te pee PROCESSES Peer herd Manufacturing Engineering title ‘ing Engineering and Materials Processing ; 40 author: Alting, Leo. publisher ishnt0lasin : 0824791290 printisbni3 : 9780824791292 ebook isbni3: 9780585249346 language subject publication date Tee dae subjectPape i Manufacturing Engineering Processes Second Edition, Revised and Expanded Leo Alting “The Technical University of Denmark Lyngby, Denmark English Version Edited by Geoffrey Boothroyd University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts Wi Marcet Dekker, Inc. New York « Baset - Hone Kone page_iPage it Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alting, Leo [Grundlaeggende mekanisk teknologi. English] Manufacturing engineering processes / Leo Alting; English version edited by Geoffrey Boothroyd. -- 2nd ed., rev. and expanded. p. om, -- (Manufacturing engineering and materials processing: 40) Translation of: Grundlaeggende mekanisk teknologi. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8247-9129-0 (alk. paper) 1, Manufacturing processes. I. Boothroyd, G. (Geoffrey). Il. Title. MIL. Series. TS183.A4713 1994 670.42~de20 93-3384 cr This second edition contains figures and tables from Grundlaggende Mekanisk Teknologi by Leo Alting published by Akademisk Forlag © 1974 and new figures and tables prepared for Chapters 3, 8, 10, 11, and 12, unless otherwise stated. ‘The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address below. This book is printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 1994 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including, photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit 1098765432 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAPage iit Foreword In this book the subject of manufacturing is discussed within the framework of a fundamental classification of processes. This should help the reader understand where a particular process fits within the overall manufacturing scheme and what processes might be suitable for the manufacture of 4 particular component. The treatment of the subject matter is adequately descriptive for those unfamiliar with the various processes and yet is sufficiently analytical for an introductory academic course in manufacturing. One particularly attractive feature of the book is the presentation of summaries of the various manufacturing processes in data sheet form. There are many textbooks that attempt to deal with manufacturing processes at the introductory level: some are formed from a collection of individual chapters having no common theme or underlying structure: most are purely descriptive and of little interest to those wishing to introduce analyses of processes into their teaching; one or two are too analytical. Some textbooks concentrate only on the mechanies of processes or on the mechanical types of processes such as machining, metal forming, and so on, while neglecting the metallurgical ot chemical types of processes such as welding, casting, and powder metallurgy. None of these criticisms can be leveled at this book. The enhancements included in this second edition bring the textbook right up-to-date. The new chapters on nontraditional processes, manufacturing systems (including the Japanese philosophy), and the life cycle approach to man- page_iiiPage iv ufacturing are valuable additions. Professor Alking is a well-known world authority on the life cycle approach, emphasizing the recycling of products, a subject which is rapidly becoming a top pri manufacturing organizations throughout the world for GEOFFREY BOOTHROYD. page_ivPage v Preface to the Second Edition ‘This edition includes enhancements and extensions of several of the chapters in the First Edition as, well as three new chapters on topics of great importance to the manufacturing industry today. The major revisions are as follows: Chapter 3, on engineering materials, has been rewritten and sections on ceramics and composites have been added. In Chapter 8, on joining, the section on welding are formation and maintenance has been completely rewritten and expanded, and data sheets on the most important welding processes are given. In Chapter 10, on casting, data sheets on the most important casting processes have been added. In Chapter 11, on plastics, data sheets on the most important plastic processes have been added. Chapters 12 to 14 present new material. Chapter 12, on nontraditional manufacturing processes, discusses such important processes as electrical discharge machining, electron beam machining, laser processing, abrasive jet machining, ultrasonic machining, electrochemical machining, and layer manufacturing (rapid prototyping). Chapter 13, on manufacturing systems, includes fundamentals of manufacturing systems, advanced equipment, flexible manufacturing systems, CIM-computer integrated manufacturing, efficient manufacturing, production planning, scheduling and control, and the Japanese production philosophy. Chapter 14, on the life cycle approach in manufacturing, provides a basic understanding of the life cycle approach in manufacturing with emphasis on envi- page_vPage vi ronmental, occupational health, and resource consequences. This life eyele perspective is a necessity in developing a sustainable manufacturing industry. ‘This new edition thus provides an expanded and more comprehensive treatment of the manufacturing processes and places the processes in a broader context in relation to manufacturing systems and the life eycle perspective. The book is now a more complete text for academia as well as for practicing designers and manufacturing and industrial engineers, ‘The development of the new edition has mainly been carried out by Associate Professor J. R. Dissing, of the Technical University of Denmark, who uses the text for about 200 students every year. His experiences and needs have been important in the selection of the new material. Dr. K. Siggaard has contributed the chapter on manufacturing systems. I want to express my gratitude to Professor Dissing for his valuable and significant contributions and Dr. Siggaard for providing his knowledge on manufacturing systems. LEO ALTING page_viPage vit Preface to the First Edition Manufacturing engineering is an important discipline in any industrialized society. Por many years ‘manufacturing has not been granted the stature and significance in engineering curricula that is necessary in order to fulfill the demands of the industry and thus of society. This situation is partly due to the fact that enginecring methods and scientific approaches have not been fully introduced in the manufacturing field. This field has mainly been considered the purview of technicians and skilled craftsmen. At engineering colleges and universities, manufacturing has generally been taught in the traditional descriptive manner, which is not very challenging for either the student or the practicing engineet Rapid technical developments in the last decade, for example, in computer technology and its applications in design (computer-aided design, CAD) and manufacturing (computer-aided manufacturing, CAM), have stressed the need for a more systematic engineering approach in manufacturing oriented toward practical problem-solving. ‘This books represents the first fundamental step in the development of a more systematic approach in manufacturing engineering. The mission is accomplished through the following main features: The book gives a systematic and coherent picture of the manufacturing field. page.Page vii ‘The book allows a quick survey to be made of the possi methods available for the produetion of specific components -s and limitations of the processing The book creates a basis for systematic process development, systematic tool and die design, and systematic design of production machinery and production systems. Finally, the presentation is based on a scientific and systematic approach that stimulates the imagination and utilizes a general engincering background. fing goals it has been necessary to consider manufacturing engineering from a new point of view. Traditionally, specific processes are treated individually, each requiring a speci description, When the different processes are analyzed, it appears that they can all be described by a common process model built up from a few fundamental elements. A combination of these elements gives a process morphology for all known (and unknown) processes. This model is deseribed in Chapter 1. In Chapters 5 to 11 specific process areas are described and structured according to the model presented in Chapter 1. It should be mentioned that Chapter 10, on casting, and Chapter 11, on plastics technology, are not fully developed according to the new model but the reader is encouraged 10 do this as a valuable exercise. In order to give the reader the necessary background to understand the processes, Chapter 2 introduces material properties, Chapter 3, engineering materials, and Chapter 4, the fundamentals of metalworking (plasticity theory). As a reminder that the application of manufacturing processes is not determined solely from technical and economic viewpoints, Chapter 12 introduces the subject of industrial safety, A version of this material has been used as a textbook at The Technical University of Denmark for 7 years and the results are very encouraging. The duration of the course is one semester of about 42 class hhours with 80 hours of homework. Along with the course, problems are presented, some of which are discussed in special problem classes. The results of the course improve drastically when workshop training is given in parallel, It is my hope that many engineering colleges and universities will be able to use the book as their textbook for a fundamental introductory course in manufacturing engineering. For valuable editorial comments and suggested improvements Dr. G. Boothroyd is thanked. Professor Dell K. Allen, Brigham Young University, has also read the manuscript and stimulated several improvements for which I am very grateful LEO ALTING page_viiContents Foreword Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition A Morphological Process Model 2 1M Introduction 12 Basic Structure of Manufacturing Processes 13 Material Flow System 14 Examples of Manufacturing Processes 15 Energy Flow System 16 Information Flow System 17 ‘Summary Properties of Engineering Materials 24 Introduction 22 Material Properties 23 ‘Mechanical Properties of Materials page_ix Page ix 33 47 49 49 30.ier Mara pn Mean Fee tenet Moe ps ‘pt eC eetay Sau eng Slag Tamas Fe Ari pat ti Ma nt ott een) Cert ep rn Fasc Penne Matai Ppl ain eng a Nini me Saenger3 ‘Flexible Manutactasing Systm Ins Compute ngrted Maoufctrng ss iikrt Mating Predton Planing and Consol 7 “The Japanese Preston Pibsopy Concusions Cleaner Manatactaring Inrodction Closer Manatctring Seicton of Manaictaring Process and Matriale ‘Woste Reduction Pram Energy Sang Program Bates Working Consiions us Notes Industri Safety 1s 132 Incr Safety 1s References Prolene Answer to Selected Problems Appodie Unit Conversions Index ge x 485 a7 as 1 a5 a81 A Morphological Process Model 1.1 INTRODUCTION In industrial production, many different processes or manufacturing methods are used. To be able to select the technically and economically best manufacturing sequence for a given product, itis necessary to have a broad, fundamental knowledge of the possibilities and limitations ofthe various manufacturing pro- cesses, including the work materials used and the geometries, surface finishes, and tolerances required In this first chapter the individual processes are not considered in detail, but 1 coherent picture of the common structure on which all processes are based is introduced. By defining and considering the elements in this structure, a sys- tematic understanding of materials processing is obtained, which is based on a ‘general engineering background and allows an evaluation of the possibilities and limitations ofthe different processes. This approach has a broad, general appi- cation since it reflects invariant relations, methods, or principles, but inthe con- text of this book it will be related only to those processes characteristic of the ‘manufacturing industry.2 Chapter 1 1.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ‘The term process can in general be defined as a change in the properties of an object, including geometry, hardness, state, information content (form data), and so on. To produce any change in property, three essential agents must be available: (1) material, (2) energy, and (3) information. Depending on the mi purpose of the process, it is either a material process, an energy process, or an information process. In the following sections, only material processes will be considered, especially those producing geometrical changes or changes in ma- terial properties, or both (1). This does not, however, imply a limitation of the ‘general principles. 1.2.1 General Process Model ‘The general process model can be illustrated as shown in Fig, 1.1. The model shows that a material process can be described by the associated flow system: ‘material flow, energy flow, and information flow. Material flow can be divided into three main types, as shown in Fig. 1.2: 1. Through flow, corresponding to mass-conserving processes 2. Diverging flow, corresponding to mass-reducing processes 3. Converging flow, corresponding to assembly or joining processes ‘Mass-conserving processes (dM = 0) can be characterized as follows: + The mass of the initial work materials is equal to (or nearly equal to) the ‘mass of the final work material, which means, when referring to geomet- ‘ical changes, that the material is manipulated to change its shape ‘Mass-reducing processes (dM <0) can be characterized as follows: + The geometry of the final component can be circumscribed by the i saterial geometry, which means that a shape change is brought about by the removal of material. Material (0) (Matertal is Material (1) product + vaste) Energy (1) Energy (0) Process Information (1) Information (o) FIGURE 1.1 The general process model. Here i designates inputs and o outpus.‘A Morphological Process Model 3 @ © FIGURE 1.2 The three main types of material flow: (a) mass-conserving processes (GM = 0); (o) mass-reducing processes (dM < 0}; (c) assembly or mass-increasing pro- cesses (dM > 0). Here M means mass of material, f input, and o output. The numbers 1 and 2 refer to the number of material elements. ‘Assembly or joining processes (sometimes expressed as dM > 0) can be char- acterized as follows: ‘+ The final geometry is obtained by assembling or joining components 30 that the mass of the final geometry is approximately equal to the sum of the masses of the components which are manufactured by one or both of the previous methods. ‘These three types of material flow have been related to the work material but, depending on the process, auxiliary flow of material may be necessary, such a5, Iubricants, cooling fluids, and filler material. Most processes aiming at a change in material properties without a change in geometry are mass-conserving Processes. ‘The energy flow associated with the process can be characterized as energy supply, energy transmission to the workpiece, and removal or loss of energy. Information flow includes what might be termed shape and property infor- ‘mation, A certain geometry for a certain material can be characterized as the4 Chapter 1 shape information for the material. In a geometry-changing process, shape- ‘change information is impressed on the material so that the final shape infor- ‘mation is equal to the sum of the initial shape information and the shape-change information impressed by the process. The shape-change information is created by an interaction between a tool or die (with a certain contour content) and a pattern of movement for the work material and the tool or die. This means that 1 geometry-changing process is characterized by a material flow on which, by ‘means of an energy flow, the shape-change information corresponding to the information flow is impressed. Impressing a change in geometry on a material can be carried out in one or ‘more steps, which means th [= N+ Alp, + Alp +++ + Alyy an where I, isthe desired geometry, I; the initial shape information of the material, and Jpm the shape-change information for a single process. The number of pro- ‘cesses necessary is determined partly for technical and partly for economical Similarly, the property information flow, for example, hardness, strength, and so on, involves the sum of the properties of the initial material and the ‘changes in properties produced by the various processes. ‘The proper interaction between these three fundamental flow systems, yield- ing the desired component, is governed by the control information, which in- cludes knowledge of the forces. power, friction and lubrication, cutting data, and so on. This control information, which is partly analytical and partly em- Pirical, is discussed later. Based on the three flow systems described, a complete model of a manufac- turing process is shown in Fig. 1.3. In this context, the various kinds of mater flow, energy flow, and shape and property information flow associated with manufacturing processes will be considered, 1.2.2. Morphological Structure of the Processes ‘When analyzing manufacturing processes it appears that they can all be de- scribed by a general morphological mode! built up from a few fundamental el- cements related to the three flow systems. By combining these elements, a process morphology is obtained from which all manufacturing processes can be deduced. ‘The fundamental elements in this morphological model are: Material flow State of material Basie process ‘Type of flow (process type)‘A Morphological Process Model ‘control information Energy ‘Anpue Materiel flow Material (H,) | ee IN flow (So) ‘nergy output ore) FIGURE 1.3 Model of a material process. Energy flow ‘Toovdie Energy supply ‘Transfer medium Equipment Energy characteristics Type of energy Information flow Surface creation (principles) Pattern of movement for Material Tool/die Each of these elements can have different “values,” as shown in Fig. 1.4, By choosing a value from each column the fundamental basis for a material process ally impossible but, in general,6 Chapter 1 the model contains all the basic ingredients necessary to establish a process. ‘This morphological mode! gives a systematic and coherent picture ofthe process field, enabling a quick survey of the possibilities and limitations of the various processes; it can also be used to generate new process ideas. ‘To be able to use the model, a knowledge of the various single elements must be obtained; consequently, the three flow systems and their elements are dis- cussed next. 1.3. MATERIAL FLOW SYSTEM ‘As shown in Fig. 1.4, the material flow deals with the state of the material for which the geometry andior the properties are changed, the basic processes that ‘can be used to create the desired change in geometry andlor properties, and the type of flow system characterizing the process. 1.3.1. State of Material ‘The various states in which the material can be processed are, as shown in Fig. 1.4, solid, fluid, granular, and gaseous. When processing composite materials, different states can appear at the same time. The granular state can be consi ‘ered as a subdivision of the solid state, since solids can be divided into coherent solid or incoherent solid (granular) materials. Considering the technological differences in the processing sequences, the usual division into solid and gran- ular materials is maintained. The different states of the materials will, as shown later, result in quite different process structures. In addition to the state of the ‘material, its composition is also important. Here a division into homogeneous and heterogeneous materials may be helpful, partly to obtain new ideas for materials and partly to evaluate the forming properties in relation to the basic processes. Homogeneous materials include homogeneous mixtures and pure mate the form of chemical compounds and elements, Heterogeneous materials include mechanical mixtures. Materials can further be characterized by their thermal, chemical, mechan- ical, and manufacturing properties, depending on the purpose of the analysis to be conducted. Clearly, in a study of manufacturing processes, a broad know!- edge and understanding of materials and their properties is important. 1.3.2. Basle Processes Basic processes are defined as those processes that create changes in the geom- etry andlor the properties of the materials. The basic processes are characterized by the nature of their interaction with the material. A manufacturing processMate toe Inermaton we (CE) CE) CET CSE [Tea] [ence] [= ie SF none el rE Pate i i | [emer] (mar ] (tg) | fee] [Eos] [faeamen ieee i eet L I "(ee ] [eee] Coie] | oie] [mice] [eaeoe i I 1 {Lom iron] FS] 1 2, cn ty Sie om te a Fer met oe Saronic 1, ‘efomaionfwligrenion ‘om oot 1 tnanate movement fom FIGURE 1.4 The morphological structure of material processes. 