces depend in turn upon the velocity, and are zero when
it is zero, it follows that of the three forces only the gradient pressure
is independently variable.
Consider, then, the result of applying a horizontal pressure p of
constant magnitude and constant geographic direction to a small mass
m of air, free, as above assumed, from friction: Let m. Figure 64,
be the mass in question initially at rest with reference to the surface

a \ p cos a +c

FiGUKE 64. Deflection and path of winds in frictionless flow under a force
of constant magnitude and constant geographic direction.

of the earth, and let it be acted on by the force pj exactly poleward,

say. Immediately the mass moves, under the applied pressure p, the
deflective force d becomes operative, thus curving the path (to the
right in the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern) and intro-
ducing the centrifugal force c. So long, however, as the angle between
the path and the force p is less than 90 degrees there will still be a
component of the latter in the line of motion; accordingly the speed
of m will continue to increase, and therefore also the deflective force
d. exceed 90 degrees, the force p would have a
If this angle should
component opposite to the direction of motion, which consequently
would be slowed up and d thereby correspondingly decreased. In the
end, therefore, a poleward force along the meridians on an object free
to move gives it an exactly west to east velocity of such magnitude
that, except in very high latitudes, the resulting deflective force is

nearly equal to the horizontal pressure —the horizontal component of

 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 103

Figure 65. Path of winds in frictionless flow under a converging force.

Figure 66. Path of winds in frictionless flow under a diverging force.

 : '

104 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

the centrifugal force being then comparatively small, except near the
poles. Whenever the direction of the gradient force, whether pole-
ward, as above assumed, or any other, the final motion is normal
thereto.
A change in the magnitude but not in the direction of p, above,
, would only shift the latitude of the path and change the velocity so
as to be nearly proportional to p.
If the horizontal pressure is not everywhere in the same direction,
but converges, as in Figure 65, or diverges, as in Figure 66, the path,
in adjusting itself normally to the directions of this pressure, obviously
curves, as in cyclonic and anticyclonic regions, respectively.
In all cases, then, the wind automatically follows approximately the
isobar of its position, with substantially the gradient velocity.
General Relations of Wind to Elevation. —Knowledge of the direc-
tions and winds of the earth is still- fragmentary and
velocities of the
incomplete. Over large areas even the surface winds are unknown,
and over regions best studied these alone are well known. The con-
tinuous records obtained at mountain stations have given much
information in regard to air movements, but stations of this nature
are comparatively few and, besides, their data, however valuable, are
always affected to an unknown extent by local topography. Cloud
observations have also given a large amount of valuable information,
but it, too, is only fragmentary. At best a cloud observation seldom
gives more than the direction and velocity of the air at one level, nor
does such an observation ever apply to the stratosphere, since this
region is never visited by clouds. In many respects kites and sound-
ing balloons have furnished the most valuable data in regard to the
movements of the upper air and their causes, but, unfortunately,
aerological investigations of this nature, with relatively few excep-
tions, have been restricted to the northern hemisphere, and even there
mainly to the summer season. Nevertheless, by combining the data
gathered from these various sources a number of tentative conclusions,
subject, of course, to modification, have already been reached in regard
to the winds of different parts of the world from the surface up to
great elevations. Some of the more important of these conclusions are

I. That there is no continuous and rapid overflow of the

atmosphere at all longitudes from the equatorial to the polar
regions. At an elevation of 10 kilometers, for instance, the
wind of middle northern latitudes seems to have southerly
components about as often as northerly.
 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 105

From this it follows that the equator-polar circulation is irregular

and probably complex even at the higher altitudes.

2. That the equatorial winds are not always and at all

levels from the east that, on the contrary, west winds occur
;

(how regularly is uncertain) at elevations of about 18 to 20

kilometers, with east winds again prevailing (certainly at
times) at still greater elevations.

The cause of this layer of equatorial west wind has never been
explained. Indeed, it may be only a local and temporary phenomenon.

3. That layers of air in which the temperature increases

with increase of elevation, and others in which the tempera-
ture is constant, exist at different levels, especially through
the first two or three kilometers. This stratified condition of
the lower atmosphere appears to be universal. It is found
even over tropical oceans, and is exceedingly well developed
over the ice plateau of Antarctica.

Each layer usually shows such different humidity and such different
wind velocity from those of the adjacent layers as to indicate a distinct
origin, which it well may have. A rising convection current on reach-
ing its equilibrium level flows away substantially at that particular
elevation, and obviously retains its own humidity (provided condensa-
tion has not taken place), dust content, and other peculiarities. Its
viscosity is not the same as that of the adjacent air, because its

humidity or temperature, or both, are different. Hence, as shown by

billow clouds, any such layer with a distinctly independent velocity
tends to retain its integrity and to glide over another from which it

differs physically without rapid intermingling. And there are still

other obvious causes of temperature and humidity irregularities and

consequent stratification of the atmosphere, such as reflection from,
and evaporation of, clouds, surface cooling, and air drainage. Clearly,
then, one should expect to find in the lower atmosphere substantially
the kind and amount of temperature inversions and other irregularities
that it actually shows.

4. That the upper winds are exceedingly variable along

the edges of the high-pressure belts, and that marked dis-
turbances occur in the antitrades.
5. That the north-poleward pressure gradient in the upper
atmosphere becomes very small long before the arctic circle
is reached —
in fact, between 50" and 60° N.
io6 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
-6. That in high northern latitudes, where the poleward
pressure gradient of the upper atmosphere is small, the
westerly winds are not constant.

—
Season of Greatest Winds. From the above discussion it is obvious
that the generalwind will be swiftest whenever the temperature .con-
trast between the air of higher and lower latitudes is greatest. But
the temperature of the atmosphere in low latitudes does not change
through the year nearly so much as does that of higher latitudes.
Hence, the maximum horizontal temperature gradient, and therefore
the greatest pressure gradient and strongest winds, must occur during
winter.
—
Latitude of Greatest Winds.- The latitude of strongest winds clearly
is that at which the horizontal pressure gradient is greatest. In the
northern hemisphere, according to Figure 43, this occurs in the sum-
mer at about latitude 45°. It is obvious, however, since the pressure
gradient depends in general upon the latitude rate of temperature
change, that the belt of maximum winds must shift more or less from
season to season —poleward with the coming of silmmer, equatorward
with the onset of winter.
Hour's of Greatest and Least Winds.— On land, but not appreciably
wind has a well-defined daily period.
at sea, the velocity of the surface
Over comparatively level regions it is least, on the average, about
sun-up and greatest from i to 2 p. m., with a larger change on clear
days than on cloudy. It is also most pronounced in summer, when it
reaches an average altitude of about 100 meters, and least in winter,
when its depth is only about 40 meters.
The physical explanation of this phenomenon was given long ago
by Espy. During the night, when there is no vertical convection,
surface friction holds the lower air comparatively quiet, while the
upper air glides over the lower with but little restraint. During the
day, however, and especially during clear, summer days, vertical con-
vection causes the surface layers of air and those directly above to
become thoroughly mixed and therefore to have a more or less com-
mon velocity, which, obviously, is greater than the undisturbed or
night surface velocity, and less than the undisturbed upper layers
before their mixture with the lower.
Daily changes of wind velocity also occur on mountain tops, where
the maximum is at night and the minimum by day, or just the reverse
of the velocity changes that occur near the surface over plains. Three
factors, possibly more, combine to produce this result: (a) Contrac-
 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 107

tion of the lower air by night, thus bringing air of slightly higher
levels, possibly 15 so, and therefore of somewhat
meters (50 feet) or
greater velocity down to the mountain top. (&) The presence by day
and absence by night of surface disturbance, due to convection, in
the air flowing over the mountain, (c) Overflow from the region of
maximum expansion to the region of maximum compression. Since
'the greatest expansion usually occurs at 3 to 4 p. m. and the greatest
compression at 5 to 6 a. m., it follows that the overflow will be from
west to east, or with the prevailing winds, through the night, and from
east to west, or against them, during most of the day; that is, from
sun-up to 3 or 4 p. m.
—
Daily Direction of the Wind. The average direction of the wind
changes slightly during the day, both over plains and on mountain
tops, the tendency being for it always to follow the sun, or, rather, the
most heated section of the earth. That is, the wind tends to be east
during the forenoon, south (in the northern hemisphere) during the
early afternoon, and west during the late afternoon and early evening.
This does not mean that at each instant the wind really blows directly
from the then warmest region, but that the actual changes through the
day in the average hourly wind directions can be accounted for by a
velocity component away from that region. The whole sequence
results from the thermal expansion of the atmosphere (progressive
from east to west), which causes an increase of pressure and conse-
quently an outward flow at all levels above the surface. The area
covered is so vast that the time involved, only a few hours, is insuffi-
cient for the completion of the convention circuit, so that even the
surface winds are azvay from the most heated regions, as stated, and
not toward them, as in sea and land breezes, for instance. The com-
pensating or return current occurs at night, when the component,
outside the tropics at least, is from the higher latitudes. In reality
the entire phenomenon is only a diurnal surge, a flux and reflux, of
the atmosphere due to diurnal heating and cooling.
Normal —
State of the Atmosphere. From the above explanations
of the causes of general winds, it appears that the normal state of the
atmosphere is one of considerable velocity with reference to the sur-
face of the earth. In middle latitudes, at least, this velocity is from
west to east more or less along parallels of latitude and so great as
nearly to balance the latitudinal pressure gradient due to the zonal
distribution of insolation. Calms, therefore, in this region must be
regarded as disturbances of the atmosphere, and indeed often are com-
paratively shallow, with normal winds above.
io8 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Equatorial East to West Winds. —East to west winds are quite as
general and constant in equatorial regions as are west to east winds in
middle la-titudes. Along its borders, roughly 30° N. and 30° S., this
equatorial belt of east to west winds is very shallow. Toward the
equator its thickness increases, as a rule, until it reaches at least the
limit of vertical convection. There are, however, great irregularities
in these winds, just as in those of higher latitudes on either side of
it. But the general conditions are as stated.
Probable Interzonal Circulation of the Stratosphere. —The primary
circulation just explained involves all the atmosphere from the sur-
face of the earth up to at least the highest cloud levels, but there is

reason to believe that it does not extend to the greatest altitudes.

Indeed, it appears probable that far above the uppermost clouds there
may be another primary or fundamental circulation in reverse direc-
tion to that of the lower. This inference is based on the fact that the
stratosphere is so much warmer in high than in low latitudes that
seemingly there must be an overflow of air from the former to the
latter and a corresponding return; that is, a primary circulation in
the stratosphere in which the upper branch is from the polar (in this
case warmer) toward the equatorial (in this case colder) regions and
the under from the equatorial toward the polar regions, with, of course,
longitudinal components in each due to the earth's rotation. In a sense
the upper circulation, if it exists as inferred, is the mirror image of
the lower, though more regular.

