Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

(University of the City of Manila)

Intramuros, Manila

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

WRITTEN REPORT ABOUT COMPUTER APPLICATIONS, DATA PROCESSING

CYCLE AND TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Submitted to:

Mr. Zaldy G. San Pedro

Professor

Submitted by:
Aquino, Mark Loniel R.
Capillas, Pamela Elaine V.
Galera, Ruth Anne B.
Hizon, Joselle P.
Trinidad, Hanika B.

GROUP 2
 BSN IV – 1
INFORMATION SYSTEM
An information system represents all the elements involved in the management,
processing, transport, and distribution of information within the organization.

In practical terms, the scope of term in Information System can differ greatly from one
organization to another and depending on the example may cover all or some of the following
elements:

 Company databases
 Integrated Management software
 Client relationship management tool (Customer Relationship Management)
 Supply chain management tool (SCM – Supply chain Management)
 Application jobs
 Network infrastructure
 Data servers and storage systems
 Application servers
 Security devices

Data Processing

 The systematic performance of operations upon data such as handling, merging, sorting,
and computing. Note: The semantic content of the original data should not be changed.
The semantic content f the processed data may be changed.

Technical Competencies

 Actual psychomotor use of a computer and technological equipment.

Nursing Informatics Competencies

 Ability to use selected applications in comfortable and knowledgeable way.

 Nurses must be confident in use of computers and software in practice setting.

Computer Applications in Clinical Nursing Practice

A. Admission, Discharge, and Transfer

 Uses:
  Admission – used to obtain biographical information
 Discharge and Transfer – departments automatically identify the patient,
their beds, and location.
 Benefits:
 Less phone calls
 Conserves time and energy

B. Nursing Documentation
 Uses:
 Assessment
 Nursing Care Plan (NCP)
 Medications
 Records
 Nurse’s notes
 Discharge plans
 Benefits:
 NCPs are standardized and individualized.
 Documents are typed, thus more legible.
 Nurse’s notes are made quickly due to choice of appropriate statements.
 List of medications are printed at predetermined times.
 If not charted, and medications are overdue, a reminder will be
printed.
 Dosage of calculations is made fast and accurate.

C. Nursing Education
 Uses:
 Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
 Method of teaching that involves interaction between learner and
computer.
 Computer takes role of teacher.

Three Types of CAI.

o Drill and Practice – most common and least complex.

 Questions and problems are presented with
materials that have been learned.
 Used in drug calculations, I.V. drip rate,etc.
o Tutorial – presents new materials that are similar to
programmed instructions
 Presents information and provide learners a
feedback.
o Simulation – presents “real life situation” that are designed to
assist learners with problem solving and decision making skills.
  Interactive Video Instruction (IAV) combines
with video type/video music player provide
learners with true to life situations.

D. Nursing Research
 Uses:
 Computers facilitate through literature searches.
 Benefits:
 Saves time
 Increases scope and research
 Helps in analyzing and collecting data
 Prepares researcher with dissemination

E. Nursing Administration
 Uses:
 The patient Classification System staff based on how severely ill the
patients are.
 Computerized inventory system that can be integrated with the client
billing systems.
 Prepares records and mailing list.
 Number of nurses needed in each units are determined.
 Schedule of nurse’s day off.
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
 Is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create
it. Textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that
maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it
as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines."

 The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—the
sapience of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a
machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and limits of
scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy
since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also
suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry,
providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.

 AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often
fail to communicate with each other. Subfields have grown up around particular
institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems,
longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the application of
widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning,
knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and
manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still a long-term goal of
(some) research.

 Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis,
stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery and toys.

2 types of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Weak Artificial Intelligence

 Weak A.I. refers to technology that is able to manipulate predetermined

rules and apply the rules to reach a well-defined goal (Bethell, 2006).