12pOW seaD02g peoIBopOyOW y8 Chapter 1 Preparation, Shaping (property After treatment luecendary basic pro- | change) (Gecondary basic pro- cessee, prevprocerses) | “primary paste cennee, post-procesass! FIGURE 1.5 Division of « manufacturing process into three phases. normally consists of a series of basic processes, which constitute the structure ‘of the material flow. Any series of basic processes can be divided into three typ- ical phases: Phase 1, which consists of the basic processes that bring the material into a suitable state—geometry andior properties (heating, melting, sawing, ‘cropping, etc.)—for the primary change in geometry andior properties Phase 2, which consists of the basic processes that create the desired geom- ‘etry andior change in properties Phase 3, which consists of the basic processes that bring the component into the specified end state (solidification, cooling, deburring, etc.) ‘This division is illustrated in Fig, 1.5, where the basic processes associated wit phase 2 are called the primary basic processes (according to the primary goal). ‘The basic processes associated with phases 1 and 3 are called secondary basic processes. The structure shown in Fig. 1.5 is very useful when analyzing and designing manufacturing processes ‘The basic processes can be divided into three main categories, as shown in Table 1.1. Each of these categories is characterized by the nature of the in- teraction with the work material. The various single basic processes are de- seribed later. ‘When the main objective fora process has been established, relevant series of primary and secondary basic processes can be found. Here the actual type of ‘material has a significant influence, since the materials react differently when subjected to mechanical, thermal, or chemical actions. If only processes aiming ‘at geometrical changes are considered, the number of possible primary basic processes (phase 2 in Fig. 1.5) is reduced to those shown in Table 1.2.‘A Morphological Process Model ® TABLE 1.1 The Three Main Categories of Basic Processes Mechanical Chemical Elastic deformation Solution/issoution Plastic deformation Combustion Brite facture Hardening Duetile fracture Precipitation Flow Phase transformation Mixing Diffusion ec. Separation Placing “Transport et TABLE 1.2. Primary Basic Processes Used in Material Processes that Change Geometry Category of basic process Basic proceses Mechanical Plastic deformation Fracture (brite and ductile) Elastic deformation placing, ee) Thermal Evaporation Chemical Solution-dssoution (electrolytica and chemical) Depoiton (elecrolytial and chemical) Combustion termines the types and number of secondary basic processes required. A close coupling with the information flow exists here. 1.3.3 Flow Type (Type of Processes) ‘The material flow system can be graphically illustrated in various ways. Figure 1.6 shows one example. To give mote deteiled examples it would be necessary to distinguish between the three flow types as shown in Fig. 1 ‘The manufacturing processes can be characterized according to the material flow system as shown in Table 1.3. Examples of processes are listed in the last ‘column for metallic materials.0 Chapter 1 Phase 1 | 2 Phase 3 1 \ I 1 state be state jotete te 1 1 (Surface creation and ——_ meeriat (stated pattern of novenent) neray (2) = Intormation (3) auciLiary material 1 FIGURE 1.6 Schematic illustration of the material flow system. More detailed illus- trations can be drawn within the main flow types. ‘As mentioned in Section 1.2.1, itis possible to distinguish among three types of flow: mass-conserving processes, mass-reducing processes, and assembly or joining processes. Selection of flow or process type depends on the requirements, ‘of material, geometry, surface, tolerance, number, price, and other factors. 1.4 EXAMPLES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES In this section a short description of the process examples mentioned in Table 1.3 is given, partly to illustrate the foregoing discussion and partly to give @ background for the following sections. Assembly and joining processes are not ‘described here. The examples will be described in accordance with the structure (of Table 1.3, and the individual processes are discussed in more detail in later chapters (1,24). 1.4.1 Forging Forging can be characterized as: mass conserving, solid state of work material (metal), mechanical primary basic process—plastic deformation. A wide vari‘A Morphological Process Model u TABLE 1.3 Classification of Technological Material Processes Used in Shaping Materials* Process or Category of Primary Process flow type State of material basic process basic process examples ‘Mass-conserving Solid Mechanical Plastic Forging and rolling processes weow ks = 438 eS (P measur iN. din mi) Roxkwell€| Diamond 20° 150 = 10 + W0| HRC- 100 cone (e measired in miles Ht. 0 of 0.02 mm) zamdeqyProperties of Engineering Materials a ‘The hardness tests described above are based on one or another form of de- formation, but as mentioned earlier, hardness can also be defined as resistance to being scratched. Here the Mohs hardness scale, which is based on an arrange- ‘ment of 10 minerals in order of ascending hardness (tale 1, gypsum 2, cake 3, fluorite 4, apatite 5, orthoclase 6, quartz 7, topaz 8, corundum 9, and diamond 10) is used. According to this scale, a given material should be able to scratch any material with a lower Mohs number. For example, glass has a hardness of 5.5; hardened steel, 6.5. 2.3.3 Dynamic Tests In many applications, components are subjected to dynamic loads with a wide spectrum of characteristics, for example, very rapid losding, repeated varistions in loads and stresses, sometimes changing from tension to compression, and so ‘on, Most dynamic tests do not give results that can be used in design work, but they are very useful in the classification of materials relative to each other in terms of their behavior when subjected to certain loads. Inthe following sections some of the most commonly used dynamic tests are described briefly Impact Test (Charpy V-Notch) ‘The most commonly used impact tes is the Charpy V-notch test, wherein the energy required to break a standard specimen using an impuls load is measured. ‘The specimen is 10 mm square and 55 mm in length and centrally notched on one side with a 2-mm-deep, 45° included angle notch with a 0.25-mm bottom radius. The specimen is arranged as a simply supported beam with 40 mm be- tween the supporting points, and a pendulum (variable height and mass) strikes it on the side opposite the notch. From the mass of the pendulum and its height before and afier the impact, the energy absorbed can be calculated. The amount of energy absorbed is a measure ofthe brittleness of the material. A brittle fracture is characterized by a small amount of absorbed energy. Since the tendency to fracture changes with temperature, the impact testis often used to determine the ransition temperature, below which the material exhibits brittle behavior (notch brittle) and above which it exhibits ductile behavior. If a component is to be used at low temperatures under dynamic loadings, to avoid failure itis important to know the transition temperature of the proposed material. Fatigue Test It is « known phenomenon that metals, in general, cannot withstand cyclic variation of stress at high stress levels for a long time. The type of failure occurring under these circumstances is called farigue failure. The stress situ tion can be characterized by R, the amplitude of the stress variations, and the mean stress M. If Mf is zero, itis found that the value of R that will cause62 Chapter 2 if repeatedly applied is much smaller than the stress to cause fs single pul From fatigue tests, the greatest stress (R, M) at which failure does not take place after a certain number (10-108) of cycles of loading is determined and defined as the fatigue strength of the material. It is found that a limiting stress level exists below which the material will not fal regardless of the number of cycles, This limiting stress is called the endurance limit. The fatigue strength and the endurance limit vary over a wide range for different materials. ‘The usual form of a fatigue test is where a cylindrical specimen gripped at ‘one end is simultaneously rotated about its axis and loaded as a cantilever beam. ‘The specimen is thereby subjected to alternating bending stresses, that is, a si- ‘usoidal variation of stress with (depending on the axial loads) different mean stresses. Different types of test equipment have been developed, but these will not be described here. In all cases testing is carried out in accordance with the national standards, which can also help the selection of testing equipment. Dynamic Tensile and Compression Tests In the tensile and compression tests described earlier, the loading rate is so slow that the stress-strain diagram represents, in reality, a continuous series of equilibrium states. Ifthe loading rate is increased, the shape of the stress-strain CUFVE (Opam ~ €) Will change. The amount of change depends on the materi, the londing rate (stress rate or strain rate), and the temperature. In general, the Grom ~ € Curve is raised as the loading rate is increased, which means that a higher stress is necessary 10 give the same strain (see Fig. 2.5). Changing the temperature has the opposite effect. Many plastic materials are particularly sen- sitive to the loading rate. As mentioned previously, most metals are not very sensitive to loading rate at room temperature, but at higher temperatures the sen- sitivity can become significant. 2.3.4 Creep Test Ifa material is subjected to a constant load and the load is applied for a long Period of time, the material will deform permanently with time (i... itereeps). All metals creep under load at sufficiently high temperatures. At temperatures below 40% of the absolute melting point, ereep is normally not a problem; con sequently, creep is generally of concem with materials subjected to elevated temperatures and is a long-term effect. In the creep of a tensile test specimen under constant stress, three different stages exist (se Fig. 2.6). In the primary state the strain increases rapidly to- ward a minimum constant rate, in the secondary stage the strain continues at 8 ‘constant rate, and in the tertiary stage the strain rate increases until fracture. For plastic materials, the creep is often a problem at room temperature or at slightly elevated temperatures. For metals creep usually becomes a problem atProperties of Engineering Materials, 63 Fracture a Pd Primary Secondary “creep Tertiary creep Temperature T, 94 <0,<0, Original strain FIGURE 2.6 ‘Typical creep curves fora tensile test illustrating the thee stages in creep. relatively high service temperatures. Many high-temperature, creep-resistantal- loys have been developed for uses in steam and gas turbines, high-temperature Pressure vessels, power plants in general, and s0 on. More detailed descriptions of the material properties and their determination (testing methods) can be found in the literature and in the appropriate standards.3 Engineering Materials 3.1 INTRODUCTION Inthe Inst few decades, very rapid development of engineering materials has taken place, resulting in a huge number of commercially available materials with a wide spectrum of properties. Therefore, only a general simplified intro- duction to engineering materials is given in this chapter. The structure of ma- terials, the dependence of the properties on the structure, and s0 on, are not described in detail but are mentioned where necessary for a basic understanding (5.6.71. ‘As mentioned in Chapter 2, the engineer's choice of material is based not ‘only on the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties but also on the tech- nological properties, which describe the suitability of a material for a particular ‘manufacturing process (8-12). In this chapter a short discussion of th portant material properties in man- ‘groups. The effects of the processes on the materials to which they are applied ‘are mentioned only briefly, as a more detailed treatment requires a greater back- ground knowledge of processes and materials.66 Chapter 3 3.2 IMPORTANT MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN MANUFACTURING ‘As mentioned in Chapter 2, it is very difficult to state exactly which properties ‘or, more correctly, which combination of properties a material intended for a given process must possess. But itis often possible to idemtify certain domin ing properties or characteristics which any material must have for it to be pro- ‘cessed by a given process or process group. To evaluate these technological properties, many specialized test methods have been developed which describe in one way or another the suitability of a material for the particular process or ‘group of processes, The testing methods can normally be applied only over a limited range, and the result should be judged with caution. A description of these testing methods can be found in the literature (12). 3.2.1 Forming from the Liquid Material State Forming from the liquid state of a material includes the following phases (Chap- ter 1): Phase 4: melting Phase 2: forming (creation of shape) Phase 3: solidification (stabilization of shape) In practice, phases 2 and 3 can be more or less integrated. Forming from the liquid state requires primarily that the material can be ‘melted, and that furnace equipment to do this is available. This depends on the level of the range of melting points or temperatures and the requirements of the furnace equipment in producing a complete melt. These requirements depend ‘nthe chemical composition of the material, its affinity to the surroundings, its and other factors. Ifthe melt can be produced, the next question lity of a suitable mold or die material for an appropriate ‘The melting temperatures for some common pure metals are listed in Table 3.18. The alloyed metals, which have the greatest industrial importance, do not hhave a melting point but, rather, a melting-temperature range defined by the solidus temperature, below which the material is solid, and the liquidus tem- ‘perature, above which the material is liquid. Between the solidus and liquidus temperatures, a mixture of liquid and solid material exists. The melting- temperature range plays an important role in the solidification process, and is discussed later. The melting-temperature ranges for some common industrial al- loys are given in Table 3.1b, During solidification, the change in volume associated with the transition from the liquid to the solid state plays a very important role, as this determines how much molten metal it is necessary to supply during solidification. All met-Engineering Materials or TABLE 3.1 Examples of Mel Iron 327 Copper 22 ‘Aluewinurn 660 650 Nickel 14S Chromium 1850 Zine a9 . Alloys co) Stainless steel (18% Cx, 9% Ni) 1400-1420 Brass (35% Zn, 65% Cu) 905-830 Bronze (90% Cu, 10% Sn) 4020-1040 ‘Aluminum-bronze 1050-1060 ‘Aluminum (19% ‘Source: From Ref 12. 0.2% Cy) (643-657 als, except bismuth, antimony, and silicon, contract during solidification, which ‘means that material will be missing in the central region of the component, as solidification starts at the outside of the component. Compensation for this is established by placing risers (reservoirs of molten metal) on the component. ‘These risers must be arranged so that they are the last to solidify (see Chap- ter 10). The volume of solidification contraction is, for example, forcast iron about 2%, for cast steel about 3%, and for aluminum alloys about 3.5-8.5%. The ‘magnitude of the solidification contraction has a primary influence on the re- quired size of the risers, ‘After solidification, the component is cooled down to room temperature, re- sulting in a uniform te contraction determined by the difference be- tween the melting temperature and the room temperature multiplied by the ‘average thermal expansion. This solid-state contraction or shrinkage must be ‘compensated for by having a slightly longer pattern or mold so that the cooled ‘component will have the right dimensions (see Chapter 10) ‘As mentioned, the magnitude of the melting-temperature range plays an im- ‘portant role in the solidification of the material. Increasing solidification range increases the risks of internal porosity, hot tearing, and segregations. Internal porosity is created when partly solidified material stops adequate feeding of ‘molten material from the risers. Hot tears occur due to high temperatures in the ‘mold, where contraction is physically prevented resulting in large tensile strains. Segregation, nonuniform tion of the material constituents, is generally produced by a large freezing range, where the composition of the remaining molten material gradually changes as the temperature reduces.68 Chapter 3 ‘Other properties of importance in forming from the liquid state include the specific heat, thermal conductivity, and viscosity of the material. ‘To minimize some of the problems described, many different casting alloys hhave been developed. It should also be mentioned that continuous research and development into casting processes is being carried out to increase the range of applicable materials. 3.2.2 Forming from the Solid Material State Forming from the solid material state can be carried out by mass-conserving processes, mass-reducing processes, or joining processes, Mass-Conserving Processes In the forming of metals, the primary basic process is mechanical plastic de- formation (see Chapter 1). The suitability of a material to undergo plastic de- formation is determined primarily by its ductility (measured by the reduction of ‘area in the tensile test). The amount of plastic deformation necessary to produce the desired component depends on the chosen surface creation principle and the intended increase in shape information. In other words, the ductility of a given ‘material decides the surface creation principle and the information increase ob- tainable without fracture. Stress-sirain curves are the most important information source when evalu- ating the suitability of a material to undergo plastic deformation. The strain at instability, the percent elongation, and the reduction of area are the most im- portant characteristics, For most forming processes, there is a good correlation between the reduction of area and the ‘*formability” ofthe material, The stress— sirain curves also reveal the stresses necessary to produce the desired deforma- tion. The stresses and strains and the resulting forces, work, and energy are important for tool or die design and for the choice of process machinery. ‘As mentioned previously, the conditions under which a given process is car- ried out can influence “formability” to a great extent. The important parame- ters are state of stress, strain rate, and temperature. Concerning the state of stress, it can be stated that forming undet compressive stresses is generally eas- fracture are suppressed. Furthermore, a super-imposed hydrostatic pressure in- creases formability (ductility) and is utilized in certain processes. In most pro- ‘cesses the state of stress varies throughout the deformation zone; therefore, it ‘can sometimes be difficult to identify the limiting state of stress. These prob- lems are discussed further in Chapters 4 and 6. ‘As seen in Fig. 2.5, the strain rate also influences the ductility of a metal. Increased strain rate leads to decreased ductility and an increase in the stresses required to produce a certain deformation. The most commonly utilized indus-Engineering Materials 0 {rial processes are carried out at room temperature; consequently, the strain rate does not cteate problems. However, for those processes that are carried out at ‘elevated temperatures, the effects of strain rate must be taken into consideration (Gee Fig. 2.5). High temperatures can result in a material with a constant flow stress (yield stress) which is independent of the strain, In this state the material {s able to undergo very large deformations, as the temperature is above the re- ‘rystalization temperature, where new strain-fee grains are produced continu ‘ously and almost instantly. These ‘*hot working processes" do not create serious problems in the deformation phase when the strain rate is controlled. ‘The discussion above is valid for most metals, with some exceptions: for ex- ‘ample, cartridge brass, which exhibits a tendency to brittleness at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature. Mass-Reducing Processes ‘The basic processes of the mass-reducing type are mechanical, fracture (duc- tile or brittle); chemical, dissolution and combustion; or thermal, melting. Industrially, mass-reducing processes based on fracture are the most impor- tant, as they include all the cutting processes. The suitability of a material for cutting processes is often called its machinability. Machinabiliry, which depends ‘on many different material properties, is a measure of how well the interaction between the cutting tool and the material takes place. The parameters covered by ‘4 machinability index can be tool wear, surface quality, cutting forces, or chip shape. Tool wear is often considered to be the main criterion, and standardized testing procedures have been developed (see Chapter 7). Machinability depends primarily on: 1, ‘The mechanical properties of a material (ductility and hardness) 2. Its chemical composition 3. Its heat treatment (structure) Concerning mechanical properties, it can be stated thet low ductility, low strain hardening, and low hardness give good machinability. Corresponding! this means that materials with high ductility and high strain hardening are di ficult to machine. For many materials (e.g., cast iron) hardness is a reasonably 00d indication of the ease with which the material can be machined. ‘The composition of a material has @ great influence on its machinability. By jing small amounts of lead, manganese, sulfur, selenium, or tellurium, ma- can be increased considerably without changing the mechanical Properties. ‘As to the structure of a material, it must be as homogeneous as possible with- ‘out abrasive particles and hard inclusions, as these increase tool wear and result in poor surfaces.70 Chapter 3 For those mass-conserving processes that use chemical basic processes. the ‘mechanical properties play a minor or no role at all, with the chemical and elec- trochemical properties playing « major role. This means that a hardened mate- rial is a5 easy to process as a nonhardened material. For example, in the electrochemical machining process, the material removal rate is determined solely by Faraday’s laws. ‘Combustion, which is utilized in torch cutting, for example, requires that i is. possible to burn the material using a supply of oxygen. Itis possible to cut steel and cast iron (<2.5% C); however, stainless steel cannot be cut by this process. ‘The processes based on the thermal basic process of melting (cutting and clectrodischarge machining, for example) require thatthe material can be melted by an appropriate energy source. After melting, the material must be removed from the machining zone. These processes are largely influenced by the thermal properties of the material (ie., its thermal conductivity, heat capacity, spe heat, ete.). Low thermal conductivity as well as low heat capacity decreases the energy requirements and minimizes the heat-affected zone. Joining Processes ‘Only the main type of joining process, fusion welding, is discussed here. The weldability of a material is, like the other technological properties, difficult 10 define. Many factors, such’as those mentioned under forming from the liquid material state, influence the welding properties of a material. Chemical com- position and the constituents affinity to the surroundings have a great influence, ‘as contaminations, gas absorptions, structure, and so on, depend on these fac- ‘ors. In addition, cooling conditions influence the resulting internal stresses and the final hardness of the material. 