MONSOONS.
Summer monsoons and winter monsoons, for convenience discussed
under the same head, bear the same relation to summer and winter
that sea breezes and land breezes bear to day and night. It is the
temperature contrast between land and water that establishes the circu-
lation that manifests itself on the surface as a sea or land breeze in
the one case and as a seasonal or monsoon wind in the other. The
direction of the surface wind in either case is always from the cooler
toward the warmer of the adjacent regions, from the ocean toward
the land by day as a sea breeze and during the warmer season as a
summer monsoon from the land toward the ocean by night as a land
;

breeze and during the colder season as a winter monsoon. Hence

monsoons may be regarded as sea and land breezes of seasonal dura-
tion, and might very well be classed with the latter under some com-
mon appropriate caption. However, because of the immense areas
 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 109

involved, it cannot be said of them, as of sea and land breezes, that

they are caused by mere local temperature differences. Besides, the
duration of a land or sea breeze is so brief that it covers only a narrow-
strip along the coast, as already explained, while the monsoon winds
extend far from the coast, both inland and to sea and the directions
of the former, since their paths are always short, are but little afifected
by the rotation of the earth, while the courses of the second are greatly
modified by this important factor.
The prevailing directions of monsoon winds, except where distinctly
modified by the general circulation, are given by the following table.

Direction of Monsoon Winds.

Hemisphere

Northern

Southern
no INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
follows that this class of winds is well nigh universal. Nevertheless,
it is generally thought of in connection with only those places where
it ismost strongly developed, and especially where the seasonal winds
are more or less oppositely directed. Among these places are: India
(Indian monsoons are the most pronounced of all and have been most
fully studied), China, the Caspian Sea, Australia, and portions of
Africa.
In the United States the chief monsoon effects are in the eastern
portion, where the prevailing winds are northwest in winter and south-
west in summer, and in Texas, where the prevailing winds are also
northwest in winter but southeast in summer.

TRADE WINDS.
As previously stated, in equatorial ocean regions, or, roughly, over
the oceans between latitudes 30° N. and 30° S., the winds usually have
an east-to-west component. In the northern hemisphere they blow
rather constantly from the northeast, becoming east-northeast and
finally nearly east winds as the equator is approached. Similarly, in
the southern hemisphere, starting from the southeast, they gradually
back through east-southeast to nearly east. In each case they blow
"trade" ; that is, in a fixed or nearly fixed direction. It is because of
this steadiness of direction and not because of any relation they may
have to the paths of commerce that they are called trade winds. Along
each border of this belt, or along both the northern and southern horse
latitudes, calms are frequent, while such winds as do occur generally
are light and variable in direction. Besides, the barometric pressure
is high, humidity low, and sky clear. Hence it generally is inferred
that throughout the horse latitudes the air is descending. This evi-
dence, however, as applied to places other than the centers of maximum
pressure is not quite conclusive — it only shows that the air is not
ascending.
Another narrow belt of calms or light variable winds, known as the
region of the doldrums, approximately follows the equator (more
exactly the thermal equator), where the two systems of trade winds,
the northern and the southern, come together. Here, however, the
barometric pressure is low, humidity high, and skies often filled with
cumulus and other clouds that give conclusive proof of strong ascend-
ing currents.
—
Trade winds in the sense here used that is nearly constant winds
—
blowing in a westwardly direction do not occur on land except along
coasts and over islands. Besides being well-nigh peculiar to the oceans,
 ::

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, m

they are even different from ocean to ocean, and also, since they tend
to follow the thermal equator, somewhat different in latitude and
intensity from season to season.
According to Shaw the average velocities of the Atlantic trade winds
are as follows
Trade-wind Velocities, Atlantic Ocean,
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct, Nov. Dec. Year
N. E. trade ... 11.9 13.0 13.5 13.4 12.3 11.4 10.3 8.3 9.6 7.4 g.8 11.6 lo-Sjfou?
S. E. trade ... 14.1 13.0 13.0 12. i ii.o 12.1 12. i 15.0 17.0 13.0 16.1 15.0 i3.9|™ou?

From this it appears that the trades are strongest during the winter
when their counterpart, the system of westerly winds of higher lati-
tudes, is strongest; and weakest during the summer when their
counterpart is weakest. It also appears that the southeast trades, or
those pertaining to the southern hemisphere, are about one-third
stronger than the northeast trades, owing probably to the greater extent
of the southern oceans and consequent less surface friction —the same
reason, doubtless, that the westerly winds of the southern hemisphere
are stronger, on the average, than the westerlies of the northern
hemisphere.
The trade winds of the Pacific Ocean are weaker than those of the
Atlantic and not so constant On the Indian Ocean the
in direction.
trades are confined to the southern hemisphere. North of the equator
the winds of this ocean, being controlled by the adjacent continent,
are distinctly of the monsoon type.
The seasonal shifting of the trade regions and belt of doldrums is

shown by the following table, copied from Hann's Lehrbuch, 3d

edition, p. 463

Seasonal Latitude Limits of Trade Winds and Doldrums.

March September
Atlantic Pacific Atlantic Pacific

N. E. trade 26°-3°N. 25°-5°N. 25°-ii°N. 30°-io°N.

Doldrums 3°N.-Equator S°-3°N. ii°-3°N. io°-7°N.
S. E. trade Equator-26°S. 3°N.-28°S. 3°N.-2S°S. 7°N.-20°S.

ANTITRADE WINDS.
As the heated and expanded air of equatorial regions overflows to
higher latitudes it necessarily is deflected by the rotation of the earth.
That portion which goes north changes from an east wind near the
equator to a southeast, south, southwest, and, finally, at about latitude
35° N., a more nearly west wind. Similarly, that portion which goes
south becomes northeast, north, northwest, and, finally, at about lati-

tude 30° S. a more nearly west wind.

112 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
At great altitudes, lo to 15 'kilometers, the east-to-west velocity
near the equator is, roughly, 36 meters per second (80 miles per hour).

Hence its west-to-east velocity around the axis of the earth is about
428 meters per second (957 miles per hour). As this air, assuming
it to start from the equator and neglecting viscosity effects, moves

to higher latitudes its west-to-east velocity must so increase, according

to the law of the conservation of areas, that at about 16° N. or S.
its angular velocity will be the same as that of the earth, and itself,
therefore, be moving only poleward in the plane of the meridian. The
exact latitude, however, at which the antitrades move directly pole-
ward depends upon the position of the thermal equator and therefore
varies with the seasons. Thus during August and September, when
the center of the doldrums is, roughly, 8° N., the inflection of the

northern antitrades occurs somewhere between latitudes 20° N.and

25° N. At other seasons, because the doldrums are then nearer the
equator, the place of inflection is also less removed. Beyond the turn-
ing point, wherever that may be, these upper or antitrade winds become
westerly, and, except as modified by local disturbances, tend, as pre-
viously explained, to reach, under the influence of the poleward pres-
and to follow parallels of latitude.
sure, a limiting or gradient velocity
However, there are innumerable disturbances, mainly due to the distri-
bution of land and water, that cause constant and abundant interzonal
circulation which feeds and indefinitely maintains the antitrade wind
portion of the general or planetary atmospheric circulation.
The height of the antitrades (depth of the trades) is greatest, at
any given place, during summer and least during winter. It also
decreases with latitude, becoming zero, on the average, at about 50"
N. and S. Thus during winter their height over Cuba, 22" N., is
about 3.5 kilometers; over Jamaica, 17° N., 6.5 kilometers; over
Trinidad, 12° N., 8 kilometers, and over Hawaii, 19" 30' N., about 3
kilometers. But whatever their height it is always the same as the
depth of the trades of which they are but the overhead continuation.
Indeed, the trade winds as they approach the equator ascend and
gradually flow off poleward, thus producing in each hemisphere a
great antitrade branch of the general circulation, which in turn becomes
the westerlies of higher latitudes. These, in their turn, are confused
by storms and other local disturbances, but after few or many vicissi-
tudes, as circumstances may determine, ultimately return to a similar
starting-point, only to begin another of their endless cyclic journeys
through trades, antitrades, westerlies, and the innumerable secondary
winds that such a course implies.
 CHAPTER IX.

SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF THE

ATMOSPHERE.
INTRODUCTION.
In middle latitudes the weather, which affects the well-being of animal
and vegetable life from day to day, is largely the result of moving
areas of low and high barometric pressure known respectively as
cyclones and anticyclones. These are really large disturbances in
the atmosphere and their influence covers a district from a few hun-
dred to a thousand or more miles in diameter.
In the temperate zone these disturbances move eastward with an
average velocity of from 22 ^:o 37 miles an hour. The rate is some-
what greater in winter than in summer and the movement of cyclones
slightly more rapid than that of anticyclones. Since the barometric
pressure decreases toward the center of the cyclone there is a move-
ment of the air at the surface of the earth more or less in the same
direction. This inward flowing surface air does not move directly
toward the center, however, but 60° or so to the right of it in the
northern, and to the left of it in the southern hemisphere, owing to the
rotation of the earth. With increase of elevation, {his angle increases,
until at an elevation of 1500 feet or even less, it is practically 90°.
That is,at and beyond this level, the winds follow isobars, nearly,
instead of blowing across them as one might suppose. As the lower
inflowing air approaches the center of the cyclone there is a decided
upward component, especially on the eastern side.
It is important that the extreme thinness of these areas be appre-
ciated as compared with the horizontal distances over which their
influence extends. This important fact must not be lost sight of in
connection with the daily weather maps, such as Figure Gy, p. 121.
Here the cyclone centered at Philadelphia, influenced the surface
winds over an area nearly 1,000 miles in diameter while all this air
movement was really in the form of a relatively thin disc the vertical —
dimensions being small as compared with the horizontal.
A reference to the weather map, Figure 67, p. 121, as well as to
other daily weather charts, will show that the surface wind move-
114 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
ment under the influence of the "lows" is spirally inward toward
the center, and, under the influence of the "highs," spirally outward.
In the northern hemisphere the spiral movement in the "lows" is
opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch laid face up, while
the air flows out from the "highs" in a spiral motion with the hands
of a watch. In the southern hemisphere the circulation of the air
in these areas is in the opposite directions. There are comparatively
few cyclones and practically no anticyclones within the tropics or even
between 30" on either side of the equator. Tropical cyclones move
westward while wjthin 20° or so of the equator. At higher latitudes
they usually recurve and turn eastward.
Two important general laws can be set down, therefore, in connec-
tion with cyclones and anticyclones, (i) In temperate latitudes
cyclones and anticyclones move from the west toward the east. (2)
Surface winds are controlled by difference in pressure, the surface
air flowing spirally in toward the cyclone and spirally out away from
the anticyclone.
An inspection of weather maps will show further that the tempera-
ture is higher to the east and south of cyclones than it is to the north
and west of the center, because the temperature of the air is influenced
by the temperature of the region over which it moves. Hence the
third important law. (3) The direction of the surface winds largely
controls the temperature at any place on the surface of the earth.