 This type of A.I. is presently incorporated into society, especially in large

industries. Assembly lines, for example utilize programs that allow machines to
work independently of their operator for hours on end. Voice recognition
software is also considered a large part of artificial intelligence.
 The most inspirational technologies that are projected to emerge from the
development of weak A.I. are the robotic, genetic and nanotechnological
revolutions. These three revolutions are linked together. The thought is that
once the human body is decrypted via the revolution in genetics, robots will be
able to be made which will serve to treat the various malfunctions of the human
body. Once this is accomplished, the hope is that a nanotechnology revolution
will take place in which the robots that treat disease will be able to actually be
incorporated into our bodies, function autonomously and fix our malfunctions.
 2. Strong Artificial Intelligence
 Refers to technology that has the ability to think cognitively or is able to
function in a way similar to the human brain.
 Some say this technology will never be achieved or is eons from being achieved;
the basic hopes for the technology still exist. One hope is incorporated into the
weak technological revolution of nanotechnology. The hope is that these
nanobots will not only be able to help our bodies fight disease but also to make
our bodies more intelligent. The other hope is to engineer an artificial neural
network capable of functioning that is comparable to a human brain. Although
strong A.I. is still only in the conceptive stage, it is this technology that is the
fuel that drives the fear associated with artificial intelligence.

Medicine

A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make a staff
rotation, and provide medical information.

Artificial neural networks are used for medical diagnosis (such as in Concept Processing
technology in EMR software), functioning as machine differential diagnosis.
 BIOMETRICS

 The study of unchanging measurable biological characteristics. In computer security,

biometrics refers to authentication techniques that rely on measurable physical
characteristics that can be automatically checked.
 Biometrics can be implemented by: companies, governments, military, border control,
hospitals, banks, etc. to either verify a person's identity for something like limiting or
allowing access to a certain building area, computer files, border crossings, or to identify
individuals to record information about them such as with criminals, for example.

There are several types of biometric identification schemes:

 face: the analysis of facial characteristics

 fingerprint: the analysis of an individual’s unique fingerprints
 hand geometry: the analysis of the shape of the hand and the length of the fingers
 retina: the analysis of the capillary vessels located at the back of the eye
 iris: the analysis of the colored ring that surrounds the eye’s pupil
 Signature: the analysis of the way a person signs his name.
 vein: the analysis of pattern of veins in the back if the hand and the wrist
 voice: the analysis of the tone, pitch, cadence and frequency of a person’s voice.

BIOMETRICS SOLUTIONS

Biometrics Solution Showcases profile BIOMETRICS APPLICATIONS

leading Industry products by type.
Biometrics Application Showcases profile
 Fingerprint Readers leading Industry products by use
 Iris Scanners & Recognition
 Hand Readers & Finger Scanners  Physical Access Control
 Facial Recognition  Logical Access Control
 Voice / Speech Recognition  Justice / Law Enforcement
 Biometrics Consultants  Time and Attendance
 Biometrics Smart Cards  HealthCare Biometrics
 Signature / Keystroke Biometrics  Border Control / Airports
 Vein Recognition  Financial and Transactional
 Biometrics Sensors and Detectors  Biometrics Integrators and Resellers
 Middleware / Software  Mobile Biometrics
 2D Bar Code Scanners  Fingerprint and Biometrics Locks
 Consumer / Residential Biometric
Biometrics Characteristics

1. Physiological Biometrics

 features notably identified through the 5 senses and processed by finite

calculable differences:  Sight (how a person looks including things like hair & eye
color, teeth, or facial features),  Sound (the pitch of a person's voice), Smell (a
person's odor or scent), Taste (the composition of a person's saliva - or DNA),
Touch (such as fingerprints or hand-prints).

2. Behavioral Biometrics

 Based on the manner in which a person conducts themselves, such as: writing
style, walking rhythm, typing speed, etc.

In order for any of these characteristics to be used in sustained identification encryption

purposes, they must meet the criteria of:  reliable, unique, collectable, convenient, longevity,
universal, and acceptable.

Currently, Biometrics is used with humans under two circumstances: Voluntarily for things

like: employment, access to special services, information or protection, and Involuntarily for
criminal identification and border control. As the technology improves and the implementation
costs decrease, it will become more and more a part of our lives - especially in areas such as:
the USA, UK, Europe, Japan, Middle East, Australia and Canada.