3.2.3 Forming from the Granular Material State is rather difficult to define the material properties that determine the suitability of the granular material for compaction and sintering. All materials that can be produced in the granular state can be compacted and sintered but, depending on the particular material, it may be dificult to develop ible compaction and sintering processes. In general, the functional require- ‘ments, not the process itself, dictate the material to be used. 3.3. EFFECT OF THE PROCESSES ON ‘THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES The original properties of the material, the actual basic process, and the con- ditions under which it is carried out determine the final complex of material properties. By varying the governing parameters of the process, itis possible to vary the final properties. sometimes within rather wide limitsEngineering Materials a Depending on the process and the material, the properties that are affected will fll within one or more of the following groups: physical properties (cor- rosion resistance, metallurgical changes); mechanical properties (strength, hard- ress, ductility); and technological properties (*formability.” ““machinability “weldability"". It must be remembered that some of the changes that take place ‘are beneficial and some detrimental. In the actual situation, normally only a few of the affected properties are important for the performance of the desired functions. During processing, various defects (micro- or macrofractures, porosities, ‘nonuniform distribution of properties, etc.) are often introduced into the mate- rial and may influence the performance of the component drastically. The type and character of these defects must be carefully analyzed. In forming from the liquid material state, the final material properties depend mainly on the composition (including solidification temperature range). the thermal and mechanical properties of the molding or die material, and the solidification conditions (direction, rate, etc.). In forming from the solid ma- terial state by plastic deformation, the amount of deformation, the temperature, and the rate of deformation primarily determine the final properties. Cold de- formation increases the strength and decreases the ductility ofthe material. Hot deformation gives poor surface quality and reasonably good mechanical prop- erties. Solid-state forming by machining (mass-reducing processes) primarily influences the surface properties (roughness, hardness, internal stresses, etc). ‘The examples mentioned only serve to illustrate the complexity of the eval- uation ofthe final material properties of a component. These problems are ‘cussed in more detail in some of the later chapters. 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ‘As mentioned previously, it is very difficult to provide broad information re- ‘garding all the important engineering materials in this context. Consequently, ‘only a general survey will be given to allow a rough evaluation ofthe suitability ‘of the different material groups for various processes. From this survey and the process descriptions in the later chapters, a reasonable background forthe eval- uation of the final properties of the materials will be available. Engineering materials can be divided into groups showing important relation- ships. In this context the traditional classification shown in Fig. 3.1 will be followed. ‘The main groups are metallic materials, nonmetallic materials, and compos- ite materials, Composite materials are built up from two or more materials, 50 that new and special properties are obtained. Metalic materials are subdi- vided into ferrous and nonferrous metals. The nonmetallic materials are sub- divided into polymers, ceramics, and glasses, but the group covers many othern MATERIALS cuasses Sy 34 cenawzes be Bs g TiasToweRs7 nunnens 2 PiASTiCS : z TORFERROUS METALS METALLIC MATERIALS FERROUS METALS FIGURE 3.1 Classification of some ofthe engineering materials.Engineering Materials B ‘materials (wood, concrete, bricks, etc.) that are not important for the present discussion. 3.5 METALLIC MATERIALS 3.5.1 Bonding and Structure Metals are characterized by the metallic bonding, where the metal ions are held together by an “electron cloud.” This type of bonding has a high mobility ofthe free (valence) electrons and accounts in general for the high strength level, the ductility (ability to be deformed without fracture), and the relatively high melt- ing temperature of metals. These general tendencies can be influenced by many factors; consequently, exceptions are common. Metals have a crystalline structure with predominantly body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, or close-packed hexagonal lattice structures. Crystalline ‘materials normally consist of thousands of small individual crystals or grains, depending on the production method. During solidification, many individual lattices begin to form at various points within the melt. As solidification pro- ceeds these crystals or grains, which have random orientation, grow, meet, and form the grain boundaries (Fig. 3.2), where a high degree of disorder in the atomic arrangement exists [1.5.6]. ‘The grain boundaries have a dominating influence on the properties of the ‘metal. The number and size ofthe grains are functions of the rate of nucleation of grains and the rate of grain growth. Once a metal has solidified, the number and size of the grains can be changed by deformation or heat treatment, which will allow its mechanical properties to be varied within rather wide limits. The following equation illustrates, for iron, the influence of the grain size on the yield stress: 3 Gr) GRAIN BOUNDARTES a se! o FIGURE 3.2 The formation of grain boundaries {1}“ Chapter 3 where op is the yield stress, k and ky are material constants, and D is the av- ‘erage grain size. This means that a small grain size gives a high yield stress. Depending on the composition of the metal and the solidification conditions, ifferent characteristic grain structures or patterns will be formed. The grain structure, which also has a significant influence on the properties of the metal, can be changed by deformation and heat treatment. ‘The individual grains or crystals have various faults or defects in their lattice structure; these faults can influence the material properties strongly. The size ‘and number of defects are dependent on the history of the material, including cooling conditions after solidification and deformation, as, for example, in roll- ing, forging, or extrusion. ‘In normal polycrystalline materials the grain boundaries can also be consi cred as defects inthe lattice structure. The type, size, number, and distr of all the defects largely determine the mechanical properties of the mi ‘Also, as mentioned, heat treatment and deformation can influence the defects and thus the properties. ‘The most important properties affected by the defects are yield stress, duc- lity, ultimate stress, hardness, and electrical conductivity. Properties such as ‘melting point, heat capacity, thermal expansion, and elastic constants are not influenced by the defects 3.5.2 Strength-Increasing Mechanisms ‘The mechanical properties of metals are generally the most important for the engineer; consequently, great effort has been directed toward increasing the strength of metals leading to more favorable siengih/ weight ratios. The strength ‘of metallic materials can, in general, be increased by: 1. Phase transformations in the solid state, that is, hardening from: 4. Martensitic (dffusionless) transformations . Precipitation and solution (diffusion) 2. Strain hardening 3. Dispersion hardening (see Section 3.11.1) Hardening by Solid-State Phase Transformations ‘The main purpose of a manufacturing process is to produce a component a desired geometry and desired properties. During processing the material prop erties may be changed in a beneficial way, but very often itis necessary crease the strength properties ofthe component to obtain the intended functional performance. Most metallic materials allow phase transformations in the solid state after the shaping process without changing the general geometry, which makes it possible to control the structure and thus the properties within rather wideEngineering Materials 5 Phase transformations are usually achieved in several stages: (1) heating to and holding at an elevated temperature for such time that phase equilibrium is closely approached, (2) cooling (i.e., controlled lowering of the temperature), phases are no longer in equilibrium, causing a phase change. ‘The most desirable structures are normally obtained by interrupting progress toward a new equilibrium structure before it is reached. Practical technical ‘operations, which are associated with such phase transformations, are called heat treatment Depending on the type of phase transformation, two main categories can be identified: (1) diffusionless or martensitic transformations and (2) diffusion transformations. Many different diffusion-based transformations exist, but only 1 few will be discussed. Martensitic transformations are closely associated with stel, as the most im- portant applications are with steels; however, martensitic transformation can also occur in other metallic materials. For stel the temperature in the first stage is kept at 800—900°C until the face-centered cubic equilibrium structure (aus- ‘enite) has been obtained. By quenching, a body-centered tetragonal structure is. formed due to the fact that the body-centered cubic structure (of ferrites) be- ‘comes supersaturated with carbon atoms; the result is a deformed and stressed ‘tetragonal structure called martensite. The martensitic structure is hard and brit- tle; the degrees of hardness and brittleness depend on the carbon content. For ‘example, for a steel with 0.2%C the martensitic hardness is about HY = 400, while the original hardness is HV ~ 100; for steel with 0.4%C the figures are HY = 650 against HV = 130; for steel with 0.6%C the figures are HV ~ 830 ‘against HV ~ 160. This shows thatthe hardenability increases strongly with the ‘carbon content, owing to the fact that itis the carbon which creates the tetrag- ‘onal structure. For most applications, martensite is too hard and brittle; consequently, either slower cooling conditions giving less hard and less brittle structures must be chosen, or a tempering of the martensite (heating to 200-500°C, allowing fusion to create some stress relieving) must be carried out. Various alloying el- cements can modify the transformations without changing the fundamental characteristics of the material. More detailed descriptions of the diffusionless solid-state transformations cean be found in the literature. Precipitation and age hardening are strength-increasing methods based on decreasing the te solubility of one element in another as the tempera- ture is decreased. This means that the metal is heated at first to bring all the elements into solid solution and then cooled rapidly to retain the elevated tem- perature structure. From this supersaturated structure, the element for which the solubility has been exceeded precipitates out of the matrix. If this precipi- tation takes place at room temperature, it is called aging or age hardening; if it6 Chapter 3 takes place at an elevated temperature, it i called artificial aging or precipita- tion hardening. i should be mentioned that after quenching, alloys are soft, in general, and ‘many alloys are even softer after quenching than in the annealed state, so that forming, machining, and so on, can easily be carried out before precipitation, ‘which can be suppressed by holding the material at low temperatures, ‘This can be illustrated by most aluminum rivets used in aircraft. After quench- ing, the rivets are kept in a refrigerator, which means that they are soft and can be driven easily. They attain full strength and hardness at room temperature. ‘The precipitated atoms coalesce into particles which act as obstacles toward. deformation. As these particles grow in size, the hardness of the material is in- creased. If a certain critical particle size is exceeded, hardness starts to de- ‘crease; this is known as overaging. The precipitated particles are hard and britle and lie in a soft matrix. ‘An important example is that of aluminum with 4% copper (Duralumin). At 550°C, 5.7% Cu is soluble in aluminum; at 20°C, only 0.5% Cu is soluble. The solution treatment is carried out at about 490°C. Aging (or precipitation) at oom temperature takes about 4 days, but higher strength can be obtained by artificial aging at about 200°C. For some alloys, deformation can inerease the rate of precipitation. Many casting alloys will, after some time, undergo age hardening directly from the ‘ast state. Ordinary solution treatment, quenching, and artificial aging normally increase strength and hardness further. ‘As mentioned previously, metals are soft after quenching. In this state the atoms of the alloying elements are uniformly distributed in the matrix. If the alloying elements differ substantially in atomic size (substitutional atoms oF i terstitial atoms) from those of the parent matrix, the resulting lattice is di torted, giving higher strength and hardness. This mechanism, which occurs in single-phase solid solutions, is called solution hardening. Figure 3.3 shows the solution hardening of copper alloyed with different el- ements. The hardening effect is measured by the yield stress at 1% strain, Oy. For many applications only the surface of a component needs to have high strength and hardness; consequently, many different methods have been devel- ‘oped to carry out surface hardening. These may be based on martensitic trans- formations or solution hardening, For steel, the carbon content determines the hardness obtainable. In low- ‘carbon steels, carbon can be added to the surface by carbonizing from solid ce bbonaceous compounds or from gaseous atmospheres having an excess of CO at elevated temperatures. The component is then quenched, resulting in consider- able hardness depending on the carbon content. Steels containing elements that ‘will form nitrides (which are very hard) can be heated to approximately 500°CGi-2n: BRASS Cu-Sn: BRONZE yg DEFORMATION=(0 Jan?) o 0 Alloying element (atomic %) FIGURE 3.3. Solution hardening of copper with various alloying elements [5]. in an ammonia gas, allowing nitrides to be formed. This process is called ni- triding and gives a harder surface than can be obtained with other methods. In the carbonitriding process, both carbon and nitrogen are added to the surface but at lower temperatures than those used for carburizing. More detailed descriptions of these and other methods can be found in the literature. Strain Hardening ‘As described in Chapter 2 where the stress-strain curve was discussed, strain hardening occurs in metals when they are cold-worked. Figure 3.4 shows in ge ral how the yield stress, ultimate stress, and percent elongation change Wi increasing cold working, which could be brought about, for example, by forging between two parallel plates. ‘After deformation, the grains become elongated in certain directions and ‘contracted in others, which results in anisotropy, that is, the material has di ferent properties in different directions. By heat treatment—recrystallization— itis possible to change the distorted grains into new stress-free grains (see Fig, 3.5), a procedure eventually accompanied by a growth in grain size. Small de- formations, high temperatures, or long periods at elevated temperature favor grain growth,. Chapter 3 Strength/strain cola work i) FIGURE 3.4 The change of yield stress (04), ultimate stress (0, by increasing amounts of cold working. ‘The recrystallization temperature can be estimated as roughly 0.4 times the melting temperature on the absolute scale (Kelvin). Table 3.2 gives approximately the lowest possible recrystalization temperatures for different alloys. ‘The term cold working refers to deformations carried out at temperatures be- low the recrystalization temperature, and the term hot working refers to defor- mations carried out at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature. Some metals reerystallize at room temperature (lead, tin, and zinc), which ‘means that these metals are normally hot-worked. Strain hardening induced only in the surface layers of the component will often increase its fatigue strength as well as its hardness Strength/ hardness. Ductility ‘Temperature FIGURE 3.5. The change in properties by recrystllization (1)Engineering Materials ~ TABLE 8.2 Lowest Possible Recrysalization Temperature, Melting Point, and Upper Limit for Hot Working for Four Metals Lowest recrystallization Upper limit temperature Melting point for hot working, Metal co, co 3) Mild steel 600 1520 150 Copper 150 1083 1000 Bass (60/40) 300 390 850 ‘Aluminum 100 660 600 3.6 FERROUS METALS In a description of metals, different primary characteristics can be chosen as structuring parameters. In this context, composition and application areas will be chosen as principal characteristics, as they represent useful and practical ‘guides for the engineer engaged in material selection. It must be emphasized that, because of limited space, the description here will consist only of the more general guidelines. In practical situations, more detailed literature and material suppliers’ cata- logs must be studied carefully when considering functional and manufacturing requirements. In the following, only constructional steels, tool steels, and cast iron will be discussed 3.6.1 Composition and Alloying Possibilities With ferrous materials the base matrix is iron (Fe, the parent metal) having. varying amounts of carbon (C). Steels are generally alloys of Fe and C with less than 2%6C; cast irons contain 2-4%C. Depending on the cooling conditions ‘and additional alloying elements, the carbon may be present mainly in the com- bined form of iron carbide, Fe;C, called cementite, as for example in steel, or in the form of graphite, as in gray cast iron, Cementite itself is very hard and brittle Pure carbon steels (alloys of Fe and C) represent only a very small fraction of the steels used today. Most steels are alloyed with a variety of elements to obtain: Greater strength Better hardenability Improved high- and low-temperature properties Better corrosion resistance Better technological (manufacturing) properties8 Chapter 3 ‘The alloying elements in steels can generally be used in two different ways, depending on the purpose: 1. In small amounts, less than 5%, to increase strength and hardenability 2. Inlarger amounts, in the range 530%, to produce special properties: for ‘example, high corrosion resistance or high-temperature properties In Table 3.3 a survey is given of the effects of some of the important alloying ‘elements in stect (4]. ‘Steels can, depending on the amount of alloying elements, be roughly clas- sified into four groups: 1. Carbon steels with less than 1-2% alloying elements (microalloyed) ‘This group contains the widely used plain carbon steels. 