WEATHER.
A moving mass of air that has an upward component, whether flow-
ing over uneven ground or moving upward near the center of low
pressure areas, expands, and is cooled adiabatically at the rate of 1.6° F.,
for each 300 feet of ascent ; descending air is warmed at the same rate.
As the capacity of air for moisture depends almost exclusively on its

temperature, it follows that ascending air is more apt

be cloudy and to
rainy than descending air. If a current of air with a temperature of
80° and a relative humidity of 75 per cent, is forced up 1990 feet, the
temperature of condensation, allowing for increase of volume, will
be reached and clouds will form. If the process is continued, rain may
be expected, the amount of precipitation depending upon the quantity
of air flowing in, the moisture content, and the extent of cooling.
In general, then, cloudy and rainy weather may be expected when
air is ascending, while clear skies will be anticipated when the air
is descending. With the relation between pressure and wind in mind,
SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 115

it will be readily seen that lows are generally accompanied by clouds

and rain, while large areas of high pressure will usually be accompanied
by clear skies.
In the middle and eastern United States, the heaviest rains are
found on the eastern side of the cyclones, because here the southerly
winds are usually warm and moisture-laden. As they ascend in
approaching the center of the low pressure area, adiabatic cooling
takes place and the temperature of condensation is soon reached. If
the movement of the cyclone is slow, large masses of moisture-laden
air will flow toward it from the south and heavy rains may be
expected at some distance southeast of its center. Sometimes the
cyclone will be nearly stationary, when the rains may be extensive and
floods result. Usually the eastward movement of the low will cause
the area of rainfall to spread eastward and give generous rains over
large districts. Occasionally a succession of energetic cyclonic areas
will follow each other closely, each with excessive rains. This was
the case in March, 191 3, when the rivers in the northern Ohio water-
shed were from 10 to 16 feet higher than ever before recorded, owing
to excessive downpours of rain.

COLD WAVES.
When a well defined and energetic cyclonic area moves eastward
across the central Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes, strong
southerly winds to the south and east of the center will cause unseason-
ably high temperatures, especially in winter time. With the shift of
wind west and northwest, as the center of disturbance moves east-
to
ward, the temperature falls rapidly. When the approaching high is
large and well defined, the northwest winds, often accompanied by
snow squalls, are strong and the fall in temperature in 24 hours
sometimes amounts to 40° or 50° or even more. These are the
conditions which make up the well known winter cold wave of the
United States. After the windy front of the anticyclone has passed
and the center lies over a district, the nighttime temperatures will be
very low, especially in the valleys, under the influence of radiation.
The conditions of high and low pressure follow each other with a
fair degree of regularity and at an average velocity of 600 miles in
24 hours. About two anticyclones and two cyclones may be expected
to pass over any point in central and northeastern United States each
week, with the attendant shifts in wind direction, consequent changes
in temperature, and varying weather conditions.
ii6 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
THUNDERSTORMS.
All the features of thunderstorms point to their dependence on a
convectional overturning of the atmosphere. They most frequently
occur in warm regions and are most common in spells of warm sum-
mer weather and in the afternoon at, or shortly after, the hour of
the day when convectional movements are most active.
Thunderstorms wherever there is a rapidly rising
will usually occur
current of moisture-laden These conditions may obtain in a large
air.

current of air moving up the side of a mountain or in rapidly ascend-

ing currents of air in a comparatively level region under conditions of
unstable equilibrium. The unstable condition may be produced by the
overheating of surface air or the excessive cooling of air aloft. The
overheating of surface air is brought about in hot summer weather
when the air is comparatively quiet and the surface of the ground
becomes greatly heated by uninterrupted insolation. The storms which
occur under these conditions are classed as "heat" thunderstorms.
They are sporadic in character and seldom continue for any great
length of time. They may move slowly in any direction.
A second class of thunderstorms occurs principally in southerly
winds to the eastward of easterly moving cyclonic areas. These are
also generated by the unstable conditions produced by the overheat-
ing of a large mass of surface air or else in currents of air that are
deflected upward by hills or shore lines. The formation of cumulus
clouds is a common occurrence in this region, and these frequently
grow into cumulo-nimbus or so-called thunderheads. It is thunder-
storms of this type which frequently show the anvil-shaped clouds and
which are so commonly accompanied by hail.
A third class of thunderstorms occurs in a V-shaped trough or
depression extending southwesterly from a cyclonic area, where warm
southerly winds are replaced by colder winds from the west. This is
particularly a region of unstable equilibrium. It is thunderstorms
of this class that are most likely to be followed by several days of
cooler weather, due to the advancing cool wave behind the cyclone,
while the cooling that accompanies the first and second class of storms
is usually only temporary.
In the third class of storms, the wind squall which accompanies
them is often strong enough to level trees and overturn frail build-
ings. These wind squalls are often spoken of as "tornadoes" but
instead, they are straight-line thunderstorms.
A fourth class of thunderstorms should be included, although they
are much less frequent. These occur in winter and sometimes in snow-
SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, n?

storms. Severe lightning damage sometimes occurs with these storms,

evidently due to the fact that the region of greatest electric accumu-
lationis but a few hundred feet above the surface of the ground.

Thunderstorms usually move toward the east in the temperate region

and toward the west in the torrid zone. In middle latitudes the velocity
of progression, except in the case of the slow-moving heat thunder-
storm, is from 20 to 50 miles an hour and is somewhat greater than
that of the cyclone which they may accompany.

TORNADOES AND WATERSPOUTS.

The tornado is the most diminutive and yet the most violent and
destructive of all storms. It may be defined as a violent wind storm
acompanied by hail, thunder and lightning, in which the air masses
whirl with great velocity about a central core while the whole storm
travels across the country in a narrow path at a considerable speed.
When seen from a distance the tornado has the appearance of a dense
cloud mass, usually in violent agitation and with one or more pendant
funnel-shaped clouds, which may or may not reach the earth. Water-
spouts are tornadoes that occur over bodies of water. The visible
waterspout corresponds to the pendant cloud of the land tornado.
Tornadoes almost invariably occur in the southeast quadrant of an
easterly moving cyclonic area and generally move from southwest to
northeast at an average rate of from 20 to 50 miles an hour. The
path of a tornado is from a few feet to perhaps 2,000 feet in width,
while the average length is about 25 miles. Neither the air pressure
nor the wind velocity have ever been measured near the center of a
tornado but from the force necessary to move certain objects it has
been calculated that the wind must blow at the rate of well over 100
miles an hour and may reach several hundred miles.
The tornado tube in its projection downward from the cloud mass
is a simple vortex and obeys the laws of fluids in gyratory motion.

A partial vacuum is produced at the center of the whirl, the low

temperature which results generates the sheath of vapor that makes
the tube visible and the wind about the vortex prostrates every obstacle.
Tornadoes may occur in the Gulf States in the winter or early
spring, and in the northern States late in the summer. The region
of greatest frequency is the central Plains States and the Mississippi
Valley, where they occur most frequently in April and May. The
southern margin of a tornado is more dangerous than the northern,
and as the width of the path of greatest destruction may not be more
than a few yards or rods, a person can frequently find safety by run-
ii8 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
ning toward the northwest, if the tornado seems to be approaching
directly.
Desert whirlwinds may be tornadic in character or may be due to
the convectional overturning of small masses of overheated surface
air. The Santa Ana of southern California is caused by cyclonic

winds and may last for several days. Other more brief sand storms
are due to straight line thundersqualls.

HURRICANES.
Most of the cyclonic storms which gain such a velocity of gyration
as to constitute hurricanes originate within the tropics. Those
originating north of the equator move northwestward, many reaching
latitudes of 20° or
more and then recurving toward the northeast.
Those of the southern hemisphere first move southwestward, and
later, in many cases recurve towards the southeast. Hurricanes are
the most destructive of all storms. They have all the characteristics
of tornadoes but instead of being a few rods in width, their path of
destruction may cover several hundred miles, and instead of their dura-
tion being less than one minute as in the case with tornadoes, the
terrific winds and rain acompanying them may last from 12 to 24
hours. Hurricanes seldom occur in the northern hemisphere except
in the late summer or early autumn. Although there are an average
of about 10 annually that touch some portion of the Atlantic or Gulf
Coast, an average of less than one a year is severely destructive.
The most intense hurricane of which we have record in the history
of the Mexican Gulf Coast, and probably in the United States, moved
into the lower Mississippi Valley on September 29, 1915. The pres-
sure fell to 28.11 inches at New Orleans at 5.50 p. m., on the 29th.
The wind reached a five minute velocity of 86 miles an hour from the
southeast at 5.10 p. M., of the 29th. The extreme velocity was 130
miles an hour. At Burrwood, La., 100 miles south of New Orleans,
the velocity was the highest ever recorded on the Gulf Coast. In fact,
this was the most intense hurricane known to be recorded in this part
of the country. At Burrwood, the extreme wind for one minute was
140 miles an hour, at 3.45 p. m., the maximum five minute velocity
was 124 miles an hour, and from 3.31 to 3.50 p. m., the average veloc-
ity was 116 miles an hour. From 3.00 to 4.00 p. m., the average
velocity was 108 miles an hour, from 4.00 to 5.00 p. M., 106 miles an
hour, and from 5.00 to 6.00 p. m., 96 miles an hour. The total loss
of life in 300 miles of coast line was only 275. Twenty-three of these
fatalities were known to be due to an absolute disregard of warnings, at
SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 119

Rigolets. The property loss was probably more than $13,000,000.

At Leeville, of the 100 houses in the village, only one was left standing.

LAND AND SEA BREEZES.

In warm summer days when cyclonic movements are not well
defined, a daily movement of surface winds takes place near the coast
analogous to the monsoon winds but of far less extent. The air along
the coast flows toward the land in the daytime and toward the water
at night. The sea-breeze or daytime wind is felt for only a few miles
along the coast but when it does prevail, it furnishes a pleasant relief
from the heat. The land and sea-breeze is a diurnal wind while the
monsoon wind explained in Chapter VIII is a seasonal wind.

MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WINDS.

In some of the mountain regions there is a well-defined movement
of the air up the valleys in the daytime and an even more marked
movement down the valleys at nighttime.

OTHER WINDS.
Other winds of considerable United States are the
interest in the
"warm waves," the and the chinook. The first is the
"blizzard,"
warm moisture-laden wind that blows from the south into an advanc-
ing cyclonic area. It is particularly marked in the winter time in the
central and eastern States, when almost summer heat may be expe-
rienced. The Italian name "sirocco" is sometimes given this wind.
The blizzard is characteristic of the Great Plains and is a high cold
wind accompanied by fine snow or ice particles.
The chinook occurs mainly on the eastern side of the Rocky Moun-
tains particularly in Montana and Wyoming. It is a hot, dry wind
which usually makes its appearance suddenly and may raise the tem-
perature 40° to 50° in a few minutes. The snow evaporates very
rapidly and large areas previously snow-covered are made available
for grazing. This wind has the same characteristics as the f oehn wind
of the Swiss Alps in fact, "chinook" is merely the local American
name for a widespread type of wind to which the generic name "f oehn"
is now applied by meteorologists^
Various cyclonic and local winds which occur in various parts of
other countries are of local interest but are not considered to be of
sufficient importance to find a place in this book.
 CHAPTER X.

FORECASTING THE WEATHER.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
It is proposed in this chapter to mention very briefly the preliminary
steps in the construction of a weather map, and to offer some sugges-
tions as to the methods of acquiring skill in reading the map and
drawing conclusions therefrom as to the weather to be expected in the
future.
•The history of organized weather services has been often told and
will not be repeated here.
The basic material for the construction of a synoptic weather chart
is, of course, a sufificient number of meteorological reports from suit-
ably placed stations. It will be assumed that the observing stations
have been organized and that the taking of meteorological observations
has been begun. By the taking of meteorological observations is meant
observing and recording the pressure and temperature of the atmos-
phere by means of the barometer and thermometer, respectively,
determining its moisture contents by the hygrometer, noting the direc-
tion and velocity of the wind, the state of the sky with respect to the
clouds, the state of the weather at the moment, whether clear, cloudy,
foggy, raining, snowing or sleeting, and measuring the precipitation
since last observation. It will be further assumed that the reader is

not particularly concerned with the reduction of the observation and

its preparation for transmission by telegraph or cable to a central

station.
At the central station the receipt of the detailed information from
a large number of stations calls for systematic treatment in order that
it may be made quickly available for use. In all of the various steps
leading up^ to the completion of a weather map, there is an insistent
demand for haste that at times militates against efficient work. The
first step in the construction of a weather map is, of course, the enter-
ing of the data on appropriate maps of the field of observation. An
appropriate map is generally understood to be a skeleton map showing
the political divisions, the shore lines, the larger rivers and sometimes
the most prominent features of the surface relief. The maps also
 FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 121

contain a small circle at each observing station for convenience in

expressing the state of the weather and the direction of the wind.
Figure 67 shows a completed weather map, reproduced from a
manuscript map such as is made at all forecast centers.
This map shows the presence of a severe cyclone off the New Jersey
coast. The barometer level at the center has reached the unusually
low level of 28.70 inches while the barometer in the great anticyclone
or high that stretches from the Canadian border to the Gulf of

Figure 67. Weather Map of January 9, 18

Mexico reads 30.50 inches, a difference of nearly two inches of pres-

sure. Great contrasts like this are quite unusual, and while they serve
as an illustration of extraordinary conditions the student should not
expect to find a similar map in several years' experience with weather
maps.
After the data have been entered on the map, the isobars (lines of
equal pressure) are sketched in. In drawing isobars one is able to
see at a glance the distribution of pressure that prevailed at the moment
of observation. It will be noted that pressure is high in some places
and low in others ; in short, that the isobars wander about much as do
122 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
the contours on a topographic map, and, carrying the analogy farther,
that there are ridges and hollows in the system of isobars as well as
in the contour lines. It is customary to identify the regions where

pressure is high by writing the word "High" in the region of maxi-

mum pressure and similarly the word "Low" in the region of minimum
pressure. The High and the Low of the weather map are synonymous
with the anticyclone and the cyclone of the preceding chapter.
Owing to the great importance of the High and Low in the weather
forecasting, it is necessary to caution the reader not to consider every
barometric configuration marked "High" on the daily weather map
as a fully developed anticyclone and the same reservation must be
made with respect to the "Low."
As a rule, the words "High" and "Low" are written on weather
maps after a preliminary inspection and without a close scrutiny to
see whether or not the wind circulation appropriate to anticyclones and
cyclones, respectively, is present in each case.
The art of weather forecasting rests almost entirely upon the funda-
mental proposition that weather travels. If, therefore, the field of
observation is sufficiently extensive and the character of existing
weather is accurately portrayed on appropriate charts, usually there
is not much difficulty in announcing the weather to be expected for
any place in the line of travel. Practically all of the rules known and
used in the art have been established empirically some of them have
;

been foi^iulated, but in a considerable proportion of cases the rules

which govern the forecaster are exercised subconsciously. The diffi-
culty in formulating any set of rules for the making of weather fore-
casts is further increased by the fact that an appropriate nomenclature
of the art does not exist. Without nomenclature it is difficult to write
even for those who have a technical knowledge of the subject.
The writer has elsewhere stated that the two fundamental proposi-
tions of weather forecasting are (i) weather travels, and (2) the
weather for any time and place depends almost wholly on the pressure
distribution that obtains for that time and place, hence the first and
most important thought of the forecaster is to form a mental picture
of the pressure distribution 24 to 36 hours in advance. This deter-
mined with a fair degree of accuracy, it is not difficult to sketch in the
appropriate weather.
The problem of forecasting the weather is not without its difficulties
and should not be lightly approached, nor should the hope be enter-
tained that it can be mastered in a few weeks or a few months. True,
the broader rules can be given in a few hours but the application of
the rules presents difficulties of no small order.
 FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 123

The student will soon discover that the weather is in a perpetual

condition of change; in other words, it would seem that in nature an
effort is made automatically to reach a state of equilibrium, a condi-
tion, needless to say, that is approached but never reached.
The taking maps is a
of observations and the making of weather
continuous process; seven hundred and thirty maps are made in the
course of a year when but two regular observations are made daily.
Counting special observations, close to a- thousand maps are made each
year by the United States Weather Bureau. No two of these maps
are precisely alike, but just as some human faces differ only in a
slight degree so some weather maps have a close resemblance. On
close scrutiny, however, points of difference will be found that are
so ill-defined as to escape noticeon casual inspection. Many inves-
tigators have urged the classification of weather maps by types and
indexing the types for ready reference, the object being, of course, to
make a forecast based upon what followed the original type map.
The writer does not discourage the classification of weather maps
by t)T)e on the contrary, the work of classification, if carefully done,
;

will establish firmly the fact that no two maps are precisely alike in
the lesser details and even in some of the greater details. Similar
maps may be found for some individual date and hour, but it has been
the experience of the writer that the similarity diminishes directly
with the passage of time. In other words, the subsequent maps will
diverge more and more from the original, and frequently in a different
direction.
If one carries out a plan of classifying maps by types for even a
short time the point will be reached when the number of types will
become unwieldy and there will be a rather large number of maps
that do not easily fall into the adopted classification. However, the
study of types is not without its advantage. To illustrate, suppose the
object in hand is to forecast heavy snow for a given locality. The
procedure would be to list all of the cases of heavy snow that had
occurred in the past and then assemble the weather maps for the cor-
responding dates 24 to 36 hours in advance of the snowfall. It can
then be seen whether or not heavy snow for the locality occurred with
a certain type of map or promiscuously with several types of map.

FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND THE TEMPERATURE.

The great bulk of the work of the forecaster is in preparing twice
daily, morning and evening, forecasts of weather, wind and tempera-
ture. This branch of the work is the most unsatisfactory because
 :

124 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

of the fact that the indications of the map are often obscure and ill-

defined. Often the maps are neutral, that is, they give no positive
indications.
The weather usually travels from west to east. But we are not to
movement
consider the of cyclones and anticyclones, or the Lows and
Highs of the weather map, as of the same order of certainty as that
of a railroad train even under the unfavorable conditions which some-
times obtain on railroads. In the beginning, therefore, the student
will do well to locate definitely the positions of both Low and High
24 and 36 hours in advance as best he can. The average paths of
Lows which enter the United States in January and July, as well as
the average rate of progression, is shown in Figures 68 and 69 below.
—
Remarks on Figures 68 and dp. The paths of cyclonic depressions
passing across the United States for a period of 22 years is shown in
Figures 68 and 69. The depressions have been classified in accordance
with their place of origin; thus, all depressions first observed in the
Province of Alberta or adjoining provinces have been classified, under
the type "Alberta"; moving inland from the North Pacific
those
have been classified under the type "North Pacific"; in like manner
practically all the depressions that may move over the country have
been grouped in classes. The average daily movement in each class
is also shown. The fact that certain definite tracks have been deduced
for certain groups of storms should not be taken too literally. As a
matter of no portion of the United States east of the
fact, there is
Rocky Mountains that at one time or another is not passed over by
cyclonic depressions. The width of a depression may vary from a
minimum of, say, 300 miles, to a maximum of 1500 miles, but mani-
festly the charting of these storms must be confined to the central
portion and it is the central portion that is represented by the paths
shown on Figures 68 and 69. The percentage of cyclonic depressions
from the different districts is as follows
Alberta 38%
North Pacific ^ 15
South Pacific 7
Northern Rocky Mountain 5
Colorado 12
Texas 9
East Gulf 3
South Atlantic* 3
Central 7

* The expression "SouthAtlantic" refers to the waters of the North Atlaijtic

bordering the southeastern United States and north of the West Indies. Simi-
 FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 125

The chief characteristics of a Low are cloudy skies in and for some
distance in front of its center, from which rain falls intermittently as

in the showers of summer, or steadily as in the rain of the cold season.

