3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

Shielded metal arc welding

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as
manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux
shielded arc welding[1] or informally as stick
welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld.

An electric current, in the form of either alternating

current or direct current from a welding power supply, is
used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the
metals to be joined. The workpiece and the electrode
melts forming a pool of molten metal (weld pool) that
cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating
of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve Shielded metal arc welding
as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric
contamination.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 1/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc
welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes in the
maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to
be used extensively in the construction of heavy steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used
primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be
welded with this method.[2]

Contents
Development
Operation
Quality
Safety
Application and materials
Equipment
Power supply
Electrode
Process variations
Notes
References
External links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 2/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

Development
After the discovery of the short pulsed electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy[3][4] and of the continuous electric arc
in 1802 by Vasily Petrov,[4][5] there was little development in electrical welding until Auguste de Méritens
developed a carbon arc torch that was patented in 1881.[1]

In 1885, Nikolay Benardos and Stanisław Olszewski developed carbon arc welding,[6] obtaining American patents
from 1887 showing a rudimentary electrode holder. In 1888, the consumable metal electrode was invented by
Nikolay Slavyanov. Later in 1890, C. L. Coffin received U.S. Patent 428,459 (https://www.google.com/patents/US
428459) for his arc welding method that utilized a metal electrode. The process, like SMAW, deposited melted
electrode metal into the weld as filler.[7]

Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger and Oscar Kjellberg released the first coated electrodes. Strohmenger used clay
and lime coating to stabilize the arc, while Kjellberg dipped iron wire into mixtures of carbonates and silicates to
coat the electrode.[8] In 1912, Strohmenger released a heavily coated electrode, but high cost and complex
production methods prevented these early electrodes from gaining popularity. In 1927, the development of an
extrusion process reduced the cost of coating electrodes while allowing manufacturers to produce more complex
coating mixtures designed for specific applications. In the 1950s, manufacturers introduced iron powder into the
flux coating, making it possible to increase the welding speed.[9]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 3/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

In 1938 K. K. Madsen described an automated variation of SMAW, now known as gravity welding. It briefly gained
popularity in the 1960s after receiving publicity for its use in Japanese shipyards though today its applications are
limited. Another little used variation of the process, known as firecracker welding, was developed around the same
time by George Hafergut in Austria.[10] In 1964 laser welding was developed in Bell Laboratory with the intention
of using this technology as a communication tool. Due to the large force of energy coupled with the small area of
focus, this laser became a powerful heat source for cutting and tooling.[11]

Operation
To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into
contact with the workpiece by a very light touch of the
electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then pulled
back slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of
the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes
droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode
to the weld pool. Striking an arc, which varies widely
based upon electrode and workpiece composition, can be
the hardest skill for beginners. The orientation of the
electrode to workpiece is where most stumble, if the
electrode is held at a perpendicular angle to the workpiece
the tip will likely stick to the metal which will fuse the SMAW weld area
electrode to the workpiece which will cause it to heat up

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 4/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

very rapidly. The tip of the electrode needs to be at a lower angle to the workpiece, which allows the weld pool to
flow out of the arc. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases that protect the
weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the
filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface
and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the
finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding to remove
the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with
chipping away the slag, reduces the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one
of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of operator's time spent
laying weld, is approximately 25%.[12]

The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece, and the position
of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat
welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This
permits higher welding speeds.

Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode
that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally
means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.[13]

Quality

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 5/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow
penetration, and cracking.

Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs.
Secondary finishing services are often required due to the aesthetic appearance caused by the occurrence of molten
splatter.[14] It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition associated with direct
current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can
also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially
when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.

Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern
because it can potentially weaken the weld. Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though
it is often easily visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an improper
electrode.

Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by decreasing welding speed, increasing
the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the weld prone to
cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can lead to
cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed. Furthermore, the workpieces
should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as
the weld cools and contracts.[15]

Safety
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 6/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

SMAW welding, like other welding methods, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice if proper precautions are
not taken. The process uses an open electric arc, which presents a risk of burns which are prevented by personal
protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and long sleeve jackets. Additionally, the brightness of the
weld area can lead to a condition called arc eye, in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and
can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in
recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to
high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, especially in industrial environments, translucent welding
curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby
workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used
in helmets.[16]

In addition, the vaporizing metal and flux materials expose welders to dangerous gases and particulate matter. The
smoke produced contains particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to
influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, gases like
carbon dioxide and ozone can form, which can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Some of the latest
welding masks are fitted with an electric powered fan to help disperse harmful fumes.[17]

Application and materials

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes, accounting for over half of all
welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance
and repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. In
recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 7/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low equipment cost and
wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where
specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.[18]

SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron. While
less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on
aluminium. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the
welder, but rarely does it drop below 1.5 mm (0.06 in). No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation and
use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the
electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.[19]

Equipment
Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists
of a constant current welding power supply and an
electrode, with an electrode holder, a 'ground' clamp, and
welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting
the two.

Power supply
SMAW system setup

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 8/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat)
remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most
applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc
distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations
and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant, skilled
welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.[20]

The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired
properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the
electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the polarity so that
the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is negatively charged increases the weld penetration.
With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an even heat distribution and
providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.[21]

Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for direct current models a
rectifier, which converts alternating current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the
welding machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and
increase the current. As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the transformer is
around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be used to produce this
effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with each using a different method to manipulate the welding
current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 9/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and

secondary coils (in movable coil or movable core transformers).
Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable, use electronic
components to change the current characteristics.[22]

Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable

welding power supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater
costs, they are less frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends
to be more difficult, because of the complexities of using a combustion
engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler: the
use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide
either AC or DC.[23] However, the engine driven units are most practical
in field work where the welding often must be done out of doors and in
locations where transformer type welders are not usable because there
is no power source available to be transformed.