2. Low-alloy steels with more than 1-2% and less than 5% alloying ele- ments, but having the same base matrix as carbon steels. 3. High-alloy steels with more than 5% alloying elements (S-30%). This ‘Rroup contains the stainless steels and the high-temperature steels. TABLE 3.3. Main Effects of Some Important Alloying Elements in Stee! Alloying element __ Amount (%) Main effect Manganese (0.25-0.40 Prevent britleness when combined with sulfur >I Increase hardensbility Sulfur 0.08-0.15 Increase machinability Nickel 2s Increase ductility 12-20 Increase/give corrosion resistance Chromium 05-2 Increase hardenability 4-18 Increaseigive corrosion resistance Molybdenum 02-5 Increase hardenability and form stable carbides (inhibits grain growth) Vanadium ous Form stable carbides, give small gran size, increase strength at retained ductility Boron 0.001-0.003 Increase hardenabilty considerably ‘Tungsten Increase/give hardness at high temperature Silicon 0.2.0.7 Increase strength 2 Increase hardness and strength (spring steels) >2 Improve magnetic properties Copper 0.1-0.6 Increase corrosion resistance Aluminum ‘Small __Increase hardensbilty by nitriding Reprinted with permission of Macmillan Publishing Co, nc, 8 adapted from Materials and Processes in Mansfacturing, 3 ed, by B.Pual DeGarine. Copyright © by E. Paul DeGarmo,Engineering Materials a 4, Alloys with such large amounts of alloying elements that the parent ‘metal is no longer iron. This group contains the special alloys, such as Nichrome and Superalloys. ‘The development ofthe many available steels has been carried out to obtain their functional and applicational properties as well as their manufacturing proper- ‘This is reflected in the following description, which refers to both appli- cations and manufacturing methods. It-can generally be stated that ifthe engineer requires only “‘common”” me- chanical strength, with no special corrosion resistance and s0 on, the carbon steels normally represent the best and cheapest solution. With the slightly more expensive low-alloy steels, better hardenability and better strength at higher temperatures are obtained. The high-alloy steels—which are rather expensive— are used only where their special properties (stainlessness, heat resistabilty, tc.) can be utilized. The same is true for the special materials in group 4 above. ‘The following section presents a classification of steels by applications; later, cast iron is described. 3.6.2 Classification of Steels by Applications ‘The first rough classification of steels results in two main groups: constructional steels (<0.9%C) and tool steels (0.5-2%C). Constructional Steels Constructional steels may be subdivided into many groups, of which only a few will be mentioned below. It shouldbe remembered that much help and guid- ance can be found in the various standards (ANSI, AISI, SAE, etc.) and hand- books (e.g., ASM Metals Handboot). In the following, the numbers in parentheses refer to the previous four-group steel-alloy classification. General structural steels (1 and 2) are mainly used for bridges, buildings, ‘machine structures, vessels, trucks, trains, moderately loaded machine components, and s0 on. These steels are cheap, weldable, and have aver- age good strength and manufacturing properties. Some of the most impor- tant groups are the plain low-carbon steels (<0.35%C) and the low-alloy igh-strength structural steels, which are playing an increasing role in industry. General engineering steels suitable for machining (1 and 2), sometimes called constructional steels, are used for a large variety of machine com- Ponents that requie high strength and medium to high hardness. Among, the most important are the plain medium-carbon steels (0.35-0.55%C),82 Chapter 3 the low-alloy engineering steels (>0.3%C), the quenched and tempered steels, carburizing and nitriding steels, and so on. Corrosion-resistant (or stainless) steels (3) are generally used where corro- sive media (ether internal or external) are encountered. In many apy tions high strength is also required. Most of the corrosion-rsistant steels are difficult to machine. For applications in the chemical and dairy indus- tries the good clean appearance is also important. These steels normally contain large amounts of Cr and Ni Heat-resistant steels (1, 2, 3, and 4) are especially used where high creep resistance at elevated temperatures, often combined with good strength characteristics and corrosion resistance, is required. Free-machining steels (1 and 2) are used where the machining properties play ‘an important role. These steels are mostly plain low-carbon and medium- carbon steels modified either with small amounts of sulfur (0.10.34) and manganese (0.5-1.5%) or with sulfur (0.25-0.35%) and lead (0.15- 0.35%) with small amounts of tellurium, selenium, or bismuth. Plain carbon and low-allay steels (I and 2) are sometimes more of less re- fined or modified for fabrication of special sheets, tubes, wires, and so on Examples are steels for electrical machinery (silicon steels with a low carbon content and 2-4% Si), deep drawing steels (~0.1%C), wire (~0.19%C) for nails, screws, and so on. Many other alloys developed for special applications could be mentioned (steel for springs, valves, etc.), but for these the literature and the standards must be studied. ‘The preceding examples illustrate the large variety of steels available and em- phasize that material selection must be carried out carefully, giving due con- sideration to the functional requirements and the manufacturing possibilities. Tool Steels ‘The increasing requirements for higher productivity and the wider use of metal-forming processes, which often impose severe mechanical and thermal Toads on tooling, have contributed to the rapid development of tool materials. ‘Tool steels are among the most important of all the steels produced, and a ‘wide variety is available. It is not possible to give a comprehensive survey in ‘limited space, so only a few important groups will be mentioned. The suppli- crs’ catalogs and the literature must be consulted for more detailed informa- tion (8). ‘Tool steels can be roughly classified into the following major groups (the term tool includes dies): CCold-working tool stels (1, 2, and 3) with 0.5-2.0%C. Application exam- ples: cutting tools, press tools, forging dies, blanking tools.Engineering Materials 83 Hot-working too! steels (3) with 0.3-0.6%C and various amounts of W, Cr, 'V, and Ni. Application examples: forging dies, casting dies, extrusion dies. High-speed tool steels (3) with 0.7-1.3%C and various amounts of W, Cr, ‘Co, Mo, and V. Application examples: cutting tools and, at an increasing rate, various press tools. Cemented carbides (4) consist of hard particles (WC, TIC, TaC, NBC, ete.) ina softer matrix. For the softer matrix Co is generally used, but Ni and Mo are also used. Application examples: cuting tools (inserts or tips), forming dies, banking des. Some of these tool materials are discussed in later chapters 3.6.3, Cast Iron Cast iron having 2-3.8%C and varying amounts of Si, Ma, P, and S and some other special elements is technically a very important material. This material hhas excellent castability, machinabiity, applicational properties, and a low price. ‘As mentioned previously, the carbon is present in most cases as graphite, de- pending on cooling conditions and Si content. The graphite structure (its shape) has a major influence on the mechanical properties; therefore, cast irons are classified in accordance with the shape of the graphite particles, their distribu- tion, and thei size. Depending on the shape of the graphite particles, cast irons ‘can be grouped into gray cast iron with flake graphite and nodular cast iron with nodular or spheroidal graphite (called SG iron). Cast iron with flake graphite, ‘normally called gray cast iron after the gray appearance of a fractured surface, is used most widely. It has a relatively low ultimate tensile strength, a good ‘compression strength, and low ductility (itl); its machinablity is very good. ‘The ultimate tensile strength of gray cast iron, which normally varies between 100 and 500 Nimm?, depends on the size of the graphite flakes, their distribu- tion, the structure of the material, the composition, and the cooling conditions. For SG iron (nodular cast iron) strength varies between 350 and 750 N/mm?, ‘and elongation lies between 2 and 154%. This type of cast iron is being applied in industry at a rapidly increasing rate. Depending on the rapidity of cooling and the Si content, the carbon can be ‘precipitated in the combined form FesC (cementite), giving a hard and brittle material called white cast iron, named after the appearance of a fractured sur- face, It cannot be machined and has a very high wear resistance. It is mainly used in combination with gray cast iron as a surface layer on a component where extremely high wear resistance is required, as in car wheels and as components in crushing machines. The necessary rapid cooling is produced by chilling the surfaces.u Chapter 3 ‘White cast iron is an intermediate product in the manufacturing of malleable ‘cast iron. The white cast iron is given a prolonged annealing at about 800-900°C and cooled slowly. The resulting material has very fine graphite nodules in a nearly pure iron matrix (ferrite), has considerable shock resistance, good strength (~350N/mm?), high ductility (10-20% elongation), and is used in the railroad, automobile, pipe-fitting, and agricultural industries. 3.7 NONFERROUS METALS Only a few groups of the most important nonferrous metals are discussed in the following sections, and it must be emphasized that only general are given. The industrial importance of the nonferrous metals is steadily increasing, and they provide several important properties that cannot be obtained in steels, for example High corrosion resistance Ease of fabrication High electrical and thermal conductivity Low density High strength/weight ratio Attractive color Not all nonferrous metals possess all these qualities, but nearly all have at least two without adding special alloying elements. In general, it is the combina- tion of several of these properties that makes the nonferrous metals so attrac~ tive ‘The strength ofthe nonferrous metals i, in general, lower than for stels, but because of the low density, the strength/weight ratio can be rather high. The modulus of elasticity is relatively low, which isa disadvantage where stiffness is required. Most nonferrous metals have a relatively low melting point and they ‘are, in general, easy to cast in sand molds or permanent dies and can often be cold-worked to provide complicated shapes because of their high ductility and low yield stress. The following groups are described: copper/copper alloys, aluminun/alumi- ‘num alloys, magnesium/magnesium alloys, and zinc/zine alloys. 3.7.1 Copper/Copper Alloys Pure copper, having a density of 8.96 g/cm? and a melting point of 1083°C, is Widely utilized inthe electrical industry for cables, wires, coils, contacts, and so on, due to its high electrical conductivity its high corrosion resistance, and its ‘good manufacturing properties, It is also used in coolers, heat exchangers, ves- sels, and so on, where its high thermal conductivity can be utilized.Engineering Materials 85 Copper alloys have @ wide applicational spectrum, and a wide variety of al- loys are commercially available. The most important copper alloys are brass, ‘which is copper alloyed with 10-40% zinc, and bronze, which is copper alloyed with tin, sluminum, oF nickel and correspondingly called tin bronze, aluminum bronze, and nickel bronze. Brass is the most important of all the copper alloys. A copper content of about 60% (~40% zine) is typical, and this gives an alloy with good strength and hot-working properties. If the copper content is increased to 65-70% (inc ~30-35%), alloys with high ductility and excellent cold-working proper- ties are obtained. Besides the normal brasses, many special brasses are ava able, for example, those which are alloyed with aluminum, iron, or manganese. Some of these alloys are used for screws, nuts, and 50 on. If 10-20% nickel is added to brass (60-70% Cu and 10-30% Zn), a nickel silver alloy is obtained, which is named for its color. This alloy is used for elec- trical contacts, springs, etc. Bronzes are the second most important copper alloys. Here the tin bronzes play a major role, for example, for bearings, where 5-22% Sn is used. Often, @ tin bronze is alloyed with lead. For casting purposes tin bronzes are often al: loyed with zinc and lead in relatively small amounts. Typical applications in- ‘clude bearings, bushings, pipe fittings, and machine components ‘Aluminum bronzes have high strength and high corrosion resistance. In the utilization of copper alloys as well as for most other metals, i is im- portant to remember that diferent alloys are used for casting, forming, and ‘machining. 3.7.2, Aluminum/Aluminum Alloys Pure aluminum, having a density of 2.7 g/em? and a melting point below 660°C, hhas become one of the most important industrial materials in the last few years. ‘This is due to its high strength weight ratio, high corrosion resistance, and good electrical conductivity. It should be mentioned that the relative cost of aluminum has favored this situation. Applications include high-voltage cables; equipment forthe chemical, dairy, and building industries; and kitchen appliances. Alumi- ‘num is often alloyed with silicon, magnesium, copper, manganese, and zinc in varying amounts and sometimes with nickel, iton, chromium, titanium, and be- ryllium in small amounts. ‘Aluminum alloyed with silicon is used extensively in the casting of machine ‘components, parts for the automotive industry, and so on. Alloys with silicon ‘and magnesium can be hardened by heat treatment. If aluminum is alloyed with copper, very high strength can be obtained by heat treatment, but the corrosion properties are rather poor. ‘When using aluminum alloys, a careful selection between the commercially available alloys must be carried out to satisfy the functional and manufacturing86 Chapter 3 requirements. Most aluminum alloys used for forming processes have good duc- tility and good cold and hot formability. 3.7.3. Magnestum/Magnesium Alloys Magnesium, having a density of 1.7 g/em? and a melting point of 650°C, is, in ‘general. utilized in an alloyed condition, where high strength/weight ratios can be obtained. The most important alloying element is aluminum in the proportion (of 6-8% for sand and die casting alloys and in the proportion of 3-8% for other alloys, which are eventually further alloyed with zinc and manganese. The hhighest-strength values can be obtained by the heat treatment of alloys contain- ing zinc, zitconium, and thorium. “Magnesium alloys are used primarily where weight reduction is important: in the air and spacecraft industries, the automotive industry, and certain fields of the general mechanical industry 3.7.4 Zine/Zine Alloys Pure zinc, having a density of 7.13 g/cm? and a melting point of 420°C, is pro- duced in huge amounts, but only a small but increasing fraction is used as a construction material. Forty percent of the 2inc produced is used for surface coatings, 25% is used as an alloying element in copper, and 10% is used for sheets for the building industry. Rather large amounts of zinc are used in the battery and printing industries ‘As construction materials, fine zine alloys with very low contents of tin, lead, and cadmium, to obtain high corrosion resistance, are predominantly used. ‘The major alloying elements are aluminum (4-6%) and copper (1-2). Fine zine alloys have good strength and ductility properties, and they are ‘shaped mainly by casting. Applications include automobile accessories, com- ‘ponents in kitchen appliances, office machinery, tools, and toys. Casting dies hhave a long production life because of the low melting point of zinc alloys. The tolerances obtained are usually 50 good that machining and other processing are ‘unnecessary. 3.8 PLASTICS (HIGH POLYMERS) Of the nonmetalic material group polymers, only the thermosetting plastics and the thermoplastics will be discussed, The term plastics covers a special group of polymer materials. Many natural polymers are known and widely used: for ex- ample, asphalt, cellulose, and wool. In general, the term “‘plastics™ covers the ‘enormous variety of synthetic polymers, which in the last couple of decades hhave become some of the most important industrial materials because of theirEngineering Materials sr @ © FIGURE 8.6 Schematic representation of (a) chain structures and (b) cross-linked (net) structures in plastics. applicational and manufacturing properties. Plastics are a relatively new mate- rial group, as their development started after 1940. 3.8.1 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics Both in applicational and manufacturing respects, the properties of plastics are dependent primarily on their molecular structure. On this basis the plastics can ‘generally be classified into two main categories: thermoplastics and thermoset- ting plastics. Thermoplastcs are characterized by the chain siructure (see Fig 3.6a), where large molecules (molecular chains, macromolecules) are bonded together by the weak secondary van der Waals forces. The type of bonding de- termines the mechanical and physical properties, depending on the actual type of, plastic, the molecular weight, and the size and geometry ofthe chains (i.e., dif- ferent types of thermoplastics have different properties). “Temperature has # major influence on the strength of the secondary bonds, “which are weakened by increasing temperature, allowing the molecular chains to move more freely relative to each other. Decreasing temperature thus gives hharder and stronger materials. This softening and hardening process can be re- peated as often as desired, but the characteristics of the change are dependent on the structure (i¢., whether itis amorphous or crystalline). In amorphous state the chains are arranged completely at random, whereas in the crysialline state they are arranged in definite crystalline regions called crystallites embedded in ‘an amorphous matrix. It should be mentioned that plastics are never completely crystaline. in the crystalline regions a closer packing of the chains is obtained, 0 that the secondary bonds act more strongly. ‘Thermoplastcs can be machined in the solid state (at room temperature) and at increased/elevated temperatures, they can be formed either in a rubber-elastic88 Chapter 3 oF liquid state. If the temperature is too high or maintained for too Jong a time, the material will be destroyed. Thermosetting plastics are characterized by their cross-linked structure (ot net structure) (see Fig. 3.60), where strong. primary bonds exist between the chains. The cross-linked structure is created after or during the forming of the desired component, as itis an irreversible chemical process (hardening). The cross-linked structure gives a hard and strong material, which maintains its hard- ness at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, thermosetting materials are resi ‘tant to chemical atacks and creep. Once hardened, they cannot be softened and can only be shaped by machining. ‘The density and character of the cross-links have a major influence on the properties of thermosetting plastics, depending on the specific material. 3.8.2 Design of Plastic Materials ‘An extremely wide range of plastics are commercially available and, within each type, properties can be modified in different ways, so thatthe same type of pl tic is available with a wide spectrum of properties. It is thus possible to “tai the material for specific applications. In the production of high polymers (plastics) itis possible to vary the mo- lecular structure, the molecular weight, size and geometry of the chains, and so ‘on, which has a major influence on the mechanical and physical properties. But most plastics are not used in their “pure” state. Different additives are normally ‘employed to modify the applicational and/or manufacturing properties. The most frequently used additives are: Stabilizers (e.g., to provide protection against thermal and atmospheric ec- tions, ultraviolet light, ete.) Softeners (o increase ductility, ¢.g., at low temperatures) Lubricants (e.g. wax, stearates, etc., to improve moldability and facili removal from the mold) Fillers (to improve strength and reduce cost, ¢.g., wood flour, cloth fibers, lass fibers, asbestos fibers, etc.) Coloring agents (dyes, colored pigments, etc.) Inorganic fillers normally improve thermal stability and electrical properties. Fi- brous fillers are generally used as reinforcing materials, giving considerable me chanical strength. The fillers comprise, in general, a considerable percentage of the total volume. 