The distance in front of a Low at which precipitation may occur is
anywhere from a few miles to a thousand miles. The maps do not
afford any indication as to how far in front of the Low precipitation
may occur. In the upper Missouri Valley and thence westward to the
Pacific precipitation occurs mostly in the rear of Lows or, what is
almost the same thing, on the front of the High which follows imme-
diately in the rear of the Low. There is no sharp line of demarcation
between the western side of a Low and the eastern side of a High
when they are moving in tandem formation across the country. The
isobar of thirty inches is sometimes taken as separating the Low from
the High but there is no fixed rule. Reference to Figure 67 will show
that the character of the weather on either side of the isobar of 30
inches is not markedly dif3ferent and that it is not until a great distance
from the cyclone center is reached that the characteristic cloudiness of
the cyclone disappears.
It will be found that the speed of the Low is a factor in estimating
the probability of precipitation. Much more rain falls in a Low that
moves slowly than in one that moves rapidly. The level of the barom-
eter at the center of a Low is also a factor in determining the prob-
ability of precipitation although there is no rule of general application
throughout the year.
Snow falls apparently with less effort than rain and with a higher
barometer in the Low. Heavy snows have been observed with Lows
in which central pressure was as high as 30.20 inches. Rain does not
readily fall with central pressures above 30.00 inches.
The average rate of movement of Lows may be seen from Figures
68 and 69. It is suggested that the student make it a regular practice
to forecast each day the occurrence or non-occurrence of rain and that
he save the daily weather maps immediately prior to the dates on which
precipitation occurred, classify them and analyze his failures in the
light of subsequent events. In no other way can skill be acquired in
reading weather maps so far as the local situation is concerned. Fore-
casting temperature changes is less difficult than forecasting the occur-
rence of precipitation. In forecasting temperature changes one has to

larly, "North Pacific" and "South Pacific," as here used, refer to the northern

and southern parts, respectively, of the North Pacific Ocean adjacent to the
United States.
126 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.

Figure 68. Average Paths and Daily Movement of Lows in the United States,
January.

Figure 69. Average Paths and Daily Movement of Lows in the United States.
July.
 —
FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 127

keep in mind the fact that the atmosphere is heated mostly by radia-
tion and reflection from the earth and that there is superposed upon
the diurnal system of heating the atmosphere in lower levels what may
be called the cyclonic system whereby warm air from low latitudes
is transported to higher latitudes and vice versa. This transportation
isbrought about by the movement eastward of cyclones. The tempera-
ture of a place is alternately elevated and depressed with the passage
of a cyclone and the forecasting of warmer and colder is an easy mat-
ter provided the center of the low pressure system is accurately fore-
seen. And again we are reminded that the key to successful forecast-
ing lies in the ability to locate the center of the Low 24 and 36 hours
in advance. Several chapters could be written upon the perturbations
of Lows and Highs but it is doubtful if the recital of them would be
helpful.
As bearing upon the movement of Lows and Highs the following
observations may aid the beginner. It is important to note carefully
the movement of both the Low and the two Highs which attend it
one on the front and the other in the rear, since the movement of the
High in front of the Low seems to have an important bearing upon
the movement of the latter. This is equivalent to saying that the
pressure distribution should be carefully considered. If the High in
front moving rapidly the Low in its rear will almost invariably have
is

a rapid movement also. If pressure is low in the probable path of

advance the movement is apt to be rapid in fact, there are occasions ;

when one Low appears to merge completely with another Low imme-
diately in its front.
The barometer level in the center of both Highs and Lows should
be carefully watched. Rising pressure in the center of a Low is an
indication that the Low is diminishing in intensity, and conversely,
rising pressure in the center of a High is an indication of increasing
intensity in that formation, whereas if the pressure at the center of a
Low is decreasing it is a sure sign that the intensity of the Low is

increasing.
The trend of the isobars is often significant, since it gives informa-
tion as to the direction of the winds ; thus isobars trending in a north-
south direction as in Figure 67 (see the region west of the Mississippi),
indicates that there will be a transfer of cold air from high to low
latitudeson the eastern side of the High and consequently much colder
weather will prevail, while on the west side, the flow will be from south
to north with higher temperature on that side. A High in which the
128 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
longer axes extends in an east-west direction is generally attended by

clear skies with west winds on its north side and frequently by con-
siderable cloudiness with east-northeast winds on its south side.
Rain Forecasts. —^According to theory, partly if not fully sup-
ported by observation, there is a small component of motion directed
upward in a cyclone and downward in an anticyclone. That the air
ascends in a cyclonic system cannot be doubted but that the air
descends in an anticyclone is not always obvious. The forecaster in
the beginning of his work must naturally assume that precipitation
will occur in connection with each cyclone that appears within the field

of observations. He may feel some doubt in those cases where the

sky remains clear in spite of the cyclonic circulation. In the interior
of a continent, far removed from the source of moisture, clear skies at
the center of a cyclonic system may be expected, but when the sky
remains clear as the cyclone approaches a source of moisture, there is
reason to hesitate before predicting precipitation. One of the para-
doxes of meteorology is the existence of cyclones without condensa-
tion of moisture even sufficient to cloud the sky. Cyclones without
precipitation are the exception, however, and the beginner may well
defer consideration of them for the present.
The Low with respect to the Highs which
relative position of the
accompany worthy of a moment's consideration. The ideal situa-
it is

tion of a Low as regards its future maintenance and development is

that one which places it between two Highs, one in front and the
other in the rear. This situation frequently occurs in the cold season
when cyclonic storms move northeastward from, say, the lower Mis-
sissippi Valley. In a configuration of this sort, the eastern High
serves as a reservoir from which air is drawn on its
into the cyclone
eastern side, ascends in the cyclone ; condensed and the
its moisture is

cooled air then flows off laterally, probably merging with the general
eastward drift of the air at the level at which it finds itself after
cooling and later descends in an anticyclone many miles from the place
of its ascent. Forecasting of rain in this case involves no difficulties
other than in determining the cyclone's path and how far in advance
of the cyclonic center precipitation will occur in the ensuing 24 hours.
Obviously there are two conclusions to be reached, first as to the posi-
tion of the cyclone itself and second as to the distance in advance of
the center that precipitation will occur. Much of the uncertainty of
rain forecasts rests in the inability of the forecaster to determine the
eastern limit of the rain front and how long precipitation will continue
after a beginning has been made.
 FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 129

Forecasting Temperature Changes. The atmosphere is heated —

mainly by contact with the earth's surface and the conditions which
determine its temperature are therefore mostly the same as those which
determine the temperature of the latter. The character of the surface
whether land or water and if the former, whether bare or covered with
vegetation, is therefore an important consideration. The forecaster
is concerned chiefly with the transport of warmer or colder air from

one point to another by the circulation induced by traveling cyclones

and anticyclones. If a cyclone is approaching in the cold season and
there will be an inflow of southerly winds, warmer weather will obtain
in front of the cyclone ; the amount of the warming and the extent
of territory over which it is effective are details that can best be
learned by experience. Temperature forecasts are free from the per-
plexities that are associated with rain forecasts.
Forecasting Strong Winds, Cold Waves, etc. —Roughly speaking,
the strength of the wind is proportional to the barometric gradient.
The word gradient is used in the same sense that an engineer would
employ it to indicate the slope from a system of contour lines. The
barometric gradient is susceptible of quantitative determination ; thus,
let the point for which the gradient is desired be located within a sys-
tem of isobars. Draw a line through the point at right angles to the
isobars on either side and measure the distance along the line from
high pressure to low. If the distance be 100 miles and the difference

in pressure o.i inch, then the gradient per mile will be —^^o.ooi
inch of mercury per mile. In practice the arithmetical calculations
are seldom made but it is customary to use the distance between isobars
as the inverse of the gradient ; thus when the isobars are close together
as about the Low center in Figure 6"^ the gradient is strong; when
they are wide apart as in the region of the High west of the Missis-
sippi, the gradient is weak. In the region around the center of the
Low, Figure 6y, the gradient is unusually strong and fresh gales should
prevail there in the region of the High, the winds should be gentle.
;

In forecasting the winds about a Low, therefore, the forecaster

must consider the probability of the gradient remaining constant,
increasing or decreasing. If the probable path of the Low will bring
it into a region of uniform temperature distribution, the probabilities
are that the Low will decrease in intensity, if into a region of great
contrast in temperature the Low will increase in intensity.
The geographic position of the Low is also a factor in determining

5
I30 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
whether or not it will increase in intensity. Ordinary Lows increase
in intensity when they move from lower to higher latitudes, particu-
larly along the Atlantic coast.
Every cyclone seems to contain the possibility of a marked increase
in intensity as it nears a coast line. On the Pacific coast storms rarely
retainmuch of their original strength when passing inland, but along
the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast, the original severity of
the storm is often retained for a short time after it passes inland.
Cyclone's moving northeastward along the Atlantic coast generally
increase in intensity.
The best guide as to whether or not a cyclonic system is or is not
increasing in intensity, is the rate of pressure fall immediately in
advance of its probable path.
Weather Bureau observers are required to include in their tele-
graphic reports of observations a word to show the amount of the
rise or fall of the barometer in the 2 hours immediately preceding the
observation. A fall of as much as 0.07 inch in an hour or 0.14 inch

in 2 hours indicates a decided increase in the intensity of the cyclonic

system.
Thecold waves of winter are also conditioned upon the occurrence
of marked disturbances in the pressure distribution, such as illustrated
in Figure 67. That particular map is one of a series that illustrate the
conditions which preceded the very severe cold wave of January, 1886,
when zero temperature was reached as far south as northern Georgia.
The line of zero temperature on the map of the 9th has reached
northern Mississippi (see the isotherms —dotted lines).
—
Seasonal Influence. The change of weather with the season is of
course well known. Winter is the season of sharp temperature con-
trasts and great storm activity. The movement of disturbances is at
a maximum and the problem of determining the pressure distribution
on a succession of maps is most difficult. In summer the horizontal
circulation is at a minimum and convective circulation is at a maxi-
mum. The continental interior is then warmer than the adjacent
oceans and the forecasting of pressure distribution in summer is very
different from that of winter. In summer the weather controls are
largely local rather than general. Thunderstorms and convective rains
are the rule, especially in the southern part of the United States.
While the barometric configurations aid the forecaster to a certain
extent, considerations of local heating, the prevailing winds, and the
moisture content of the atmosphere are also employed.
 FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 131

THE WEATHER IN AVIATION.