The Acceptance of the Use of Biometrics

The main concern for clients of biometrics devices is the accuracy of measurability,
and cost effectiveness. Again, as technology improves and costs decrease, identification and
verification systems will be implemental by industries who find it in their best interest (cost vs.
necessity) to safeguard their data and assets. The main concerns for the general public
acceptance of the voluntary use of biometrics identification are: privacy, necessity and identity
protection. Many individuals are concerned that information collected about them could be used
against them such as medical records preventing them from the ability to get health or critical
illness insurance.  The other concern about biometrics is the information getting into the wrong
hands. This being said, when the convenience of the use of these devices is met with the
confidence in their effectiveness and secure-ability they will become culturally accepted.  
 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

 Is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often
involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering
drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes,
dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be
used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces,
and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

 CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,
prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for
special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and
power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are
designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its
enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in
computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete
differential geometry.

 The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called
computer-aided geometric design (CAGD). Is the use of a wide range of computer-based
tools that assist engineers, architects and other design professionals in their design
activities.

 CAD is sometimes translated as "computer-assisted", "computer-aided drafting", or a

similar phrase. Related acronyms are CADD, which stands for "computer-aided design
and drafting", CAID for Computer-aided Industrial Design and CAAD, for "computer-
aided architectural design". All these terms are essentially synonymous, but there are
some subtle differences in meaning and application.

 CAD is used to design and develop products, these can be goods used by end
consumers or intermediate goods used in other products. CAD is also extensively used in
the design of tools and machinery used in the manufacture of components. CAD is used
throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout, through detailed
engineering and analysis of components to definition of manufacturing methods.

Fields of use

 Fashion Design
 AEC Architecture Engineering and Construction
 MCAD Mechanical
o Automotive
o Aerospace
o Consumer Goods
o Machinery
 o Ship Building
 ECAD Electronic and Electrical
 Manufacturing process planning

Software providers today

This is an ever changing industry with many well know products and companies being
taken over and merged with others. There are many CAD software products currently on the
market. More than half of the market is however covered by the four main PLM corporations
Autodesk, Dassault Systems, PTC, and UGS Corp., but there are many other CAD packages with
smaller user bases or covering niche user areas.

Packages can be classified into 3 types: 2D drafting systems (e.g. AutoCAD,

Microstation); mid-range 3D solid feature modelers (e.g. SolidWorks, SolidEdge, Alibre); and
high-end 3D hybrid systems (e.g. CATIA, NX (Unigraphics)). However these classifications
cannot be too strictly taken as many 2D systems have 3D modules, the mid-range systems are
increasing their surface functionality, and the high-end systems have developed their user
interface in the direction of interactive Windows systems.

Capabilities

The capabilities of modern CAD systems include:

 Wireframe geometry creation

 3D parametric feature based modeling, Solid modeling
 Freeform surface modeling
 Automated design of assemblies, which are collections of parts and/or other assemblies
 create Engineering drawings from the solid models
 Reuse of design components
 Ease of modification of designs of model and the production of multiple versions
 Automatic generation of standard components of the design
 Validation/verification of designs against specifications and design rules
 Simulation of designs without building a physical prototype
 Output of engineering documentation, such as manufacturing drawings, and Bills of
Materials to reflect the BOM required to build the product
 Import/Export routines to exchange data with other software packages
 Output of design data directly to manufacturing facilities
 Output directly to a Rapid Prototyping or Rapid Manufacture Machine for industrial
prototypes
 maintain libraries of parts and assemblies
 calculate mass properties of parts and assemblies
 aid visualization with shading, rotating, hidden line removal, etc...
 Bi-directional parametric associatively (modification of any feature is reflected in all
information relying on that feature; drawings, mass properties, assemblies, etc... and
counter wise)
 kinematics, interference and clearance checking of assemblies
  sheet metal
 hose/cable routing
 electrical component packaging
 inclusion of programming code in a model to control and relate desired attributes of the
model
 Programmable design studies and optimization
 Sophisticated visual analysis routines, for draft, curvature, curvature continuity...

Software technologies

Originally software for CAD systems were developed with computer language such as
Fortran, but with the advancement of Object-oriented programming methods this has over the
last decade or so radically changed. The development of a typical modern Parametric feature
based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key, C programming
language, modules with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the
interaction a GUI with an Associative engine and Geometry constraint engine controlling BREP,
CSG and NURBS geometry via a Geometric modeling kernel.