3.8.3 General Applicational Properties ‘The main reason for the rapidly increasing industrial importance of plastics is that the properties or combinations of properties obtainable are difficult or im- teEngineering Matertals 80 FIGURE 3.7. Schematic presentation ofthe influence of temperature and time on the ‘stress-strain curve for a thermoplastic material possible to obtain with other materials, combined with manufacturing methods lending themselves to mass production. ‘When selecting a plastic material for a specific purpose, the service condi- tions must be carefully analyzed, as the properties of plastic materials can vary much more under service than do those of metals, This necessitates a thorough testing ofthe plastic material to be used. Only when the testing conditions and the service conditions are very similar can the test data be used directly. ‘The service temperature and the duration of mechanical loading are espe- cially important for thermoplastic materials. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.7, which shows schematically the influence of temperature and time (creep) on the stress-strain curve, Increasing temperature causes decreasing strength and de- creasing rigidity (increasing ductility). Mechanical loads applied for long dura- tions cause creep in the material, which is accelerated by increased temperature. ‘The strength of plastics is, in general, about one-tenth that of metals, but ively low (0.9-2 g/cm), the strength/weight ratio is rea- sonably good. Especially with glass fiber-reinforced plastics, a high strength’ ‘weight ratio can be obtained which is comparable to that of metals. Plastics have good electrical resistance, giving them extensive applications as insulating materials. Correspondingly, their low thermal conductivity makes them excellent heat insulators Resistance to chemical agents varies from plastic to plastic, but, in general, always be possible to find a material that can resist a given chemical90 Chapter 3 ‘agent. For this reason plastics are extensively used in the chemical industry and where the corrosion risks are high. In this short presentation, it has not been possible to describe the enormous ‘number of commercially available plastics; consequently, the literature (10,11) and the suppliers catalogs must be studied in specific cases. 3.9 CERAMICS Ceramies are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements, such as metal oxides, borides, carbides, nitrides, or silicides. Ceramics have long been used in the electrical industry because oftheir high electrical resistance but have also assumed importance in a variety of other engineering applications such as cexhaust-port liners, coated pistons, cylinder liners, cutting tools, grinding ‘wheels and other components needing desirable properties such as strength at high temperatures, hardness, resistance to wear, thermal stability, creep resis- tance, and so on. Table 3.4 presents some general characteristics of a number of carbides and oxides. Ceramics have crystal structures that are among the most complex of all ma- terials, containing various elements of different sizes. The bonding between the atoms is generally covalent (electron sharing) and ionic (primary bonding be- tween oppositely charged ions). The bonds are much stronger than metallic bonds, resulting in properties that differ significantly from those for metals. The Compressive Softening Density ultimate strength melting temperature Material em) (mm?) co) Hardness Oxides ‘ALO, «3.76 2340 2040 2100 Be 3.00 770 x30 — MgO = 1000 2300 500 20, 518 2030 2300 1150 To, 11.08 1470 760 1000 carbides BC - S 2480 2150 sic = 2060 n20 2500 Te 7 3500 3100 2450 ae S aa = 2100 we — 3500 2200 1900Engineering Materials a absence of free electrons makes the ceramic materials poor electrical conduc- tors. Ceramics are available as single crystals of, more often, in polycrystalline form, consisting of many grains. Generally, these materials ae divided into two categories: traditional ceram- ics and industrial ceramics, also called engineering, high-tech, or fine ceramics, In this section some general characteristics and applications of engineering ce- ramics are presented, whereas the traditional ceramics used for pottery and bricks will not be discussed, 3.9.1 Types of Ceramics Raw materials for ceramics found in nature are clay, flint (very fine grained Si0,), and feldspar (a group of materials consisting of aluminum silicates, po- tassium, calcium, or sodium). These raw materials generally contain impurities which have to be removed before the materials are processed further into useful ‘products. This removal is often difficult to achieve satisfactorily, and many ce- ramics are now produced almost exclusively from synthetic components so that their quality may be controlled to very strict specifications. ‘Alumina (Al,03), also called corundum or emery, is the most widely used oxide ceramic, and is an exemple ofa synthetic material. Itis obtained by fusion of moiten bauxite, iron filings, and coke. After fusion, itis crushed and graded by passing the particles through standard screens and by precipitation, Parts of aluminum oxide are cold pressed and sintered. Properties are improved by minor additions of other ceramics, such as titanium oxide and titanium carbide. Typ- ical fields of application include electrical and thermal insulation, cutting tools, and abrasives. ‘Another important member of the family of oxide ceramics is zirconia (Z:0;), which has good toughness, resistance to thermal shock, wear, and rosion, low thermal conductivity and low friction coefficient. Zirconia and its derivatives are consequently very suitable for heat-engine components such as cylinder liners and valve bushings. ‘A characteristic feature of oxide ceramics is their anisotropy of thermal ex- pansion, resulting in a variation in thermal expansion in different directions by as much as 50% for quartz. This behavior causes thermal stresses that can lead to cracking of the component. Carbide ceramics, typical examples of which are tungsten carbide (WC) and titanium carbide (TiC), are extensively used as cutting tools and die materials. Table 3.5 gives the melting point and room temperature hardness of some of the carbides. All the values are very high compared with those of steel. The com- pounds undergo no major structural changes up to their melting points, and their Properties are therefore stable and unaltered by induction of heat. These car-ry Chapter 3 ‘Table 3.5 Melting Point and Room Temperature Hardness of Some Important Carbides ‘Melting point (C) Hardness (HV) Tic 3200 3200 VC, 2800 2500 Nec 3500 2400 Tee 3900 1800 we 2150 (decomposes) 2100 bides are strongly metallic in character, having good electrical and thermal conductivities and a metalic appearance. They have only slight ability to deform plastically without fracture at room temperature. Figure 3.8 shows the herdness of four of the more important carbides mea- sured at temperatures from 15°C to 1200°C. It is seen that the hardness drops rapidly with increasing temperatures, but they remain much harder than steel under almost all conditions. The very high hardness and the stability of proper- ties when subjected to a wide range of thermal treatments are favorable to the use of carbides in cutting tools. In cemented carbide alloys, the carbide particles normally constitute at least 80% by volume of the structure. 2500 200 7 nrc 8 1500 & 1000 | we! ie i tac oa 406) 800 000 1200 Temperature °C FIGURE 3.8 Hot hardness of some important carbides [42]Engineering Materials 93 Cemented carbides are produced by the powder metallurgy process, where— in the case of WC—carbon and tungsten powders are mixed and then heated in ‘graphite crusible until a chemical combination occurs. The tungsten carbide particles are then milled together with cobalt in large drums containing steel balls so that the WC particles become coated with cobelt, which is to act as a binder. The powder is now pressed into forms and presintered at about 810°C. ‘Afer presintering, the blanks have the consistency of chalk and can easily be machined to near final geometry after which they are sintered once again at 1540°C to obtain full hardness and strength. Other additives include titanium ‘and tantalum, Titanium is added to increase the hot hardness of the tool. Tan- talum is added to help prevent wear on the top of the tool surface, called cra- tering, by reducing the friction between the chip and the tool. The amount of binder has a major influence on the material's properties, as toughness increases with cobalt content, whereas hardness, strength, and wear resistance decrease, Titanium carbide hes nickel and molybdenum as the binder and is not as tough as tungsten carbide. ‘Another class of ceramics is the nitrides, particularly cubic boron nitride (CBN), titanium nitride (TiN) and silicon nitride (SiN, Cubic boron nitride, the second hardest known substance, after diamond, has special applications, such as abrasives in grinding wheels and as cutting tools. WK does not exist in nature and is made synthetically with techniques similar to those used in making synthetic diamonds. Titanium nitride is widely used to coat cutting tools. The coating is achieved by a process known as chemical vapor deposition, where the too is placed in sealed retort with an inert atmosphere until the coating temperature is reached in the range of 950-1050°C. Titanium tetrachloride (TiC) and nitrogen/tydrogen {888 are introduced into the reactor, resulting in the following reaction for the formation of TiN: TiC, + 4H, + Np—> 2TIN + BHCL ‘Coating thickness, normally about 2~4 jum is a function of reactant concentra- tion, coating temperature and time at temperature. Silicon nitride is stronger than steel, extremely hard, and as light as alumi- ‘num. It hes high resistance to creep at elevated temperatures, low thermal ‘expansion, and high resistance to thermal chocks. It is suitable for high- ‘temperature structural applications, such as engine combustion chambers, bea ings, turbocharger rotors, and so on. It is worth mentioning that the higher ‘operating temperatures made possible by the use of ceramic components mean more efficient fuel burning and reduced emissions. ‘Cermets are combinations of metals and ceramics, usually oxides, carbides, or nitrides. They combine the high-temperature characteristics of ceramics and the toughness, thermal shock resistance, and ductility of metals. Cermets are” Chapter 3 used for nozzles for jet engines, aircraft brakes, and similar applications requir- ing strength and toughness at elevated temperatures. They can be regarded as composite materials (see Sect. 3.11). 3.9.2. Mechanical and Physical Properties Individual characteristics of important ceramic materials have been given in ‘Sect. 3.9.1. This section describes the general mechanical and physical prop- etties of ceramics. These materials are very sensitive to cracks, impurities, and Porosiies, resulting in a strength in tension that is approximately one order of ‘magnitude lower than the strength in compression, since the defects lead to the initiation and propagation of cracks under tensile stress, This deficiency may in part be overcome by prestressing the components, as in prestressed concrete, by subjecting them to compressive stresses. Methods used include heat treatment and chemical tempering, laser treatment of surfaces, coating with ceramics hav- ing different thermal expansion, or surface-finishing operations, in which com- pressive risidual stresses are induced on the surface. ‘ceramics also lack impact toughness because of thei ty, 60 that a crack, once initiated, propagates rapidly. In addition to undergoing fatigue failure under cyclic loading, ceramics exhibit a phenomenon called static fatigue, so that they may suddenly fail after being sub- jected to a static tensile load over a period of time. Static fatigue, which occurs in environments where water vapor is present, but not in vacuum or dry ait, has been attributed to a mechanism similar to stress corrosion in metas. Hardness, weat resistance, and strength at elevated temperatures are common and attractive properties, as are light weight (specific gravities of 2.3-3.85 g/ em?) dimensional stability, corrosion resistance, and chemical inertness. On the negative side, reliability is still rather low, and failure occurs with litle prior warning as a result of brittle fracturing, The cost of ceramics is relatively high, and it is difficult to form reliable bonds to the various engineering materials. Machining is problematic, so products must be fabricated through the use of net- shape processes. 3.10 GLASSES ‘Glasses are generally based on silica (SiO) with additives that alter the structure ‘or reduce the melting point. Presently there are some 750 different types of com- mercially available glasses, ranging from window glass, bottles, and cookware to types with special mechanical, electrical, high-temperature, chemical, or op- tical characteristics. All glasses contain at least 50% silica, known as a glass former. By adding oxides of aluminum, sodium, calcium, barium, and so on, properties, with the exception of strength, can be modified greatlyEngineering Materials 95 For al practical purposes glasses are regarded as perfectly elastic and brittle. ‘The modulus of elasticity isin the range 55-90 kN/mm?, that is, 25~45% of the modulus of elasticity for steel. Hardness ranges from 5 to 7 on the Mohs scale, Strength is greatly influenced by the presence of small flaws and microcracks that may reduce the strength by two to three orders of magnitude, compared to the ideal, defect-ree strength, which theoretically can be as high as 35 kN/mm?. ‘More realistically, glass fibers drawn from molten glass can reach a tensile strength of up to 7 kN/mm?, with an average value of about 2 kNimm?. The fibers are thus stronger than steel and are used to reinforce plastics in appl tions such as boat hulls, automobile body parts, furniture, and sports equipment. Glasses have low thermal conductivity, high electrical resistivity and dielec- trie strength. Their thermal expansion coefficient is lower than those for metals and plastics and may even approach zero, Optical properties, such as reflection, absorption, and refraction can be modified by varying the composition and treat ‘ment of the glass. 3.11 COMPOSITE MATERIALS are materials in which the desirable properties of separate materials are combined by mechanically or metallurgically binding them together. Each of the components retains its structure and characteristics, but the composite gen- erally possesses better properties, such as stiffness, strength, or weight, than those of the constituent parts. ‘The idea of composites is not new, as examplified by the ancient use of straw in a clay matrix for mud huts and bricks. Another example isthe reinforcing of concrete with iron rods to impart the necessary tensile strength to the composite, since concrete in itself is brittle with no useful tensile strength. Today, cutting tools, electrical components, golf clubs, prosthetic devices, military helmets and bulletproof vests, sailboats, aircraft, automobiles, and so on, all utilize ad- vanced composite materials. ‘There are many types of composites and several methods of classifying them, One such method is based on the way the composite materials are built up: |. Dispersion-hardening materials, consisting of a matrix filled with up to 15% particles (size <0.1 pm) of different materials. 2. Particle-reinforced materials, consisting of a matrix filled with more than 20% particles (size >1 jum) of different materials 3, Fiber-reinforced materials, consisting of a matrix with up to 70% fibers of different materials.6 Chapter 3 3.11.1 Dispersion-Hardened Materials Dispersion-hardened materials are normally produced by dispersing a small quantity of hard, brittle, fine particles in a softer, more ductile matrix. Pro- nounced strengthening and creep resistance can be induced, which decrease only gradually as temperature is increased. Examples include sintered aluminum ot copper powder, consisting of an aluminum or copper matrix strengthened by par- ticles of aluminum oxide. Applications include gas tu ‘component 3.11.2 Particle-Reinforced Materials ‘This group contains large amounts of rather coarse particles and covers the pre- viously mentioned combination of metals including alloys and ceramics, give reasonably good ductility, high hardness, and good strength at elevated temperatures. Particle-einforced materials are used primarily as cutting and forming tools as described in Section 3.9.1 for carbide ceramics. The hard, stiff carbide can withstand the high temperatures of cutting, but is extremely brittle. ‘Toughness can be imparted by combining the carbide with cobalt, pressing the ‘mixture into desired shape, and sintering the compacted material. Other areas of applications include electrical contacis designed for good conductivity and spark-erosion resistance by mixing tungsten powder with powdered silver and processing via powder metallurgy. ‘Table 3.6 lists some possible combinations of ceramics and metals, suitable for cutting tools and for grinding and cutting wheels, which are often formed from alumina (Al,03), silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron nitride (BN), or dia- mond bonded in a matrix of glass or polymeric material. As the hard particles ‘wear, they fracture and are pulléd out of the matrix, exposing new cutting edges. ‘The potential speeds with alumina tools, which are three to four times higher than those normally used with carbide tools, represent an increase in metal re- moval rate as great as that achieved by high-speed steel and by cemented ca TABLE 3.6 Some Possible Combinations (of Ceramics and Metals Ceramics Metal sic ‘Ag, Co, Cr Tic Mo, Fe, Ni, Co we Co ALO, Al, Co, Fe, Cr SiO, CrEngineering Materials 7 bides. Foundry molds and cores made from sand (particles) and a binder (matrix) are also made from particle-reinforced materials. Because the reinforcing particles are distributed uniformly in the matrix, the properties of both dispersion-hardened and particle-reinforced materials may be ‘expected to be isotropic, that is, uniform in all directions. 