In some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in

portable generating sets used to supply mains power, modified to
A high output welding power supply produce a higher current at a lower voltage but still at the 50 or 60 Hz
for SMAW, GTAW, MIG, Flux-Cored, grid frequency. In higher-quality units an alternator with more poles is
& Gouging used and supplies current at a higher frequency, such as 400 Hz. The

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 10/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

smaller amount of time the high-frequency waveform spends near zero makes it much easier to strike and maintain
a stable arc than with the cheaper grid-frequency sets or grid-frequency mains-powered units.

Electrode
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors,
including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld
properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which
gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination,
introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to
form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to
improve the weld quality.[24] Electrodes can be divided into three
groups—those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill" electrodes,
Various accessories for SMAW
those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and
intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow"
electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-
freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by
preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.[25]

The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that of the base material. But
even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the
properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise, electrodes of
compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials like aluminium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 11/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

and copper.[26] However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core materials significantly different from
the base material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel,
and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.[27]

Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose,
and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease of use and good
appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging
embrittlement and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes known as basic or low-
hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a
coarse and convex-shaped joint surface. Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially when combined with rutile,
provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content, special procedures must be used to
prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive that increases the rate at
which the electrode fills the weld joint, up to twice as fast.[28]

To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes with a
four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their
number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand
pounds per square inch (ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding positions permissible with the
electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2
(normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode
covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying
element being contributed by the electrode.[29]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 12/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of
60 ksi (410 MPa) which is operated using DCEP. E6011 is similar except its flux coating allows it to be used with
alternating current in addition to DCEP. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal
welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which
provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.[30]

Process variations
Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process variation exists, known as
gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an automated version of the traditional shielded metal arc
welding process, employing an electrode holder attached to an inclined bar along the length of the weld. Once
started, the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage multiple gravity
welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are coated heavily in flux, and are typically
71 cm (28 in) in length and about 6.35 mm (0.25 in) thick. As in manual SMAW, a constant current welding power
supply is used, with either negative polarity direct current or alternating current. Due to a rise in the use of
semiautomatic welding processes such as flux-cored arc welding, the popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its
economic advantage over such methods is often minimal. Other SMAW-related methods that are even less
frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic method for making butt and fillet welds, and massive
electrode welding, a process for welding large components or structures that can deposit up to 27 kg (60 lb) of weld
metal per hour.[10]

Notes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 13/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

1. Houldcroft, P. T. (1973) [1967]. "Chapter 3: Flux-Shielded Arc Welding". Welding Processes. Cambridge
University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-521-05341-2.
2. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 102–103
3. Hertha Ayrton. The Electric Arc, pp. 20 (https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/20/mode/2up)
and 94 (https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/94/mode/2up). D. Van Nostrand Co., New York,
1902.
4. Anders, A. (2003). "Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous discharges". IEEE
Transactions on Plasma Science. 31 (5): 1060–9. Bibcode:2003ITPS...31.1060A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2003ITPS...31.1060A). doi:10.1109/TPS.2003.815477 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTPS.2003.815477).
5. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Article "Дуговой разряд" (eng. electric arc)
6. US 363320 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US363320), Benardos, Nikołaj &
Stanisław Olszewski, "Process of and apparatus for working metals by the direct application of the electric
current", issued 17 May 1887
7. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 5
8. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 6
9. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 1.1-4–1.1-6, 1.1-8
10. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 115–116
11. Philbin, Tom. The 100 Greatest Inventions of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present. Kensington Publishing
Corp. p. 17.
12. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 102, 115
13. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 6.2-1
14. "Understanding Different Types of Welding - G.E. MATHIS COMPANY" (https://www.gemathis.com/different-w
elding-types+). G.E. MATHIS COMPANY. 2017-12-13. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 14/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

15. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 6.2-18–6.2-20, 3.2-1

16. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 42, 49–51
17. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 52–62
18. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 5.1-1–5.1-2
19. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 103
20. Jeffus 1999, p. 47.
21. Jeffus 1999, pp. 46–47.
22. Jeffus 1999, pp. 49–53.
23. Jeffus 1999, pp. 49, 52–53.
24. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 104
25. Lincoln Electric 1994, p. 6.2-1
26. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 6.2-13, 9.2-1, 10.1-3
27. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 7.2-5, 7.2-8
28. Weman 2003, pp. 65–66
29. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 105
30. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 6.2-7–6.2-10

References
Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005), Modern Welding Technology, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Education, ISBN 0-13-113029-3

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 15/16
3/29/2018 Shielded metal arc welding - Wikipedia

Jeffus, Larry (1999), Welding: Principles and Applications (4th ed.), Albany, New York: Thomson Delmar,
ISBN 0-8273-8240-5
Lincoln Electric (1994), The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, Cleveland, Ohio: Lincoln Electric,
ISBN 99949-25-82-2
Miller Electric Mfg Co (2013). Guidelines For Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (https://www.millerwelds.co
m/~/media/miller%20electric/files/pdf/resources/bookspamphlets/guidelines_smaw.pdf) (PDF). Appleton,
Wisconsin: Miller Electric Mfg Co.
Weman, Klas (2003), Welding processes handbook, New York: CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1773-8

External links
Guidelines for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (https://www.millerwelds.com/~/media/miller%20electric/files/pdf/re
sources/bookspamphlets/guidelines_smaw.pdf) (.pdf)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shielded_metal_arc_welding&oldid=831869020"

This page was last edited on 22 March 2018, at 15:55.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded_metal_arc_welding 16/16