Improvement in airplane construction, the development of high-
grade engines, etc., etc., has mademore or less independent
the aviator
of weather conditions, save those of fog and cloud. High winds if not
gusty do not appear to be a hindrance to successful and prolonged
flight but the presence of fog or a cloud layer which obscures the vision
is a serious menace. The weather map when properly interpreted
contains useful information for the aviator. Much useful information
has also been secured in recent years in the exploration of the free air
by means of kites and balloons. In this category must be included our
knowledge of the shifting of the wind with altitude. The law express-
ing the deflection of the wind to the right with increase of altitude
was announced more than 50 years ago, from observations on the
movement of clouds. More recent determinations by the use of kites
and balloons show that the turning of the wind is quite definitely asso-
ciated with the pressure distribution for the time and place, hence an
intelligent application of the data of the weather map will put the
aviator in possession of important information as to the probable
changes in wind direction aloft. The condition of the weather as to
the prevalence of cloud can be inferred, remembering that the center
of a High is a region free from cloud, while a Low is a region of
cloud and rain, particularly on its eastern front.
The High is more enduring than the Low and the movement is
naturally slower, hence when a High sets in, settled weather for a day
or so, sometimes longer, may be anticipated.
It is quite important that the aviator recognize signs of the approach
of falling weather. If for example the weather map shows a cyclonic
depression approaching from the west the formation of a cloud veil
and the freshening of the wind should enable him to interpret the
coming weather with some certainty. In the absence of these pre-
liminary signs it may be assumed that the depression has not yet begun
to influence the weather.
Kite flights in the United States have shown that easterly winds are
infrequent and generally of low speed, also that they do not extend
upward much more than 3 kilometers and rarely even to that elevation.
Easterly winds are more frequent on the eastern coast than inland.
In the interior of the continent, however, easterly winds may be
expected in connection with an anticyclone moving southeast or east.
The easterly winds will be found, of course, on the southeastern and
southern margin of the anticyclone and they may be expected up to a
132 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
height of about 3 kilometers. Over the central region of the anti-
cyclone, however, the winds will be, as a rule, from the west at an
altitude of 4 kilometers and upward. The one outstanding fact with
relation to the wind aloft in the United States is that it is uniformly
from the west at all seasons, having a small northerly component in
the cold season. The wind in connection with cyclonic depressions
is quite uniformly from the southwest on the eastern side of the depres-

sion and from the northwest on the western side. The elevation to
which southwest winds extend is variable and it is not improbable that
the intensity of the cyclone is in some way dependent upon the depth
of the southwest wind on its front. Observations show that the alti-
tude of the southwest wind on the eastern front of cyclonic depres-
sions ranges from 2 to 3.5 kilometers; doubtless it extends higher
but probably the kites have not as yet penetrated to the top of the
southwest stratum. The motion of cirrus clouds is frequently from
the southwest over the interior of the country. This fact would seem
to indicate that the southwest wind has a much greater altitude than
can be inferred from kite flights.
 ;

CHAPTER XL
CLIMATE.
DEFINITION OF CLIMATE.
The climate of a place or region the complex of weather conditions
is

to which it is from past experience. The descrip-

subject, as inferred
tion of a climate includes an account' not only qf average and typical
conditions, but also o/ the range of the meteorological elements and
the frequency with which extreme and abnormal conditions occur'
The branch of meteorology dealing with climate is called climatology.
As distinguished from discussions of climate in general, descriptions
and world constitute a phase of clima-
statistics of the climates of the
tology which sometimes known as climatography. Climatographic
is

works on particular regions are, however, also called "climatologies"

e. g., Henry's Climatology of the United States.

"Climate" and "weather" are both terms which, as commonly used,

refer especially to those meteorological phenomena having important
direct effects upon living organisms and upon the affairs of humanity.
Temperature is the leading element of climate. On the other hand,
barometric pressure, so prominent in meteorology, almost ignored
is

in climatology, because it is of little immediate interest from either the

biological or the economic standpoint.

CLIMATIC STATISTICS.
One of the leading tasks of the climatologist or climatographer is to
collect the data of observations made in the course of years at meteoro-
logical stations and digest them in the form of climatic statistics. Such
statistics are "utilized in many of the arts and sciences, including geog-
raphy, agriculture, biology, medicine, etc. There is a striking disparity
in the amounts of climatic information available for various parts of
the world. Thus, the climatography of the ocean, which lacks fixed
meteorological stations, is less well known, on an average, than that
of the land. Climatic statistics are fairly abundant for western Europe,
the United States, Canada, Australia, British India, Japan and the
temperate regions of South America. They are very scarce for the
134 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
uninhabited polar areas, the unciviHzed parts of Asia and Africa, the
Ottoman Empire, and many Latin-American republics.
One fact, however, should be made clear, and it has not previously
been emphasized in works on meteorology: There is no part of the
world for which the existing climatic statistics are adequate to meet
the diverse demands constantly made for such
data. This is partly
due to the limited scope of meteorological records but even the rec-
;

ords that exist have been digested only in a very fragmentary way
for the purposes of climatology. The field for valuable work in this
line is unbounded, and is commended to the attention of the young
student.
There is a diversity of opinion as to what kinds of data should be
included among the statistics of climate, and those actually presented
vary widely. The accompanying table of so-called "normals" and
extremes for Washington, D. C, illustrates the practice of American
climatologists in the form and selection of data. (For practical pur-
poses, a normal an average based on a record extending over a
is

long series of years. The data tabulated herewith are from the fol-
lowing periods of observation: Mean maxima and minima, 32 years;
humidity, 15 years; sunshine, 14 years; all other data, 33 years.)
In the first column we have the mean temperatures of the months,
the seasons, and the year. These are obtained by averaging the cor-
responding data for the individual years of the record. The monthly
means for the individual years are obtained by averaging the daily
means, which, in turn, are the means of the daily maxima and minima.^
The mean annual temperature is the mean of the twelve monthly tem-
peratures. Similarly, the seasonal means are obtained by averaging
the three monthly values for the appropriate seasons.
The second column shows the mean daily maximum temperature.
This should be distinguished from the mean monthly maximum tem-
perature, which' is not shown in the accompanying table but is a datum
of importance, and is often given in foreign climatic tables. The first
figure in the column, 44, means that on an average day in December
the thermometer at Washington rises only to 44° F. The mean
monthly maximum would show the highest individual reading of the
thermometer recorded during an average December.
' The true mean daily temperature is the mean of 24 hourly observations.
This obtained only approximately by taking the mean of the maximum and
is

minimum. In European practice it is often obtained by applying certain formulas

to the readings made at two or more specified hours. See Hann's Handbook
of Climatology, tr. by Ward, p. 7-8.
 '

CLIMATE. 135

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)r^ ^ 'i ^ 'i ^
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'ui -d 8 'siTnosqy tj m" ih m m w W ^cO'O'Ovd'Oioc^N c^co

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'SAp^is-a c^

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ajoui JO lo-o miAv

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136 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
The third column gives the absolute maximum temperatures — i. e.,

the highest readings ever recorded —for each month during the whole
period of observation. A climatic table would specify
more extensive
the years in which these extreme values were observed, and perhaps
also the dates of occurrence. The entry 104 at the foot of the column
is the "record" high temperature for Washington during the 33 years

covered by the observations.^

The fourth and fifth columns give mean daily minimum and abso-
lute minimum temperatures respectively. These are analogous to the
maximum temperatures just explained.
The sixth and seventh columns give the highest and lowest monthly
mean temperatures, selected from the values for the individual years
on which the data in the first column are based.
Under the heading "Precipitation" the first column shows the
average total precipitation in inches, for each month, each season, and
the year. Snow and other solid forms of precipitation are included
here, as well as rain, and are expressed in their "water equivalent."
The next column gives the average number of "rain-days" or days
with a measurable amount of rain. The minimum amount of precipi-
tation that must be reached or exceeded to constitute a rain-day is
defined in the United States and Great Britain as o.oi inch, but various
other limits are used elsewhere. In countries using the metric sys-
tem, 0.1 millimeter (0.004 inch) is frequently adopted. Hence sta-
tistics of the number of rain-days for various parts of the world are
not comparable.
The next two columns require no explanation.
Under the heading "Snow" we have, first, the, average
total snow-
fall, measured (not reduced to "water equivalent"), and
as actually
next, for each month, the greatest actual snowfall in 24 hours ever
recorded during the period of observation.
The two columns headed "Total sunshine" show the average dura-
tion of bright sunshine,from corrected readings of a sunshine-recorder,
for each month, etc., and the average ratio, in percentage, of the actual
sunshine to the maximum possible amounts for the respective periods.
The last column shows the prevailing (i. e., most frequent) direc-
tion of the wind. This datum, in the case of records of the United
States Weather Bureau, is based upon observations, to eight points

of the compass, at the regular observation hours (now 8 a. m. and

8 p. M., 75th meridian time). At stations where the wind shifts more
^ This record was broken on August 6, 1918, with a temperature of 106° F.
 CLIMATE. 137

or less regularly with the time of day —for example, where alternating
land and sea breezes prevail —data based on more frequent observations
or on continuous automatic records would be preferable.
Of the numerical data not included in the accompanying table, but
often found in climatographic literature, the following are among the
more important:
Mean interdiurnal variability of temperature. (Mean difference between mean
temperatures of successive days.)
Average and extreme dates of first and last frost.
Ground temperatures at v'arious depths.
Data of relative and absolute humidity.
Data of excessive precipitation (especially the maximum in 24 hours).
Frequency of long dry and rainy periods. (Various specifications for such
data have been adopted in different countries. A recent drought-chart
published by the U. S. Weather Bureau defines a drought as a period of 30
or more consecutive days during which there is no rainfall amounting to 0.25
inch in 24 hours. In England an "'absolute drought" is defined as a period
of more than 14 consecutive days without o.oi inch of rainfall on any day,
and a "partial drought" as a period of more than 28 consecutive days, the
mean rainfall of which does not exceed o.oi inch per day. English meteor-
ologists also define a "rain-spell" as a period of more than 14 consecutive
days every one of which is a rain-day.)
Number of days with snow, hail, thunderstorms, fog, gales, etc.
Data of cloudiness. (Average number of clear, partly cloudy and cloudy
days, or average degree of cloudiness on a scale in which o cloudless and =
10 ^completely overcast.)
Data of wind velocity. (In miles per hour or meters per second, if from
anemometer readings otherwise on the Beaufort or other wind-scale.)
;

Phenological data.

Numerical data of climate are supplemented by text descriptions

and also by data presented in the form of charts, graphs, wind-roses,
etc. On climatic charts are employed various "isograms" similar
to those used in presenting instantaneous conditions on synoptic
weather maps. The most important climatological isograms are
isotherms, used in charting temperature, and isohyets (generally com-
bined with tinting or shading), used in charting precipitation.^

FACTORS THAT CONTROL CLIMATE.

If the earth had a smooth surface, all land or all water, and no
atmosphere, the distribution of solar heat would be purely a question
of latitude, and we should have a regular gradation of clirnates, from

' For a complete list of the isograms used in meteorology and climatology, see

Monthly Weather Review, Wash., April, 1915, p. 19S-198.