3.11.3 Fiber-Reinforced Materials ‘The most widely used types of composite materials are those based on a com- bination of fibers as the reinforcing material and a compatible binder as matrix. ‘The fibers, which carry most of the force of the material and may be oriented in directions corresponding to the loading directions, consist of metas, carbon, ceramics, etc., and they are embedded in metals, polymers, or glasses that sup- ‘port and transmit loads 10 the fibers and provide ductility and toughness. The ‘mean diameter of fibers is usually about 0.01 mm. The fibers are very strong ‘and rigid because the molecules are oriented in the longitudinal direction, and their cross sections are so small that itis unlikely that any defects exist in the fiber. Glas fibers, for example, can have tensile strengths as high as 4.6 KN/ ‘mm?, whereas the strength of glass in bulk form is much lower. Glass fibers are stronger than stec. Matrix materials are usually epoxies or polyesters. Polyamides, which resist temperatures in excess of 300°C are being developed for use with graphite fibers. ‘Above this temperature, metal matrices should be considered. Some thermo- plastics are also being considered as possible matrix materials since they have a higher toughness than the thermosetting types. ‘According to the kind of constituents used, fiber composites are usually di- vided into two main groups, fiber-reinforced plastics and fiber-reinforced met- als, to be described next. Fiber-Reinforced Plastics Glass-fiber-reinforced resins were the first of the modern fiber composites and were developed during World War Il to fulfill the U.S. government's need for materials having electromagnetic transparency, impact resistance, corrosion and erosion resistance, lightness, and high strength. The glass fibers, made by ‘drawing molten glass through small openings in a platinum die, were bonded in 4 variety of polymers, generally epoxy resins, The content of fibers vary be tween 30 and 65% by volume. Today, there are two principal types of gas fi- bers, the Etype, a borosilicate glass, which is the most common, and the S-type, a magnesia—alumina-—silicate glass, which has higher strength and stiff- ness—and is more expensive. Further efforts were made to improve strength and modulus of elasticity through the development of improved fibers. Boron fibers consist of boron deposited by chemical vapor deposition on tungsten core fibers. These fibers98 Chapter 3 ve high strength and stiffness in tension and compression (tensile strengths in excess of 3.5 kNimm:) and resistance to high temperatures (up to 250°C). ‘They are expensive, and because of the use of tungsten, they have a rather high density. If it is desired, they can be incorporated into a cast metal matrix. Graphite fibers, although more expensive than glass, have a very desirable combination of low density, high strength, and high stiffness. All graphite fibers ‘are made from a textile-grade acrylic tow by pyrolyzing the acrylic fiber in such ‘way that an oriented graphitic structure is obtained inthe Final fiber. Pyrolysis is the term for inducing chemical changes by heat, such as burning a length of yarn, which becomes carbon and black in color. The temperatures for carbon- izing range up to 3000°C. The basic product form is a tow containing about 40,000 filaments, a loose, untwisted bundle of parallel fibers of continuous length, The tow is easily impregnated with liquid resins, and the composites can be fabricated with many of the same techniques used in glass-fiber-reinforced plastics technology, including matched metal die, vacuum bag, hand layup, and ‘other methods described in Chapter 11 Kevlar, which is the trade name of an aramid fiber, has a tensile strength of ‘3kN/mm?, making it the strongest of any organic fiber. Kevlar can undergo some plastic deformation before fracture and thus have a higher toughness than other types of fibers. Its density is about half that of aluminum, and it is flame reta dant and transparant to radio signals, making it attractive for a number of mil ry and aerospace applications. However, eramids absorb moisture. Other fibers used in fiber-reinforced plastic materials are nylon, silicon car- bide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, molybdenum, and s0 on. Whiskers are also used as reinforcing fibers. They are tiny, needielike single crystals that grow to 1-10 um in diameter and have length-to-diameter ratios from 100 to 15,000. Because of their small size they are virtually free from im- perfections, so their strength approaches the theoretical strength ofthe material Fiber Orientation Many variables must be taken into consideration when combit and matrix to form a composite. As has been mentioned, a fiber unidirectional in properties. This means that if the fibers ae all lid in the same direction, the strength transverse to that direction will be only that ofthe matrix. ‘Therefore, fiber placement is important. In addition, fiber length can also in- fluence the performance of a composite, short fibers being less effective than Yong fiers, and their properties are strongly influenced by time and tempera- ture. Long fibers transmit the load through the matrix better and are thus com- ‘monly used in critical applications, particularly at elevated temperatures. ‘One means to circumvent some of the problems associated with unidirection- ally laid fibers is to use a fabric in which the fibers are woven into a pattern,Engineering Materials ” Such cloths are commercially available, for example, as graphite yarns woven together with kevlar, fiberglass, or other fibers. The fabrics can be prepregged with various matrix materials, allowing them to be designed for specific appli- cation requirements. ‘Some graphite and carbon fibers are available in the form of mats, composed ‘of high-modulus filaments, mechanically bonded together to form a web. Graph- ite fibers have natural lubricity and a low coefficient of friction, Therefore, the mats can be used as reinforcements for bearings. seals and gears. ‘critical factor in reinforced plastics isthe strength of the bond between the fiber and the polymer matrix, since the load is transmitted through the fiber ‘matrix interface. Weak bonding results in fiber pullout and delamination. Bond- ‘ng can be improved by special surface treatments, such as coatings and the use ‘of coupling agents for better adhesion at the interface, but careful inspection and testing is essential in critical applications. Applications Composites with a matrix of epoxy were used forthe first time inthe 1930s, and beginning in the 1940s, boats were made with fiberglass, and reinforced plastics began to be seen in aircraft parts, electrical equipment, and sporting ‘goods. Today, the advanced composites are used extensively in everyday as well 1s in advanced components such as automotive bodies, pipes, ladders, pressure vessels, boat hulls, and military and commercial aircraft and rocket components. ‘The cargo bay doors of the space shuttle are made from graphitc/epoxy, which is also used for the upper aft rudder of the MeDonnell/Douglas DCIO passenger plane. This company also uses graphite/epory for what it calls the largest com- posite part ever built for an aircraft the wing skin of the Harrier Il fighter plane, which is 26% by weight composite material. The skin is laminated from 0.25 1mm thick plies. It is 8.5 m from wingtip to wingtip and 1! m? in area. The com- pleted wing weighs 20% less than a conventional wing and is an important factor in the increase in range and payload ofthe aircraft, to which may be added im- proved fatigue and corrosion resistance. Fiber-Reinforced Metals Metal matrix composites are used where operating temperature is high or ex- treme strength is desired. The ductile matrix material is usually aluminum, tanium, or nickel, although other metals are also being investigated, and the reinforcing fibers may be of graphite, boron, alumina or silicon carbide, with beryllium and tungsten as other possibilities. Compared to metals, these mate- rials offer higher stiffness and strength, especially at elevated temperatures, and 2 lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Compared o the organic matrix ma- terial, they offer higher heat resistance, as well as improved electrical and ther- ‘mal conductivity.100 Chapter 8 Boron fibers in an aluminum matrix are used in many aerospace structures, ‘especially truss structures. This is because the boron fibers have high strength and stiffness and can therefore be used unidirectionally, and because the alumi- ‘num matrix in itself is strong enough to support the fibers without crossplying. ‘as would have been necessary with resin-matrix composites. This materis ‘was selected for the structural tubular supports in the midfuselage section of the space shuttle. Table 3.7 shows some other applications of metal-matrix composites: TABLE 3.7 Metal-Matrix Composite Materials and Applications Fiber Matrix ‘Applications Graphite 1. Alumioum | 1, Satelite, missle, helicopter structures 2. Magnesium 2. Space and satellite structures 3. Lesd 3, Storage battery plates 4. Copper 4. Electrical contacts and bearings Boron 1. Alueninur | 1. Compressor blades and structural supports 2, Magnesium 2, Antenna structures 3. Titanium 3. Jetengine fan blades ‘Alumina 1. Aluminurn| 1. Superconductor restraints in fusion 2. Lead power reactors 3. Magnesium 2, Storage-bavtery plates 3. Helicopter transmission structures Silicon carbide 1. Aluminum/itanium 1. High-temperature siructures 2. Superalloy (Co-base) 2. High-temperature engine components Molybdenum, 1. Superalloy 1. High-temperature engine components tungsten Source: From Ref. 44,4 Basic Theory of Metalworking 4.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The purpose of metalworking theory isto provide a background from which rea- sonable evaluations may be made of the deformations obtainable without insta- bility and fracture, and the forces and work necessary, which in turn determine the equipment and tooling required. Thus, the theory is important for both the and production engineer. In this chapter the fundamental principles, rules, and laws that can be used to describe plastic flow or deformation of solid materials when subjected to exter- nal loads are discussed. For this purpose, the materials are considered as ho- ‘mogencous, continuous, and isotropic media, not as built up from thousands of ‘small grains as described in Chapter 3. However, this assumption will not lead to any serious discrepancies at this level. ‘A short introduction to two- and three-dimensional systems of stress is fol lowed by discussions of the stress-strain curve, true stress, logarithmic or nat- ‘ural strain, volume constancy, and instability. Finally, the yield criteria, which determine the stresses necessary to initiate and maintain plastic flow and the ‘work necessary to carry out the deformation, are analyzed.102 Chapter 4 4.2 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS OF STRESS ‘The forces that act on a solid body may be classified as either volume ot mass forces or surface forces. Volume or mass forces, which include acceleration forces, are not considered in this discussion because they are usually negligible in metalworking processes. Surface forces include forces acting on the surface of every volume element, transmitted either by the interaction of the surrounding material or by external forces. ‘When analyzing design situations for dimensioning purposes or forming pro- ‘cesses for planning or design purposes. it is more appropriate to use the force it area as a measure of the load rather than the total force distributed over “he frce per uit ara (described in Chap 2) called theses and is usually designated by the symbol o (sigma): o = se an the esl spcimen shown in Fig 41 th ses ona ros section (1 perpendicular tothe longitu! wis defined By FIGURE 4.1 A tensile specimen with the cross-sectional area A subjected (0 the load P.Basle Theory of Metalworking 103 o-8 a2) where P is the force and A is the cross-sectional area. Ifa cross section (2) that is inclined at an angle @ to the longitudinal axis is considered, the mean oblique siress 0,, is found to be PLP om £ = Fein 43) where Ay is the cross-sectional area of cross section 2. This stress [ 02. Thus the directions ofthe principal stresses are called 1 (maximum) and 2 (minimum), Equations (4.8) and (4.10) determine the magnitudes ofthe principal stresses When the condition given by Eq. (4.11) is substituted. Thus ot = He +0) = [(& 3 )' + w]" 4.2) Often, the principal stresses are used to describe the state of stress because of the resulting simplifications in the calculations. By differentiating Eq. (4.9) it can be shown that the maximum shear stress ‘occurs on two mutual perpendicular planes inclined at 45° to the principal planes. The magnitude of the maximum shear stress is given by 4.13) ‘The normal stress on the planes of maximum shear can be shown to be equal to (12Vo, + 67). EXAMPLE |. A state of stress is described by 0, = 0, = Oandt,, ¥ 0. Determine the principal stresses.Basic Theory of Metalworking wr Equation (4.12) gives jaf ‘The directions of the principal stresses ean be found from Eq. (4.8), Oe = 1 = > By = ty sin 28> sin 20 = 10 = (for direction 1) This implies that a state of pure shear is equivalent to a compressive stress and a tensile stress equal in magnitude and mutually perpendicular to each other act- ing on planes inclined at 45° tothe x.y-system for the state of pure shear (see Fig. 4.4) In Example 1 only two-dimensional systoms of stress were discussed. For three-dimensional systems of stress the analysis is a little more complicated. To describe a two-dimensional system of stress (biaxial stress system), three stresses were necessary: 0,, 0, and t,,. To describe a three-dimensional system, six stresses are necess@ry: O,, Oy, Oy. Toys Tye, Tx Ifthe principal stresses arc used, only three are necessary: 0, 02, Oy. The corresponding maximum shear stresses, occurring on planes inclined at 45° to the principal planes, are: Wt ASF l= a) a= % 1-3. = 252 (= wy) = te absolute) o- 2-3 tas = FSO 4H vt % — ty 2 ay x x ° +. + fie 1 FIGURE 4.4 A stale of pure shear,108 Chapter 4 ‘The numbers 1, 2, and 3 refer to the principal directions, and the principal siresses are arranged $0 that 0, > 0; > 05. The shearing stresses in the paren- theses are sometimes called the principal shearing stresses, and the suffixes des- ignate the directions of the stresses. The absolute maximum shear stress i8 Tax and is given by (0, — 03)/2 (= %). If the state of stress is given by 0), 02, 5 = 0, the maximum sheat stress Tyax 18 given by 0y/2. Thus in a three- ‘dimensional state of stress, the greatest shear stress occurs on a plane bisecting the angle between the planes on which the greatest and the smallest principal stresses act. 4.3 TRUE STRESS-NATURAL STRAIN CURVES AND INSTABILITY 4.3.1 True Stress and Natural Strain ‘In Chapter 2 the stress-strain curves obtained from tensile tests were discussed. Nominal stresses were defined as een Foca that is, the load was distributed uniformly on the original cross-sectional area ‘The nominal stress does not always describe the stress that the material experi- ences, since the cross-sectional area decreases as the specimen elongates plas- tically. To be able to carry out reasonable calculations concerning the deformation of materials, itis necessary to Know the true stress (ie., the stress that the material experiences). ‘The true stress is defined as Once onk (4.15) ‘where A, is the current or instantaneous cross-sectional area. The true stress is thus obtained by dividing the instantaneous force by the instantaneous area ( the force and the cross-sectional area must be measured simultaneously). If the stress-strain curves are now plotted as true stress—nominal_strai curves, the dashed curves in Fig. 4.5 are obtained. The solid curves are the ‘nominal stress-nominal strain curves. It should be remembered that the curve for mild steel is an exception. The curve labeled ‘‘other metals" is typical. From Fig. 4.5 it can be seen that the true stress—nominal strain curve does not show the maximum loed/foree point Mf as does the nominal stress curve. At M the strain hardening and the decrease in cross-sectional area exactly balance ‘each other. Beyond M the decrease in area dominates, resulting in a necking leading to a three-dimensional system of stress here. Dividing the instantaneousBasic Theory of Metalworking 109 * --“ie) (Hila steel) (other metals) (pone? FIGURE 4.5 Stress-strain curves plotted as nominal stress-oominal strain curves (rms ©) and true stress-nominal strain curves (0, ¢). force by the instantaneous smallest area an average “true” stress is obtained; that is, after the beginning of necking the real “true” stress can only be deter- mined by correcting the average "true" stress for the three-dimensional stress system. In metalworking calculations, only deformations up to the beginning of necking where instability occurs are of interest; consequently, the correction of the “true” stress will not be discussed in this context. ‘The nominal or engineering strain was defined in Chapter 2 as ie where fis the original length and fy the final length. The nominal strains—in the same way as the nominal stresses—are generally unsuitable for calculations involving plastic deformations, where large strains occur. Therefore, the natu- ral, true, or logarithmic strain—sometimes called the incremental strain—has been defined. ‘A tensile specimen has been plastically elongated to the length 1. It is ‘now given a further elongation di and this incremental increase of strain is de- fined by a= 4 If the specimen is deformed from the length [, to the length ly, the total strain is ‘obtained by integration: ud aan fT = ng 4.16)Chapter 4 where ‘In’ denotes the logarithm to the base ¢. This strain (4.16) isthe natural strain and is designated by €, whereas the nominal strain was designated by e. ‘Some of the advantages of the natural strain compared to the nominal strain Natural strains are additive. A specimen is first deformed from 1, t0 ly and then from (, to fy (case 1). Another specimen is deformed directly from 1, to 1; (case Il). The following table shows the results as natural and nominal strains. It can be seen that an interruption of the deforma- tion does not influence the final natural strain, whereas it changes the nominal strain (i.e., they are not additive). case « 4 ' nok me y hh inp "a 4 Adding in? + 10? 4 = inp 4 wf uae one 2. The natural strain gives the same numerical values in compression and in tension, which is not the case for nominal strain. A specimen is deformed from 1, tof; = 21, (case 1) and a specimen is compressed from hy to hy = (1/2)h, (case II). The results are shown in the follow- ing table. Case. « « 1 haa, nf abe ‘The natural and nominal strains are related, below the maximum load, as follows: whnh 8Basle Theory of Metalworking mM that is, b Talte oo or, alternatively, © = In (1 + e} (until instability) 4.17) For small strains, e and « give approximately the same result (ie., « = ¢) Figure 4.6 shows the true stress/natural (true) strain curves (0, «) as well as the nominal stress/nominal strain curves (Oyom,¢)- In the following work the true ‘stress and the natural strain (0, «) will be used extensively since, as mentioned, they reflect the conditions that the material experiences. 4.3.2 Volume Constancy Based on experimental evidence it is found that, for metals, the volume of the ‘material is constant during plastic deformation. This is not true for elastic de- formations, but since the elastic deformation is, in general, very small com- pared to the plastic deformation, it can be neglected without any measurable ‘Volume constaney can be expressed by ao 4.18) where V is the volume of the material undergoing plastic deformation and ¢ is the natural strain. Other metals (oe (pons? ¥ Mild steel (epyqet) FIGURE 4.6 True and nominal stress-strain curves.me Chapter 4 Consider a parallelepiped with the dimensions 4, fy, and {3, which are de- formed to ly + Al,, ly + Ala, and fy + Aly. Volume constancy gives (y+ ANN + ARMs + 44) = hbk This can be written as (68) G04) or Wt edt ell ted = 1 where ¢ is the nominal strain, Taking logarithms gives In (1 +e) + In +e) + In (I + 05) =0 Using Bq. (4.17), this becomes atete=0 4.19) ‘Volume constancy can also be expressed as Al = Ail, = Azly, where A is the cross-sectional area and / the length. This, combined with Eq. (4.16), results in boat easing = ing (4.20) For specimens with a circular cross section, this gives a ee ee a De D where D is the diameter of the cross section. Equation (4.20) allows the natural strains to be calculated, even after necking, has started, which makes the area strain very meaningful. Tn addition tothe relation between natural and nominal st relation between nominal and true stress can be found. P_PA_) AL ot ORK AH Oem G = Omni, (Eq. (4.17), where A is the cross-sectional area and the suffix 1 denotes the original state. Since 1 + ¢ = ly, the preceding equation can be expressed as © = Opm (I + €} (a2 ‘This relation is valid only until necking stars.Basle Theory of Metalworking us 4.3.3 Instability ‘As mentioned previously, the point where the strain hardening and the decrease in area during plastic deformation exactly counteract each other is called the point of onset of instability and corresponds to the ultimate load. Beyond this, ‘necking occurs at a weak point of the specimen, and the deformation changes, from being uniformly distributed along the gage length to local deformation in the necking region. ‘The point of the onset of instability is where the slope of the load-strain curve becomes zero (i.€., a strain increase takes place without any increase in load). ‘This can be expressed as a t=0 4.22) Since P = aA, Eq, (4.22) can be expressed as do aA ABsroB=0 Volume constancy dVide = 0 gives at) Kersh iho which is combined with the equation above to give ao m At + o(-44) <0 Since de = dll, the condition of instability becomes Bag 4.23) ‘This equation means that instability occurs when the slope of the stress-strain ‘curve (rate of work hardening) equals the magnitude of the applied stess. Si hhardening continues beyond the point of instability, and hence there is no sudden ‘change in the true stress-strain curve at this point. Figure 4.7 shows how the point of instability is determined graphically on a stress-strain curve. In many metalworking processes taking place under the action of tensile stresses, the maximum emount of deformation that a ductile material can with- stand without failure is determined by the strain at instability. This is because failure by necking normally ruins the product. It is therefore important tobe able to predict the siress and strain at the onset of instability, so that the process pa- rameters to avoid failure can be safely specified. In Fig. 4.7 it was shown how the point of instability could be located on the true stress—natural strain curvem4 Chapter 4 FIGURE 4.7 Graphic location of the point of instability on true stess-natural strain curve (uniaxial), ‘obtained by tensile test, It would be far more convenient, however, ifthe stress— strain curve could be expressed analytically, since this would permit an easy es- ‘timation of both strain and stress at instability. In the following section, various analytical models of the stress-strain curve are discussed. 