Hardware and OS technologies

Today most CAD computer workstations are Windows based PCs; some CAD systems
also run on hardware running with one of the Unix operating systems and a few with Linux.
Generally no special hardware is required with the exception of a high end OpenGL based
Graphics card; however for complex product design machines with high speed (and possibly
multiple) CPUs and large amount of RAM are recommended. The human-machine interface is
generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet.
Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a
spacemouse/spaceball. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D
model.

Terminology

 CAD (MCAD - mechanical, ECAD -electronic and electrical, AEC - Architecture,

engineering and construction ...) Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of a wide
range of computer-based tools that assist engineers, architects and other design
professionals in their design activities.
 CAE, CAx Computer-aided engineering is the use of information technology for
supporting engineers in tasks such as analysis, simulation, design, manufacture,
planning, diagnosis and repair.
 CAM Computer-aided manufacturing is the use of software tools that assist engineers, in
the manufacture of product components.
 GD&T GD&T, also referred to as geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, is a symbolic
language used on engineering drawings and computer generated three-dimensional
solid models (CAD) for explicitly describing nominal geometry and its allowable variation.
 PLM Product lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle
of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and
disposal. In the PLM process engineers use different CAD/CAE/CAM tools.
The Effects of CAD

Beginning in the 1980's Computer-Aided Design programs reduced the need of

draftsmen significantly especially in small to mid-sized companies. Their affordability and ability
to run on personal computers also allowed engineers to do their own drafting work eliminating
the need for entire departments. In Today’s world most if not all students in universities do not
learn drafting techniques because they are not required to do so. The days of mechanical
drawings are almost obsolete. Universities such as New Jersey Institute of Technology no
longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create mechanical drawings, instead
there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software such as Pro Engineer or IDEAS-
MS.

Another consequence had been that since the latest advances were often quite expensive,
small and even mid-size firms often could not compete against large firms who could use their
computational edge for competitive purposes. Today, however, hardware and software costs
have come down. Even high-end packages work on less expensive platforms and some even
support multiple platforms. The costs associated with CAD implementation now are more
heavily weighted to the costs of training in the use of these high level tools, the cost of
integrating a CAD/CAM/CAE PLM using enterprise across multi-CAD and multi-platform
environments and the costs of modifying design work flows to exploit the full advantage of CAD
tools. CAD vendors have effectively lowered these training costs. These methods can be split
into three categories:

1. Improved and simplified user interfaces. This includes the availability of “role” specific
tailorable user interfaces through which commands are presented to users in a form
appropriate to their function and expertise.
2. Enhancements to application software. One such example is improved design-in-context,
through the ability to model/edit a design component from within the context of a large,
even multi-CAD, active digital mockup.
3. User oriented modeling options. This includes the ability to free the user from the need
to understand the design intent history of a complex intelligent model.

Product lifecycle

Computer-Aided Design is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity
within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) process, and as such is used together with
other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:

 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machines
 Photo realistic rendering
 Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).
 DATA PROCESSING
DATA is defined as any collection of facts. Thus, sales reports, inventory figures, test
scores, customer’s names and addresses, and weather reports are all examples of data. Even
photographs, drawings and maps are considered data. Note that data may be numerical
(inventory figures and test scores) or they may be nonnumerical (names of students and
addresses, drawings).

DATA PROCESSING is the manipulation of data into a more useful form. It is the
modern way for paperwork and involves the collecting, processing and distributing of facts and
figures to achieve a desired result. Data processing includes not only numerical calculations but
also operations such as the classification of data and the transmission of data from one place to
another. In general, we assume that these operations are performed by some type of machine
or computer, although some of them could also be carried out manually. DATA PROCESSING
SYSTEM refers to the equipment or devices and procedures by which the result is achieved.