138 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
the hottest at the equator to the coldest at the poles. Although this

ideal arrangement, sometimes described as solar climate, is profoundly

modified by the topography of the earth and the effects of atmospheric
and oceanic circulation, it remains true that latitude is the most
important single factor controlling climate, with respect to temperature.
The effect of altitude upon temperature is analogous to that of latitude,
and is seen in the prevalence of cool climates at high levels near the
equator as contrasted with the mild climates of many places near
sea-level in the temperate zones.
The distribution of land and water, combined with the effects of
prevailing winds, gives us an important classification of climates with
respect to range of temperature. A region in which the winds blow
from an adjacent ocean has, for its latitude, mild winters and cool
summers, and a comparatively small variation of temperature between
day and night a region not exposed to such winds exhibits a greater*
;

range of temperature, both annual and diurnal. In one case the

climate is said to be marine; in the other continental. For example,
the western seaboard of Europe, where westerly winds predominate,
has a marine climate, while the interior of Asia, which is not only
remote from the ocean but also cut off from ocean breezes by mountain
barriers, presents an extreme example of the continental climate.
Warm and cold ocean currents necessarily influence to some extent
the temperature of adjacent regions to the leeward of them. While
there has been a popular tendency to exaggerate this influence, scien-
tific opinion has sometimes gone to an extreme in the opposite direction.
The wetness or dryness of a climate is determined especially by the
prevailing movement of moisture-bearing winds and the relief of
the land, while a second and important control is the location of a
region with respect to storm-tracks. The
rainiest regions of the world
are found on the windward mountain ranges not far from
slopes of
the ocean, where the moist winds, forced by the mountains to ascend
rapidly, cool dynamically and shed their moisture. To the leeward
of such mountains arid conditions generally prevail. Thus the south-
ern slopes of the eastern Himalaya receive an enormous rainfall from
the* southwest monsoon, blowing from the Indian Ocean, and an

abundant rainfall also prevails on the south slopes of the high moun-
tains of eastern Tibet, while northern Tibet is a desert. Rainfall due
to the relief of the land is called orographic rainfall. Regions not
exposed to such rains may nevertheless have a copious rainfall due
to the frequent passage of cyclonic storms {cyclonic rainfall) or to
the frequent occurrence of thunderstorms. The rainfall of the eastern
 :

CLIMATE. 139

United States is mainly cyclonic (including the rain falling in thunder-

storms of cyclonic origin), while over a considerable part of the equa-
torial regions the rainfall is mainly due to thunderstorms not connected
with cyclones.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CLIMATE.
Some of the broad classifications of climate have been indicated in
the foregoing section. There are, however, many others, dependent
not only on the particular element of climate emphasized therein, but
also upon the standpoint of the classifier. Thus there are classifica-
tions from the point of view of the agriculturist, the medical man,
etc. The accompanying table, prepared by Dr. W. F. R. Phillips, is a
convenient synopsis of the classifications in common use. To these
should be added a classification of annual rainfall, mainly with refer-
ence to biological effects, originally proposed by F. Waldo, viz.

Excessive rainfall, over 75 inches.

Copious rainfall, 50-75 inches.
Moderate rainfall, 25-50 inches.
Light rainfall, 10-25 inches.
Desert rainfall, under 10 inches.

Principal Classifications of Climate.

(Adapted from A. H. Buck's Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences.)

Subdivisions Under
Classification Basis, Classification. General Characteristics of Each Subdivision.

Tropical Usually mild, equable, moist, warm,

average temperature 80° F. Rainfall
frequent and heavy over water and
over windward land exposures. Nights
usually clear, afternoons cloudy. No
general storms. Seasons, rainy and
dry; but this division is only a rela-
Solar or astronomical. *'^^ °"^-
Temperate Unsettled weather, great and variable
changes in temperature, rainfall, and
moisture from season to season and
day to day. Region of cyclonic storms,
cold and hot waves, floods and
droughts.
Polar Cold temperature on average consider-
;

ably below freezing. Scanty rainfall.

Very short but hot summer. Winter
long and severe. Storms infrequent
140 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
Subdivisions Under
Classification Basis. Classification. General Characteristics of Each Subdivision.

Continental High temperature daytime, low at

in
night. between day and
Difference
night temperatures increases toward
center of continent. Great variations
in temperature, sometimes hot, some-
times cold. Moisture variable from
almost saturation to aridity. Rainfall
subject to great variations and ex-
Geographical. tremes. General tendency to extremes
in all climatic elements.
Marine Temperature equable range between;

day and night hardly exceeds 2° to

4° F. in mid-ocean. Moisture high
Insular and but constant. Rainfall frequent.
littoral Intermediate between above, partaking
more or less of the characteristics of
one or the other.

Plain Extremes of temperature great, rainfall

uncertain, humidity low.
Hill Extremes temperature less than
of
humidity higher.
plain, rainfall greater,
Mountain Generally same as hill, except effects of
altitude become more evident ; rajnfall
increases up to about 5,000 feet, then
decreases.
Valley Extremes of temperature greater than
hill. Humidity greater; rainfall
Topographical (land)
greater than plain.
Desert Nearly rainless great extremes of tem-
;

perature between night and day and

season and season.
Artificial Such as climates of large towns. Mean
temperatures generally higher in large
towns than in surrounding country,
but ranges of temperature somewhat
less ; haze, cloud and fog more fre-
quent.

Temperature Hot According to the degree

Intermediate of heat adopted as the
Cold standard of comparison.
Aerophysical.
Humidity Damp or moist According to standard of
Intermediate humidity adopted.
Dry or arid
 CLIMATE. 141

Subdivisions Under
Classiiication Basis. Classification. General Characteristics of Each Subdivision,

T, ,
Relaxing
. ^
...•?
According
^.
to the general
f climate.
,.
° effects of the
„. . particular
Rigorous, etc
Physiological. Mild
Pleasant According to the general sensation pro-
Humid duced, etc.

Disagreeable, etc.

CLIMATIC ZONES AND PROVINCES.

The common geographic division of the earth's surface into the
torrid,temperate and polar zones, based on astronomical considera-
tions and bounded by the tropics and polar circles, is somewhat mis-
leading for the purposes of climatology. In so far as this subdivision
has reference to the distribution of temperature, it is better to limit
the zones by isotherms, annual or otherwise, as has been done by
Alexander Supan in the chart shown herewith.
Since political boundaries are not laid down on the basis of climate,
the climatologist finds himself embarrassed by the common question,
"What is and such a country?" A prospective
the climate of such
emigrant will, for example, write to the Weather Bureau to ask what
kind of climate he may expect to find in South America or Australia.
A diversity of climates is, of course, found within the confines of
every large country and most small ones. It is, however, possible
to delimit areas in which the climate is fairly homogeneous and is
therefore well represented by the statistics of a single meteorological
station situated therein. This conception of climatic units or provinces
is an important one.
A division of the whole surface of the earth into thirty-five climatic
provinces, based principally upon temperature and rainfall, but partly,
also, on winds and orographical conditions, is shown in the accom-
panying chart, by Supan. More refined classifications have been pro-
posed for particular countries. These are exemplified, in a measure,
in the so-called "forecast districts," adopted in most countries having
meteorological services.
Much important work remains to be done in the delimitation of
climatic provinces. Indeed the whole fruitful subject of comparative
climatology has been seriously neglected.
 Figure 70. Supan's Temperature Zones.(From Bartholomew's Physical
Atlas.) The plateau area above 3,000 feet shown by shading. The Heat
is

Equator, or line of maximum mean annual temperature, is shown by the dotted

line. The Hot Belt is bounded to north and south by the isotherm representing
the mean annual temperature of
20°C. (68°F.). The Temperate Belts lie
between these lines and the isotherm of io°C. (so°F.) for the warmest month.
The cold Caps cover the regions around the poles to the isotherm of io°C.
(68°F.) for the warmest month.
 Figure 71. Supan's Climatic Provinces. The Plateau area above 3,000 feet
is shown by shading, i. Arctic. 2. West European. 3. East European. 4. West
Siberian. 5. East Siberian. 6. Kamchatkan. 7. Sino-Japanese. 8. Asiatic
Mountain and Plateau. 9. Aral. 10. Indus. 11. Mediterranean. 12. Saharan.
13. African Tropical. 14. Kalahari. 15. Cape. 16. Indo-Australian Monsoon.
17. Inner Australian. Southwest Australian. 19. East Australian. 20. New
18.

Zealand. 21. Polynesian Tropical. 22. Hawaiian. 23. Hudson (North Cana-
dian). 24. Northwest American Coastal. 25. California. 26. North American
Mountain and Plateau. 27. Atlantic (East North American). 28. West Indian.
29. Tropical Cordilleran. 30. South American Tropical. 31. Peruvian. 32.
144 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
CHANGES OF CLIMATE.
The geological record proves that vast changes of climate have
occurred in the past, and there is every reason to suppose that such
changes are still in progress. -Even within historic times certain
important climatic changes have been noted especially the progressive
;

desiccation or increased rainfall of various regions. Such changes

are, however, exceedingly slow, and probably do not continue indefi-
nitely in the same direction. There is evidence of oscillations of rain-
fall with periods of many centuries. Less extensive oscillations of
climate and weather have also been tentatively established, and some
of these appear to be connected with well-known fluctuations in solar
activity. - The spottedness of the sun's surface runs through a cycle
averaging a little over ii years. Astrophysical observations seem to
show that at sunspot maximum more heat is given out by the sun than
at sunspot minimum and accordingly it has been assumed that the
earth's atmosphere as a whole is warmest when sunspots are most
numerous, and vice versa. In the lower layers of the atmosphere,
however, meteorological observations show that a reverse relation
exists. In other words, air temperatures near the earth's surface
average, for the world in general, somewhat lower at sunspot maxi-
mum than at sunspot minimum. This apparent contradiction has been
attributed by some authorities to the fact that the effect of enhanced
solar radiation is to increase the activity of the atmospheric circula-

—
tion ;thus increasing the flow of cold air, in the lower strata, from
—
the poles toward the equator and also to increase humidity, cloudi-
ness and rainfall by promoting evaporation from the oceans. It is
doubtful, however, whether this hypothesis can account for more than
a brief initial cooling of the lower air due to increased insolation, and
other explanations have been offered.* Both the ii-year sunspot period
and other fluctuations in solar activity may be assumed a priori to be
reflected, in some degree, in changes of terrestrial temperature, rain-
fall, storminess,etc., and many laborious studies have been devoted to

these presumed relations, but definite conclusions cannot yet be

formulated.
Investigators have also sought to discover weather periodicities from
the study of meteorological and historical records, without reference
to extra-terrestrial causes. The most celebrated investigations of this

*See especially the hypothesis of W. J. Humphreys, which takes account of

probable changes in the spectral quality of solar radiation and their effects on
the ozone content of the upper atmosphere. Jour. Franklin Institute, Sept.,
1917, p. 408.
 :

CLIMATE. 1 45

character ar£ those of E. Bruckner, who has accumulated much evi-

dence in behalf of a period averaging about 35 years in the tempera-
ture, rainfall, and other meteorological elements, with important
economic consequences (fluctuations in the prices of grain, etc.). A
good summary of the literature on variations in weather and climate
will be found in J. Hann's Handbuch der Klimatologie, vol. i (Eng-
lish translation of 2d edition, N. Y., 1903 but consult preferably the
;

3d German edition, Stuttgart, 1908)."