4.3.4 Analytical Stress—Strain Curves Different analytical models of the stress-strain curve can be employed depend- ing on the actual material and the accuracy required. Here the most common model for strain-hardening materials (model 1) and a model for non- strain-hardening materials (model 2) are described. It should be mentioned that the availabilty of computers, which can easly handle the numerical test data, has decreased the need for analytical expressions, but these expressions are con- venient in most calculations. MODEL | (Fig. 4.88) once (4.24) ‘This model represents with reasonable accuracy annealed metals with a cubic lattice structure. The symbols ¢ and n represent material constants and n is called the strain-hardening exponent, MODEL 2 (Fig. 4.86). o=% (4.25)Basle Theory of Metalworking us PERFECT-PLASTIC L______». (8) FIGURE 4.8 Approximate models for true stress-natural strain curve: (a) strain- hardening materias;(b) non-strain-hardening materials. ‘This model, which represents a perfect plastic, can be used with reasonable accu- ls with no, or slight, strain hardening (n ~ 0). This simple model approximate calculations of average stresses and forces. The stress dp is often defined as the mean yield steSS Coq = (Op) +0922, where the suffixes 1 and 2 indicate the yield stress before and after the deformation, ‘Since the elastic strains are very small compared to the plastic strains, they are generally neglected. Model 1 may include elastic strains if « is considered as, © = amie + Sans Dut model 2 cannot include elastic strains. I is possible to ‘combine model 3 with Hooke's law 0 = Ee, so that an elastic perfect plastic material is described, ‘The values of the constants in the analytical models are usually chosen so that the best agreement between the models and the experimental curves is obtained. ‘materials that can be represented by model I (.e., 0 = ce point of instability can be determined from Eq. (4.23): 10 = nce! = 0 = oly notte! = coh Son = (4.26) ‘This means thatthe strain at instability is equal tothe strain-hardening exponent. ‘This implies that n is a measure of the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation without failure. Table 4.1 shows typical examples of the values ¢ ‘and n for model | for different materials. These values can be used as rough first ‘approximation, but in the actual situation c and n must be determined from the ‘experimental stress-strain curve, since rather large variations may occur forthe same types of materialsChapter 4 TABLE 4.1 Typical Valves of ¢ and n in Model 1 (Bq. (4.249) Metal vm) ” Mild steel 0 022 Stainless steel 1560 050 ‘Aluminum, sof 156 0.25 Copper, soft 05 038 Brass 743 048 In most metal-forming processes, the material is subjected to a more complex system of stresses than a uniaxial stress system such as biaxial tension, for ex- ample. In such cases the same material may sustain only a fraction of or, at the other extreme, more than the strain of ial tension, depe ‘on the actual stress system. Therefore, the instability value (my =) found in ‘uniaxial tension should be used with caution in complex situations. In such sit- uations the same procedure as described by Eq. (4.23) can be used when o and « are expressed a effective or equivalent values (sce Section 4.5),d6/dé = &/z and where 2 is used to determine the instability by jy = 2m. The constant mis the uniaxial strain of instability. ‘Under compressive systems of stress, instability such as necking does not oc- ‘cur, and here the limits of deformation sre set by fracture. EXAMPLE 2. For a given material the true stress/nominal strain curve is available, Determine the condition of instability. Equation (4.23) states that, for ‘rue stress-natural strain curves, instability occurs when 124 ro From Eq. (4.17), which expresses the relation between nominal and natural strain, e=in(l +e) it is found that de “T¥e ‘This is substituted in the 0, e-instability condition, giving the a, e-instability condition do, 0 de~T+e ba)Basle Theory of Metalworking a7 EXAMPLE 3. ‘The stress-strain curve for a material is described by 9 = ce", Determine the ultimate strength Open, yu- The ultimate tensile strength ‘was defined by (Eq. (2.5)}. Prax _ Pinu ‘where A, is the original cross-sectional area. Expressed in true. stress, Pat = SinwAigur that i8, Onan ns = ‘The instability equation (4.23) can be combined with o = ce" and Eq. (4.26), ssiving B= 0>tm =n This allows the calculation of Gnu. Thus, Ging = CO = cn” Volume constancy gives AL = Aly = constant eo int= int pla ‘At instability this becomes From this, Aga, can be determined: Aina ‘The expressions fOr Oy and Aj are now substituted in the equation for roma BiViNg, = Salon _ OPAL ene A AL that Crom, os = 3 (4.28) apaus Chapter 4 4.4 YIELD CRITERIA ‘As discussed both in Chapter 2 and in this chapter, plastic deformation occurs in ‘8 material subjected to tensile stress along its axis (uniaxial stress), when the stress exceeds the yield stress op, The yield stress can be determined from the stress-strain curve either a8 a characteristic value—the yield point—or as the yield sirength, normally defined as the stress at 0.2% permanent strain. In the following, Op will be used as the yield condition for uniaxial states of stress. In most forming and cutting processes, deformation takes place or occurs un- der more complex states of stress, and it is therefore necessary to be able to predict the state of stress at which yield ted and maintained. This ‘means that a yield criterion, enabling consideration of all the combinations of stresses that will provide plastic flow, must be established. The establishment of a yield criterion is based on the following assumptions or empirical observations: ‘The metals are homogeneous, continuous, and isotropic (i.e., have the same properties in all directions). ‘The metals have the same yield stress in compression and tens ‘A superimposed hydrostatic pressure does not influence the initiation of yielding. 4.4.1, Tresca’s Yield Criterion In 1864, Tresca put forward his criterion saying that plastic flow occurs when the maximum shear stress exceeds a critical value. Since the maximum shear stress, Eq. (4.14), is equal to half the difference between the greatest and the smallest principal stress, Tresca’s criterion may be expressed as nar = } (oy ~ 03) = constant k= Tet (4.29) where a, > 0; > 0s. This criterion implies that yielding is independent of the intermediate principal stress, which isnot strictly true. In spite ofthis, the df- ference in terms of stresses between Tresca’s criterion and the more correct cr- terion of von Mises never exceeds 15%. By introducing a factor on the right hand side of Eq. (4.29) (e.g. 1.075), the difference between these stresses can be reduced. Since Eq. (4.29) is applicable to all systems of stress, the constant k (the crit. ‘cal value) can be found, for example, by considering the yield stress oi ‘uniaxial tension. Here the state of stress at yielding is given by 0, 0, = 05 = 0. Equation (4.29 then gives) == _ Tou = AFH = Pek (= ealBasle Theory of Metalworking 9 which means that the critical shear stress is related to the yield stress in simple tension by, a=2 ‘This is very important, since op is the most easly obt ‘Trescas criterion can thus be expressed as ‘material property. %-~HzOH (5, > 0, > 05) (4.30) 4.4.2 von Mises’ Yield Criterion In 1913, von Mises proposed a yield criterion, stating that yielding occurs when the work of deformation per unit volume provided by the system of stress ex- ceeds a critical value for the particular material, which can be expressed math- matically as fo, — 01)" + (02 ~ oF + (05 ~ 047 = constant C ‘Since the constant C is the same forall systems of stress, simple tension can be Used to determine C. Uniaxial tension where 0, = Op, Oz = 0; = 0 gives oy? + oy? = 2a? = C ‘The von Mises’ criterion can then be expressed as {01 ~ on? + (62 ~ as? + (05 ~ oF = 209" 431) For the state of pure sheer, Tresca's and von Mises’ criteria give different result. Pure shear is equivalent to (see Example 1): 0, = k, 0, = 0,05 = ~k Tresca:k + k= > k= F von Mises: 62 = 2oy! => k = 3 (4.32) ‘This means thatthe critical shear stress at yielding differs as mentioned previ- ously by 21/3 = 1.15; that is, von Mises’ criterion requires a 15% higher crit- ical shear stress value to initiate yielding than does Tresce’s criterion. For ductile metals it has been shown experimentally that von Mises’ criterion gives the best agreement, but due to its simplicity, Tresca’s criterion is applied in many cases, particularly by design engineers. EXAMPLE 4. In the following table the results of Tresca’s and von Mises" yield criteria are shown for different systems of stress. The abbreviation PS ‘means a plane stress system, where one of the principal stresses is zero and CS ‘means a cylindrical stress system where two of the principal stresses are equal10 Chapter 4 Pr wees ale Tacs a |e a= % | es 3, = 0 . “2 ° cone e o Bits sane < ae EXAMPLE 5. Many metalworking processes take place under a state of ‘deformation called plane strain; that is, the strain in one principal direction is zero. This means that the flow everywhere is parallel to the plane (1, 3) and independent of the position along the normal (2) to this plane (see Fig. 4.9). Determine for deformations taking place under plane strain condi- tions (ey, € = 0, €). the initiation of yielding by Tresca’s and von Mises’ yield criteria, ‘When a material being plastically deformed has a tendency to flow in all direc- tions, a plane sirain condition implies that the flow in one direction is pre- vented ether by the tooling or by the geometry ofthe component (sheet rolling, for example). ‘A plain strain condition (¢;, €, = 0, €3) does not imply that the stress 0, is zero. It can be shown from the flow rules {13} that on = ¥Ala1 + 03) (4.33) fail fy FIGURE 4.9 Examples of plane strain conditions.Basle Theory of Metalworking 121 ‘Tresca’s criterion implies then, for a plane strain condition (Eq. (4.30)} 01 ~ 0 = 0% ‘Von Mises’ criterion implies [Eq (4.31)] thet grees 1-0 = Fm 4.39) If the frictional forces are small and no external stresses are provided in the 1-direction (rolling and plane strain compression, for example), Eq. (4.34) is modified to become =% (4.35) Finally, itcan be mentioned that the plastic deformation or flow of metals can basically take place in three different ways: (1) stretching (elongation), (2) com- pression, and (3) shear (simple and pure). Figure 4.10 shows these three basic. types of deformation. In most metalworking processes deformations occur as 4.5 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND EFFECTIVE STRAIN ‘The purpose of introducing these terms is to obtain a convenient way of express- ing the more complex systems of stress and strain acting on an element. This is done by defining effective or equivalent stresses and strains by which the com- plex systems are transformed to equivalent uniaxial situations. A major advan- tage here is that it is now possible to make use of the uniaxial stress-strain curve, giving, for example, the strain-hardening properties. ‘The definition of the effective or equivalent stress ¢ is based on von Mises” yield criterion and is given by © = (Alloy — on + (02 ~ o3) + (05 — PD? (4.36) where the constant 1/2 is chosen so that 6 = 0g for uniaxial tension (0,, 0, 0). Basically, this can be explained as another way of expressing von Mises’ yield criterion (i.e, flow occurs when G = 6). Correspondingly, the effective or equivalent strain @ is defined by Ber +et+ ar)” 43012 Chapter 4 Pure shear « simple shear + rotation ¥ z FIGURE 4.10 The basic types of deformation: () stretching; (b) compression; () sim- ple shear; (4) pute shear. ‘where the constant 2/3 is chosen so that € a2). Equations (4.36) and (4.37) fulfil the intention of obtaining a simple method Of describing complex systems of stress and strain. The stress-strain curve (0, ©) obtained from a tensile test can be considered as a special case of an ef- fective stress-strain curve (G, €). Testing results (6, €) obtained under complex situations can thus be directly compared to the results obtained in simple tension ‘or compression tests. The reverse is true in normal situations: that is, the uni- axial stress-strain curves can be used directly in complex situations when they are expressed in terms of 6 and € for uniaxial tension (€,, ~€)/2, EXAMPLE 6. As exercises, the effective stresses and strains are calculated for the different stress-strain systems shown in Table 4.2.Basle Theory of Metalworking 123 TABLE 4.2 Effective Stresses and Strains for Different Complex Systems of Stress and Strain Process a--de 4 4 Spherical segment Tube = De? ye = t+ (©, - D))aniform deformation4 Chapter 4 FIGURE 4.11 Determination of work of deformation. 4.6 WORK OF DEFORMATION ‘The deformation of a material requires a certain amount of work, depending on the conditions under which the deformation takes place, The deformation work is an important quantity, as it allows a determination of the energy necessary to ‘carry out the deformation and allows a determination of the forces involved Both parameters are necessary for the selection of machinery or the design of machinery. From the stress-strain curve in Fig. 4.11, it can be seen that the work of deformation per unit volume to accomplish a strain increase of de is bn Bk If the deformation i carried out from the strain othe strain, the work per unit volume becomes (4.38) “The work necessary to deform the whole volume V then becomes We [fra =f Pocw (439) If every element in the volume V is supplied with the same amount of work (ho- mogencous deformation), Eq. (4.39) can be written asBasle Theory of Metalworking 125 Homogeneous Friction + Redundant @ (>) te) FIGURE 4.12 Work of deformation: (a) original workpiece; (b) homogeneous defor- ‘mation ofthe workpiece (\.<., homogeneous work of deformation); (c) nonhomogeneous ‘deformation of the workpiece (Le, the work of deformation is equal to homogeneous Work of deformation + frictional work + redundant work). ‘The work per unit volume can also be expressed approximately by the mean yield stress 6,, multiplied by the strain of deformation, Ww = Gale ~ Gi) which combined with Eq. (4.38) gives jee oty ode (4.40) If the stress-strain curve for the material can be represented by the model 6 = ce", Eq, (4.39) becomes we Lae Et av If the initial strain @, is zero and the deformation is homogeneous (i ‘ume elements are supplied withthe same amount of work), Eq. (4.41) becomes wev a (4.42) weit ‘The work represented by Eqs. (4.39), (4.41), and (4.42) isthe minimum work, To find the total work consumed, itis necessary to include the work of friction ‘between the tool and the workpiece and the redundant work. The latter inchudes the work necessary to deform portions or all of the components, without chang- ing the overall geometry. Considering one of the elements in Fig. 4.12, itcan be seen that the deformation from (a) t0 (b) is homogeneous, but the deformation from (a) 10 (¢) is no longer homogeneous, owing to friction and redundant de- formation (the straight sides have become curved), ‘The work to do this curving is the redundant work. In this context the homogeneous work of deformation will predominantly be considered, and it must be remembered that this only constitutes the lower limit126 Chapter 4 of the necessary work. When possible, the friction work will be taken into con- sideration, but redundant work will not be included. EXAMPLE 7. Determine the work necessary to deform a tensile specimen from €, = 0 to€; = € ‘The material can be described by the stress-strain curve G = ce". The original dimensions are D, and l,, and the final dimensions are D; and J. Equation (4.20) gives a Dd, With the assumption of homogeneous deformation, the work necessary can be calculated from Eq. (4.42): (4.43)5 Classification of the Manufacturing Processes 5.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 1 2 morphological model of the manufacturing processes was pre- sented. This model was built up from a few fundamental elements arranged as ‘a material flow, an energy flow, and an information flow. The description of the processes within the framework of the morphological model showed that the processes could appropriately be gathered in groups with certain common fea- tures. The features that distinguish these groups might be the state of the ma- terial, the process type, the basic process, and so on. ‘The more detailed descriptions presented in the following chapters are based ‘on a classification of the processes into a few major groups with one or more ‘basic common feature(s). ‘The aim of this text, in general, isto enable the engineer to distinguish among the various processes and to characterize them by means of their possibilities and limitations concerning material, geometry, tolerances, and surface finish For the application of the processes, both in design and in production, it is im- portant that the description ofthe processes rely on the basic principles covered by the morphological model, since this enables ingenious and imaginative uti- lizations ofthe existing processes and production equipment. This approach has been found to be much more challenging and fruitful than the traditional de- scriptive approach, which has the major disadvantage that only those processes a78 Chapter 5 remembered or known are considered. On the other hand, the systematic ap- proach employed here ensures that all possibilities are included. ‘The classification discussed in the next section is based directly on the mor- phological model described in Chapter 1. As shown in Fig. 5.1, the material, the state of material, and the process type are used as characteristic grouping pa- rameters, giving the headlines of the following chapters. 5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROCESSES A classification of the technological manufacturing processes may be based on many different criteria, depending on its purpose. This classification will, as ‘mentioned, be based on the morphological model discussed in Chapter 1 to ob- tain a structure oriented toward generation of possible manufacturing methods to produce specific components ‘The structure of the classification is thus: Material flow “Type of material State of material Type of process Basie process Energy flow ‘Type of eneray Medium of transfer Information flow ‘Surface creation principle Pattern of motion ‘This structure is shown schematically in Fig. 5.1. In tis context, only processes aiming primarily at geometrical changes (ob- taining specific geometries) will be discussed, but, as described in Chapter 2, the geometrical changes are normally accompanied by changes in other proper- ties (mainly mechanical properties) depending on the process. These process- dependent changes in properties must be taken into consideration when selecting processes. as they may be decisive. An example of a process- dependent change would be the increase in mechanical strength of a metal due to strain hardening by deformati ‘As discussed previously, many processes aiming primarily at changes in ma- terial properties without changing the geometry are available. A major group. and a very important one, constitutes the heat-treatment processes discussed in Chapter 3. Further information concerning these processes can be found in the literature. "Next the elements in the classification structure are discussed brieflyot sates | [eager Mae meee FIGURE 5.1 Classification of the technological manufacturing processes into groups having common features.130 Chapter 5 Type of Material. In Chapter 3 the materials were divided into metal ‘nonmetallic, and composite materials. The classification structure (Fig. 5.1) should cover all the different materials, but only metals and plastics are shown and discussed further in this text. The major consideration will be the metallic ‘materials—Chapters 6 through 10) and 12, 13, and 14—and consequently, Fig. 5.1 is primarily drawn for metals. The production of plastic components is di ‘cussed in Chapter 11, shown dashed in Fig. $.1 State of Material. A given type of material can be shaped in the solid, gran- ular, or liquid state. The state ofthe material describes the situation in the shap- ing phase. Type of Process. Considering materials in the solid state, shaping can be carried out by: ‘Mass-conserving processes (dM = 0): the mass of the component is equal 10 (or closely equal to) the mass of the original material. The basic process is plastic deformation. Mass-reducing processes (dM <0): the final component shape can be cit- ‘cumscribed by the shape of the original material, and the excess is re- moved by mechanical, thermal, or chemical basic processes. Joining processes: the final geometry is obtained by joining the subgeome- Wwies. The subgeometries are produced by one or both of the above- ‘mentioned types of processes. Concerning materials in the granular and liquid states, shaping isin general car- tied out only by mass-conserving