CATEGORIES OF DATA PROCESSING

Major data processing employs machines and other devices falls into two basic
categories:

1. Mechanical system- usually requires constant manual intervention between the

different data processing operations. This system employs tools and materials such as
pencils, pens, multiple-copy forms, carbon paper and filing cabinets. Mechanical
processing systems use a combination of manual procedures and mechanical
equipment. The system uses various devices such as typewriters, sorters, calculators,
collators, tabulators, duplicators and verifiers. Most of these systems operate on punch
cards.
2. Electronic system- the different operations are performed automatically with a
minimum of manual intervention. In this data processing different types of input, output
and storage devices may be interconnected to an electronic computer to process data.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Regardless of the kind of data processed or the kind of device or equipment used, all
data processing systems involve at least three basic steps: input, processing, and output. These
three steps constitute the data processing cycle.
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
 1. INPUT – in this initial data, or input data, are prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electromechanical devices are used, the input data are punched on cards; but if
electronic computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any several types of
input medium such as cards, tapes, and disc.
2. PROCESSING – in this step the input data are changed, and usually combined with
other information, to produce data in a more useful form. It usually involves a sequence
of certain basic processing operations. Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time
cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
3. OUTPUT – the results of processing steps are collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be
paychecks for employees, a printed summary for management or simply data to be
stored for further processing at a later date.

EXPANDED DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Three more steps are added to the basic data processing cycle to obtain the expanded
data processing cycle. These three additional steps are origination, distribution and storage.

1. ORIGINATION – refers to the process of collecting the original data. An original

recording of the data is called a SOURCE DOCUMENT. For example, the source
documents for the determination of student’s grades are the graded test papers of the
students. Note that if there is any questions concerning the student’s final grade, one
could go back to the source documents to see if any error had been made during the
processing step.
2. DISTRIBUTION – refers to the distribution of output data. Recordings of the output
data are often called REPORT DOCUMENTS. The report document in case of the
student’s grades is the class grade sheet which is forwarded to the registrar. The flow
line which goes from the distribution box back to the origination box indicates that
report documents may become the source documents for further date processing.
3. STORAGE – it is crucial in many data processing procedures. Data processing results
are frequently placed in storage to be used as input data for further processing at a later
date. A unified set of data in storage is called a FILE. Usually a file consists of a
collection of records, where each record contains similar data items, and a collection of
related files is called a DATA BASE.

ORIGINATION

INPUT

PROCESSING STORAGE
 OUTPUT

DISTRIBUTION

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
A. ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. General-Purpose Computers – capable of dealing with a variety of different

problems; speed and efficient

2. Special-Purpose Computers – designed to perform a specific task, with limited

capabilities and the program of instructions is built into the machine.

B. ACCORDING TO DATA HANDLED

1. Analog Computers
- Deal with continuously changing physical data (pressure, temperature or data
that can be measured)
- Express changing relationships in output in forms of graphs
- Used for operations that resulted to approximated value

2. Digital Computers
- Work with values that are in discrete form
- Results to data that are exact in values
- Used for business applications, scientific operations
- Ideal when 100% accuracy is desired, thus resulting in data that are in exact
values

3. Hybrid Computers
- Incorporate in a single machine the capabilities of the analog and digital
computers
- Used in space vehicle simulations and training astronauts

C. ACCORDING TO CAPACITY

CAPACITY – amount of data that can be stored in memory

 – speed of the internal operation of computer
– capacity of storage devices
– number and types of peripheral devices

1. Microcomputer
- Known as a “Single-Chip Processor” or a “System-on-a-Chip”
- Small computers, which are portable
- Uses microprocessor, Read-Only Memory (ROM), and a Random-Access
Memory (RAM)
- Examples are desktop, floor standing units, laptops, notebooks, pocket pc,
pen computers

2. Minicomputers
- Machines which are in the middle of microcomputers and mainframes in
terms of cost and capability
- Acts as servers which are connected to several workstations or terminals
- $ 20,000 - $ 250,000

3. Mainframes
- Oldest category
- Air-cooled computers about the size of a jeep
- Used mostly by banks, airlines, and insurance companies that handles
millions of transactions
- $ 50,000 - $ 5 million

4. Supercomputers
- Biggest and fastest computers; fastest calculating device ever invented
- Can perform 50 million instructions per second
- Used in applications such as nuclear weapon development and accurate
weather forecasting
- $ 225,000 – more than $ 30 million