The universal popular belief in radical changes of climate within
the period of a human lifetime — evinced, for example, such expres-
in
sions as "the old-fashioned winter" —has anything
little if common
in
with the changes above discussed and is, for the most part, fallacious.
This belief is chiefly due to the fact that extraordinary weather makes

a more durable impression upon people's minds than ordinary weather.

The illusion of the ''old-fashiojiied winter" is also due, in many cases,
to marked improvements in the heating of houses and the movements
of population from the natural environment of the country to the
artificial conditions of the town.

THE CLIMATE OF FRANCE.

Because of its present interest the following summary of the climate
of France is reproduced from Handbook of Northern France, by
William Morris Davis
"The climate of France is much more temperate than the climate
of an area of the same latitiiHe in central or eastern North America.
The prevailing winds come ifom the west and bring with them the
tempering influences of the ocean moreover, they come somewhat
;

from the southwest in winter and thus diminish the cold, and somewhat
from the northwest in summer and thus moderate the heat which would
otherwise be felt. The mean temperature in January (from 6° C.
= 43° F. in the south to 2° C. = 36° F. in the northeast) corresponds
to that of North Carolina and northern Georgia or of Arkansas and
Oklahoma in the same month. Winter weather is frequently cloudy
and wet; hence the air is chilling though the temperature is not very
low. The coldest winter winds are from the continental interior on
the northeast. The mean temperature in July (from 24" C. 75° F. ^
°
See also the recent writings of W. J. Humphreys, Ellsworth Huntington
and Henryk Arctowski, and an excellent review of the subject of solar-terrestrial
relations in Helland-Hansen & Nansen's Temperatur-Schwankungen des Nord-
atlantischen Ozeans und in der Atmosphare, Kristiania, 1917, p. 139 ffg.
146 INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY.
in the southeast to i8° C. = 64° F. in the northwest) corresponds
to the July mean of southern Pennsylvania and Ohio or of Wisconsin
and North Dakota. The extremes of both seasons are less in France
than in the central United States.
"The annual from 500 to 1000 millimeters (20 to 40
rainfall varies
inches), corresponding in general terms to that of eastern Nebraska
and Iowa. Snowfall is rarely heavy, even in the north; and as the
winds that follow snowstorms usually come from the ocean at a
temperature above freezing, snow seldom lies long on the ground.
Weather changes, including the large cloudy areas of low barometric
pressure with shifting winds and rain or snow, as well as the smaller
thunderstorms of summer, advance in a general way from southwest
to northeast, as in the eastern United States ; but the tracks of low-
pressure centers, which often traverse the United States, usually pass
to the north of France in spite of its relatively high latitude; hence
France more often receives the southerly than the northerly winds that
spiral around such centers."
 APPENDIX I.

LIST OF WORKS ON METEOROLOGY.

GENERAL TREATISES.
Angot, A. Traite elementaire de meteorologie. 3d ed. Paris. 1916.
Davis, W. M. Elementary meteorology. Boston. 1894.
Dickson, H. N. Climate and weather. London. 1912.
Great Britain, Meteorological OfiBce. The weather map; an introduction to
modern meteorology. 4th issue. London. 1918. 2 vols. (The second
volume bears separate title, Meteorological Glossary.)
Greely, A. W. American weather. New York. 1888.
Hann, J. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. 3d ed. Leipzig. 1915.
Humphreys, W. J. Physics of the air. (Published serially in Journal of the
Franklin Institute, Phila., 1917-1918.)
McAdie, A. G. Principles of aerography. Chicago. 1917.
Milham, W. I. Meteorology. New York. 1912.
Moore, W. L. Descriptive meteorology. New York. 1910.
Scott, R. H. Elementary meteorology. 4th ed. London. 1887.
Waldo, F. Elementary meteorology. New York. 1896.
Waldo, F. Modern meteorology. London. 1893.
Ward, R. De C. Practical exercises in elementary meteorology. Boston. 1899.

WEATHER AND WEATHER FORECASTING.

Abercromby, R. Weather. London. 1887.
Bliss, G. S. Weather Washington. 1917. (U.
forecasting. 2d ed. S. Weather
Bureau Bull. 42.)
Shaw, W. N. Forecasting weather. London. 191 1.
U. S. Weather Bureau. Weather forecasting in the United States. Washing-
ton. 1916.

STORMS.
Bigelow, F. H. Storms, storm tracks and weather forecasting. Washington.
1897. (U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. 20.)
Fassig, O. H. Hurricanes of the West Indies. Washington. 1913. (U. S.
Weather Bureau Bull. X.)

MARINE METEOROLOGY.
AUingham, W. A manual of marine meteorology. London. 1900.
Great Britain, Meteorological Office. The seaman's handbook of meteorology.
3d ed. London. 1918.
CLOUDS.
Clayden, A. W. Cloud studies. London. 1905.
International meteorological committee. International cloud-atlas. 2d ed. Paris.
1910.
148 INTRODUCTORY METEORULUU^.
Ley, W. C. Cloudland. London. 1894.
U. S. Weather Bureau. Classification of clouds for the guidance of observers.
Washington. 191 1.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.
Covert, R. N. Modern methods of protection against lightning. Washington.
1917. (U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bull. 842.)
Gockel, A. Die Luftelektrizitat. Leipzig. 1908.
Kahler, K. Luftelektrizitat. Berlin. 1913.
Mache, H., & Schweidler, E. von. Die atmospharische Elektrizitat. Braun-
schweig, 1909.
Peters, O. S. Protection of life and property against lightning. Washington.
1915. (U. S. Bureau of Standards Technological Paper 56.)

METEOROLOGICAL OPTICS.
Pernter, J. M., & Exner, F. M. Meteorologische Optik. Wien. 1910.

INSTRUMENTS, INSTRUCTIONS AND TABLES.

Great Britain, Meteorological Office. The computer's handbook. London.
1916- [In course of publication, in parts.]
Great Britain, Meteorological Office. The observer's handbook. London.
[Published annually.]
Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian meteorological tables. 4th ed. Washing-
ton. 1918.
U. S. Weather Bureau. Instrument Division circulars. Washington. (A.
Instructions for obtaining and tabulating recordsfrom recording instruments.
B. and C. combined. Instructions for cooperative observers. D. Anemometry.
E. Measurement of precipitation. F. Barometers and atmospheric pressure.
G. Care and management of sunshine recorders. L. Installation and operation
of class A evaporation stations.)
U. S. Weather Bureau. Psychrometric tables. Washington. 1912.

AEROLOGY AND AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY.

Blair, W. R. Meteorology and aeronautics. Washington. 1917. (U. S.
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Rept. 13.)
Fischli, F. Aeronautische Meteorologie. Berlin. 1913.
Gold, E., & Harwood, W. A. The present state of our knowledge of the upper
atmosphere as obtained by the use of kites, balloons and pilot balloons. (In
Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Winnipeg meeting, 1909, p. 71-124.)
Linke, F. ^eronautische Meteorologie. Frankfurt a. M. 1911. 2 vols.
Linke, F. Die meteorologische Ausbildung des Fliegers. Miinchen. 1913.
Rotch, A- L., & Palmer, A. H. Charts of the atmosphere for aeronauts and
aviators. New York. 191 1.
 APPENDIX. 149

CLIMATOLOGY.
Hann, J. Handbuch der Klimatologie. 3d ed. Stuttgart. 1908-11. 3 vols.
(The. second edition of the first volume has been translated, with some addi-
tions, by R. DeC. Ward. New York. 1903.)
Ward, R. DeC. Climate, considered especially in relation to man. 2d ed. New
York. 1918.
Weber, F. P., & Hinsdale, G. Climatology; health resorts; mineral springs.
Philadelphia. 1902. 2 vols. (Cohen, S. S., A system of physiologic thera-
peutics, vols. 3 and 4.)

CLIMATOGRAPHY.
The only comprehensive descriptive work on the climates of all parts of the
world, with tabulated statistics and references to all the important literature of
climatography is J. Hann's Handbuch der Klimatologie, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1908-11.

Vols. 2 and 3, dealing with climatography, have not been translated.

The leading collection of climatic charts for the whole world is J. G. Bar-
tholomew's Atlas of meteorology, Westminster, 1899 (Bartholomew's physical
atlas, vol. 3).
On the climate of the United States consult A. J. Henry, Climatology of the
United States, Washington, 1906 (U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. Q).
The chief collection of rainfall data for the world at large, exclusive of
Europe, is A. Supan's Verteilung des Niederschlags auf der festen Erdoberflache,
Gotha, 1898 (Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergiinzungsheft 124).
There is a voluminous literature on regional and local climatography.

LEADING METEOROLOGICAL JOURNALS.

American Meteorological Journal. Boston, etc. 1884-1896. ^
Beitrage zur Physik der freien Atmosphare. Strassburg. 1904-
Meteorologische Zeitschrift. Braunschweig, etc. 1884-
Monthly Weather Review. Washington. 1872- (Published by U. S. Weather
Bureau.)
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. London. 1871-

Note: There are few meteorological libraries in America, and meteorology

is not, as a rule, well represented in general libraries. By far the largest
meteorological library in this country is that of the Weather Bureau in Wash-
ington. Information concerning books and papers on meteorology and its
several branches can be obtained by addressing: Chief, U. S. Weather Bureau,
Washington, D. C. Recent meteorological publications are listed regularly in
the Monthly Weather Review.
 APPENDIX II.

INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL SYMBOLS.

(For further descriptions of these symbols and an account of meteorological
symbols in general see Monthly Weather Review, Wash., May, 1916, p. 265-274.)

ifmbol.