processes. In the blocks showing the type of process in Fig. 5.1, the chapters dealing with the specific types of processes for metallic materials are noted. Basic Processes. ‘Three types of basic processes exist: mechanical, thermal, and chemical. These basic processes are not specified in Fig 5.1, since different basic processes may be utilized for each combination of material, state of ma- terial, and actual process. I can be mentioned that, for sotid materials, the basic processes within the ‘mass-conserving processes are mechanical, the basic processes within the mass- reducing processes are predominantly mechanical but some are thermal or chem- ical, and the basic processes within joining processes are predominantly ‘mechanical. For material in the granular and liquid states, the basic processes ‘are predominantly mechanical. Type of Energy. ‘The main types of energy that can be utilized to create the specific type of energy necessary to carry out a given basic process are mechan- ical, electrical, thermal, and chemical. The type of energy is not specified inClassification of the Manufacturing Processes 11 Fig. 5.1, as more than one type can often be utilized for each combination of the previous parameters, depending on the conditions. Medium of Transfer. The requirements of the media of transfer are deter- ‘mined by the type of basic process, the type of energy, and the way in which the surface creation is brought about. The media of transfer can be classified ac- ‘cording to their state as follows: rigid, elastic, plastic, granular, gaseous, liquid, ‘and none (unspecified). Since the requirements for the media of transfer can only be established when the previous parameters have been selected, itis not ‘possible to specify the media in general; consequently, the spaces in Fig. 5.1 are left blank. Surface Creation and Pattern of Motion. It was seen in Chapter | that a sur- face ean be produced as a result of ‘Total forming (TF) One-dimensional forming (ODF) ‘Two-dimensional forming (TDF) Free forming (FF) For each ofthese, the pattern of motions forthe work material and the medium of transfer must now be selected, so that the desired component is obtained. ‘The surface creation and the pattern of motions (the information system) de- scribe the geometrical possibilities of the processes. It is especially important that at this point, the systems are imaginatively utilized. The specification ofthe information system must be cartied out as an iteration by detailing the infor- mation system and the energy system. It should be mentioned that the joining processes are exceptions, as they do not themselves generate geometries. Based on the morphological structure (or model) and the description in the following chapters, the engineer will be able to judge the material properties important in the production, the changes of properties by the processes, the geo- metrical possibilities, and the tolerances and surfaces obtainable.6 Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes 6.1 INTRODUCTION In this major group of manufacturing processes—often called metal-forming processes—the desired geometry is produced by the mechanical basic process, Plastic deformation Within the last couple of decades, this field has developed rapidly, resulting in an increasing number of applications. This is mainly due to the fact that mass- ‘conserving processes used with solid materials provide good material utilization (low waste of expensive material) and excellent final material properties. ‘The mass-conser ving processes can—according to their location inthe series of processes necessary to produce a component—be classified as (1) primary processes and (2) secondary processes. ‘The purposes of the primary processes are twofold: fist, to break down the structure of the materials in the form of ingots produced by casting in ‘order to improve the material properties (in particular the mechanical proper- ties) and second, to provide products (e.g., rods, bars, plates, sheets, tubes, tc.) that can be processed by secondary processes. The primary processes in- clude rolling, forging, extrusion, and so on. The secondary processes aim at the production of semifinal or final components based on the products of the Primary processes. The secondary processes include mass conserving pro- ‘cesses, such as forging, sheet metal forming (including bending, deep drawing, 1331m Chapter 6 stretching, spinning. etc.); mass-reducing processes, such as cutting, electrodis- charge, and electrochemical machining; and assembly processes. ‘A classification of processes into primary and secondary categories is not completely suitable because, depending on certain parameters, a given process may be regarded as belonging to either group. However, the classification is Useful because for each group. it is possible to establish some overriding chi scteristcs, allowing general judgments to be made of the processes, their pos- sibilities, and their limitations. Thus the primary processes are in general hot- working processes that are based on plastic deformations applied to materials heated above the recrystallization temperature. Under these conditions, the met: als can be considered to be perfectly plastic. allowing large deformations with- ‘out fracture in compression. Hot-working processes normally have the following advantages: ‘The coarse (dendritic) crystal structure from the casting is broken down to form a refined structure with small and equiaxial grains. Impurities are broken up and distributed more evenly throughout the material Pores or voids are closed up. Mechanical properties are improved considerably (especially ductility and impact strength), because of the refined structure, Forces and energy necessary to carry out the processes are relatively small, due to the lower yield strength of the material at elevated temperatures (note, however, that strain rate has the opposite influence; see Chapter 3 and Fig. 2.5) Shape can be changed quite drastically (.¢., large deformations are obtain- able in compression). Some of the disadvantages associated with hot working are: Rapid oxidation (i.e., formation of scales, resulting in rough surfaces), Relatively wide tolerances (2~5%), due to the rough surfaces. Hot-working machinery is expensive and requires considerable maintenance. Basically, the same principles of processing are utilized in both the hot and cold working of metals. Since no distinction between these two categories is ‘made in the following description, the main advantages and disadvantages for cold working are mentioned first. In general, compared to hot working, cold working of metals will give: Better surfaces and tolerances Better mechanical properties (strength) Beter reproducibility ‘Anisotropy (j.e., directional properties of the material—thi vantage when itis possible to utilize the effect) is only an ad-Sold Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes 135 ‘Some of the disadvantages of cold working compared to hot working are: Increased force and energy requirements, due to strain hardening (i.e heavier and more powerful equipment is required). Less ductility in the work material Anisotropy is produced in the workpiece (an advantage in many sheet- forming processes). Clean and scale-free surfaces are required on the original workpiece ‘The distinction made here between primary and secondary processes must not ‘be confused with the classification into primary and secondary basic processes described in Chapter 1. 6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS-CONSERVING PROCESSES In this section some of the general characteristics of mass-conserving processes for solid materials are discussed As mentioned previously, a close relationship exists between the information system and the material system {ie., among the geometry, the basic process, and the material (see Fig. 6.1)}. These systems cannot be selected indepen- deni. Here the process is mass conserving and the material i in the solid state. ‘The conditions under which the proces is carried out (.., the pressure, tem- perature, velocity etc.) play an important role, since they can influence the pos- sibilities and limitations ofthe process toa high degree. 6.2.1 Geometrical Possibilities In Chapter 1 the information system was described by principles of surface cre- ation and the pattern of motions for work material and tooling (media of trans- fet). In the following description the information system will not be related ‘directly to specific materials, types of energy, and media of transfer, as only the ‘overriding characteristics are considered. More details are given in later sections. ‘The principles of surface creation are: 1, Total forming (TF) 2. One-dimensional forming (ODF) 3. ‘Two-dimensional forming (TDF) 4. Free forming (FF) ‘The pattern of motions must be one of the following: translations (T), rotations, (R), combinations of translations and rotations (T/R), and no motion. In gen- ‘eral, it can be stated thatthe more shape information that is built into the media136 Chapter 6 Process (basic pro- cess and conditions) FIGURE 6.1 The relationship among geometry, process, and material, of transfer (the tooling), the less freedom there is inthe selection of the pattern cof motions. Tables 6.1 through 6.4 show examples of processes within the four surface creation principles; the corresponding pattern of motions is listed for each process. These examples serve to illustrate the many possibilities for shape generation, Here it must be emphasized that an imaginative utilization of the surface creation principles and pattern of motions is very important in evaluat- ing the geometrical possibilities. More detailed descriptions of important pro- cesses are given in Section 6.3. In practice, the geometrical possibilities must be judged in relation tothe spe- cific material. For example, isi To be able to judge if a desired geometry and final material properties can be produced, the conditions under which the process is carried out must be known. ‘The major influencing factors are the state of stress in the deformation zone, the temperature, and the velocity The State of Stress ‘The deformation zone in a process can be characterized by the magnitudes and state of the stresses. The size of the deformation zone for a fixed state of stress determines the forces and energy necessary to carry out the process. ThisSolld Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes 1s7 TABLE 6.1 Examples of Total Forming (TF) Paern of motions Examples of Workpiece | Tool ‘Total forming processes Forging Bending Impact forging ‘Tube expansion Upsetting information is needed both for the design of the equipment and for the deter- ‘mination of the maximum size or yield strength of the components that can be processed using given equipment or machinery. ‘The size of the deformation zone is determined primarily by the contact area between the workpiece and the medium of transfer (the tool or die). Here a dis- tinction must be made between total deformation and partial deformation. In total deformation, the contact area covers the whole or most ofthe desired sur- face ((e., the deformation zone is simultaneously extended through the whole‘TABLE 6.2 Examples of One-Dimensional Forming (ODF) Pattern of motions = Examples of ‘Workpiece | Too! One-dimensional forming processes Diret extrusion t Z Z € Wire drawing T Indirect extrusion Deep drawing Fs eo R ‘ending T R & ee @ Rolling i T T Bar forging R r Ring forging 7 fe x Rll bendingSolld Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes TABLE 6.3 Examples of Two-Dimensional Forming (TDF) Pattern of motions a fae = ons wie . fs40 Chapter 6 TABLE 6.4 Examples of Free-Forming Processes a aaa cic |aes mem ae ing re ® RS Teaion DO @ ‘component). In partial deformation, the contact area covers only a fraction of the surface; that is, at a given instant deformation is occurring within only a fraction ofthe total volume of the component, thus requiring a particular pattern ‘of motions to describe the whole volume (sce Fig. 6.2). ‘The principles shown in Fig. 6.2 will, when considering the same product ‘or component, result in different force and energy requirements. If the same reduction is produced by forging and rolling (Fig. 6.28 and b), rolling will require much smaller forces but will take more time. Further, the geometry in rolling puts no limitations on the length of the component, whereas forg- ing does. ‘The reduction of the contact area, and thus the deformation zone, as a ‘method to obtain the same final deformation with smaller forces and energies hhas been known for centuries, and is the philosophy behind many processes t0- day (including mass-reducing processes such as turning, grinding, etc.). Pro- ‘cesses based on this principle are often called incremental processes, as opposed to total processes.Solid Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes M1 SIZE OF DEFOR- MATION ZONE FIGURE 6.2 Total and partial deformation. Figure 6.3 shows how an incremental process can be developed [1]. The purpose is to reduce the wall thickness of a tube without changing the in- ternal diameter. In the basic process, the tube is pushed or pulled through ‘conical die, and the constancy of the internal diameter is maintained by an internal mandrel. The die is subjected to high radial forces, and large forces are required to pull or push the tube through the die. The deformation zone is circular, extending from the contact area between the die and the tube, through the tube, to the mandrel. The contact area can be reduced by replacing the die with @ number of balls or conical rollers supported by an outer ring, which rotates during the deformation. A reduction of the forces to push or pull the tube is accomplished, but the ring is sill subjected to high radial forces. Furthermore, both these processes require a special die system for each tube diameter. If the number of rollers is reduced to one, and the smaller forces necessary are supplied by the machine structure, a spinning process (Fig. 6.3c) is the result, This is a much more versatile process, since different wall thick- nesses and tube diameters can be obtained by simply changing the position of the roller. ‘The principles of reducing the contact area cen also be utilized in mass- reducing processes (1]. For example, the punching of circular holes (x total pro- ‘ess) can, by reducing the contact area, be transformed into an incrementalMz Chapter 6 Mandel (o) Mandrel. a ( FIGURE 6.3. The development of incremental processes by reducing the contact arca/ deformation zone: (a) tube drawing/tube extrusion; (b) ball rolling: () spinning.Solld Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes us process by a pair of rollers or die elements or by a saw blade. In the same way, forch cutting can be considered an incremental (thermal) process. ‘The size of the deformation zone has now been discussed, and the next im- portant question is: What state of stress exists in this zone? The state of stress is important, because it detetmines the deformation obtainable before instability ‘and fracture occur and the forces required. ‘Most manufacturing processes take place under complex states of stress, and itis, in general, difficult to characterize a process by a single state of stress, since the state of stress varies throughout the deformation zone. The processes ‘can be approximately classified into four groups, according to the dominant state of stress: 1, Tension (one-, two-, or three-dimensional) 2. Compression (one-, two-, of three-dimensional) 3. Shear 4. Bending (nonhomogeneous) Often, two or more of these states can be found in the same process. Considering. the deep-drawing process (p. 155), the state of stress in the cylindrical wall tension, and in the flange, compression. But as described previously (Chapters 2 and 4), the classification of the state of stress is very important in evaluating. the maximum deformation thatthe material can sustain before instability occurs. ‘When planning a particular process or developing a new process concept, study of the deformation zone (size and state of stress) is fundamental. In Sec- tion 6.3, where some important processes are described, the states of stress are listed, allowing a basic evaluation of the deformation characteristics. Temperature ‘The temperature in the deformation zone is an important parameter. Above the recrystallization temperature very large deformations in compression can be obtained without fracture. In tension instability occurs at very low strains. Below the recrystallization temperature strain hardening in tension increases the possible strains up to instability, and in compression it reduces the strains up to fracture. Velocity ‘The velocity with which the process is carried out can influence the maxi- ‘mum deformation quite strongly, as shown in Fig. 2.5. Different materials react differently to the deformation velocity (strain rate). Some will exhibit in- creased ductility, and some decreased ductility. In actual situations, the strain rate must be estimated, and the influence on the properties of the particular ma terial evaluated In general, it is found thatthe strain rate at room temperature has no signif- icant influence on the stress-strain curve, but elevated temperatures normallyMs Chapter 6 TABLE 6.5 Typical Deformation Velocities “Toolidie velocity Process (deformation velocity) (ms) Tension test 10-107 Hydraulic press 2x 0-23 x 197* ‘Tube drawing 5x 10°25 x 107* ‘Sheet rolling Forging 2-10 Wire drawing 340 High-velocity forging. 20-50 Explosive forming 30-200 ‘Source: From Ref increase the strain rate sensitivity. In hot-working processes itis therefore nec essary to analyze carefully the strain rate situation and its consequences. Table 6.5 shows typical values of deformation velocities (not strain rates) for different processes. Other Important Factors ‘The geometry and surface of the tools, friction, lubrication, and the state of stress determine the final surface finish. Ifthe desired surface quality is consid- ered, good lubrication sometimes leads to poor surfaces, as the lubrication can bbe entrapped in the small cavities on the surface. A substitution of the tool/die ‘material from a metal to an elastic material such as rubber can result in better surfaces with a given work material without destruction occurring. ‘The tolerances obtainable are difficult to describe in general, since they are dependent on the size of the deformation zone, the state of stress, the workpiece geometry, the tool/die system, and the equipment. Ifthe deformations are small, ‘elastic recovery must be considered. It may be difficult to obtain fine tolerances when the elastic deformation is of the same order of magnitude as the pl deformation. In summary, it can be stated that the major factors affecting pro- ‘cessing by mass-conserving processes are workpiece geometry, deformation zone (size and state of stress), temperature, deformation, velocity, lu! the properties of the workpiece material, and the tool/die material. 6.2.3 Important Material Properties ‘The amount of deformation that « material can sustain without instability oF fracture depends, as described earlier, on the state of stress, the temperature, and the strain rate. In Chapter 4 it was found that instability occurs when a strain ‘equal to the strain-hardening exponent was reached in a material following the relation 0 = c&". Ifthe same material is deformed under compressive stresses,Solld Materials: Mass-Conserving Processes Ms ‘considerably higher deformations are obtainable, limited only by fracture at lo- cations where high tensile stresses are generated. Ina drawing operation, a material may be elongated 40%, whereas in rol it can be elongated 400%. A major advantage of mass-conserving processes of the cold-working type isthe strength improvement of the material, due to strain hardening. Compared to casting or hot working, the strength improvement is often so high that a cheaper work material can be selected. ‘The final properties of the material can be evaluated with reasonable accu- racy from the stress-strain curve and a knowledge of the strains and the condi- tions under which the process is carried out. Force and energy calculations are discussed in Section 6.4. TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF MASS-CONSERVING PROCESSES In the following pages short descriptions are given of a number of mass- conserving processes. The processes are classified according tothe fundamental elements, basic process, energy to carry out the process, media of transfer, prin- le of surface creation, and the predominant state of stress. All the processes are mass conserving and solid materials are used. ‘The following abbreviations are used in the classification: Basic process M, mechanical 1, thermal , chemical Energy Me, mechanical EI, electrical (including magnetic) ‘Th, thermal Ch, chemical Media of transfer igid Ea, elastic PI, plastic Ga, gaseous Gr, granular F, fluid Principles of surface creation ‘TR, total forming ODF, one-dimensional forming ‘TDF, two-dimensional forming FF, free forming