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complete
metalsmith

Professional
Edition
 The smith also sitteth by the anvil,
and fighteth with the heat of the furnace,
and noise of the hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears,
and his eyes look still upon the pattern
of the thing that he maketh.
He setteth his mind to finish his work,
and waiteth to polish it perfectly.

Ecclesiasticus
 complete
metalsmith

Tim McCreight

Brynmorgen Press
Acknowledgments
So many people contributed to this book that it is impossible to mention
them all. The students I’ve worked with in college classes and at workshops
have helped clarify many of the descriptions. I owe a huge debt to the
generous authors whose books have been so valuable in my professional life.
With each new edition of this book I have been privileged to call upon a wider
circle of colleagues, too many, in fact, to name.
I would be remiss, however, if I did not specifically thank these talented
goldsmiths for their help: Chuck Evans, Gary Griffin and Bob Ebendorf
reviewed the original manuscript in . Their wisdom rolls through the
subsequent editions. Peter Handler, John Pirtle, Paula Dinneen, Will Earley
and John Cogswell have given valuable advice, as have Alan Revere, Charles
Lewton-Brain, Kate Wolf, Blain Lewis, Bill Seeley, David LaPlantz, Steve
Midgett, Tina Rath, Kevin Whitmore, and Darnall Burks. For editorial insight,
hats off to Abby Johnston, Jenny Hall, Katie Kazan, Margery Niblock, and
Kate O’Halloran. And thanks to Mark Jamra, for his careful typographic eye,
and this lovely font. For the charm and ease of use in the electonic edition,
we can all thank Jodie Stackhouse. Wyatt Wade of Davis Publications has
supervised all three revisions of the book, consistently offering a blend of
support and sound judgment.
And most of all, I especially want to thank my family: Jay, Jobie, and Jeff.

Tim McCreight
Portland, Maine

Copyright  All rights reserved. No part of this

Brynmorgen Press, Inc. publication may be reproduced or
Portland, Maine, U.S.A. transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any storage
Printed in Hong Kong
Library of Congress Catalog and retrieval system now known or to be
Number: invented, except by a reviewer who wishes
ISBN: --- to quote brief passages in connection
with a review written for inclusion in a
         magazine, newspaper, or broadcast.
The author and publisher specifically
disclaim any responsibility or liability
for damages or injury as a result of any
construction, design, use, or any other
activity undertaken in conjunction with
the information presented in this book.
Contents

 Materials 

 Tools 

 Shaping 

 Surfaces 

 Joining 

 Color 

 Finishing 

 Casting 

 Stones & Stonesetting 

 Chains & Clasps 

 Findings & Mechanisms 

Appendix 

Index 

v
 Introduction

This book represents years of intensive research and experimentation.

Information from hundreds of sources has been collected, distilled, and
illustrated. It is intended to be both a text and a tool, a blend of instruction
and reference. Like other tools, its value increases as you bring to it your own
perceptions and skills. It is designed to make the information easily accessible,
and built to stand up to years of benchside use.
This book was originally published in , then revised and enlarged in
. With the coming of a new century, plans were made to revise it again. The
challenge we faced was to deal with two elements that were important to the
book’s success—thoroughness and ease of use. The question became, “How can
we make it basic and advanced at the same time?” The solution was to create
three editions, each with its own virtues. This Student Edition gives solid,
must-have information that is appropriate for entry level students, hobbyists,
and casual metalsmiths. The Professional Edition covers the same material,
but goes into greater depth. The ProPlus Edition is a package that includes the
Professional print edition plus a CD with the full text rendered as an electronic
file. It also includes calculation software, video clips, and two additional books
by the same author, Practical Jewelry Rendering and Design Language.
Metalsmithing involves some chemicals and procedures that are poten-
tially dangerous. Great care has been taken to omit hazards where possible
and to give clear warnings wherever they apply. These will be only as effective
as you make them. So, be wise.

ix
Chapter 

Materials
 Metallurgy

Crystals
Metallurgy is a complex, highly Metals exist at room temperature as crystals, regularly shaped units arranged
technical field that is worthy of in an ordered recurring pattern called a space lattice. There are  crystal
our attention. It is helpful for a systems and  lattice configurations. Here are the three lattice arrangements
metalsmith to understand the most relevant to metalsmiths.
structure and behavior of metals It is not a coincidence that easily worked metals share the same crystal
because this can help explain events structures. Crystal shape is one factor that determines malleability.
in the studio.

Face-Centered Cubic Body-Centered Cubic Hexagonal

lead chromium Close-Packed
copper lithium beryllium
aluminum molybdenum cadmium
gold potassium cobalt
silver sodium magnesium
nickel vanadium titanium
iron (at high temps) iron (at room temp) zinc

Recrystallization
When a metal is heated to its melting point it loses its crystalline organiza-
tion and becomes fluid. When the heat source is removed and the metal
cools, it re-establishes its crystal pattern, starting with the first areas to cool.
Many clusters of crystals start to form simultaneously, all having the same
order but not necessarily the same orientation.

Crystals start to form as As they grow, crystals bump Solid metal; the red line
the metal cools. into one another, forming traces grain boundaries.
irregular grains.

 Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy

 Metallurgy

Crystals
Crystals move most easily within a semi-
ordered structure. Crystals at a grain boundary
are caught in a “logjam” with the result that
the metal is tough and difficult to work.
When metal is worked, large crystals are
broken into smaller ones, which creates more annealed work-hardened
grain boundaries. We refer to such metal as
work-hardened. A similar condition is created when metal is rapidly cooled.
Because crystals do not have time to grow into an organized structure, the
metal recrystallizes into many small grains.
In time, even at room temperature, crystals will realign themselves into
an organized lattice. By heating the metal we accelerate the movement of
atoms and the subsequent recrystallization. This process is called annealing.

Deformation
When force is applied to a metal,
it yields in a process called elastic elastic
deformation. If only limited stress is deformation
applied, the metal will bounce back.
There will come a point, though, when
the force is enough to permanently
bend the metal, a process called plastic
deformation. Each alloy has unique limits
plastic
of elastic and plastic deformation.
deformation

I am trying to check my habits of seeing,

Annealing
Annealing is the process of reducing stress within metal by heating it to a
to counter them for the sake of greater prescribed temperature. This can be done with a torch or kiln. Temperatures
are usually gauged by watching the heat colors change, something best
freshness. I am trying to be unfamiliar seen in a dimly lit area. Alternatively, paste flux can be painted onto metal
with what I am doing.
to serve as a temperature indicator: it is clear at ° F (° C). Quench
a piece in water to cool, then slide it into pickle to dissolve surface oxides.
In its annealed state, the crystal arrangement contains irregularities called
vacancies. These facilitate crystal movement and so contribute to malleability.
John Cage
Heat to a dull red; quench as soon Heat to medium red; quench as
as the redness disappears. soon as the redness disappears.
• K gold • bronze
• K gold Heat to bright red; air cool.
• red golds • white gold (nickel-based)
• sterling • brass
• fine silver
• copper

Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy 

 Gold

Gold Au Gold Purity of Karats

Melting point ° F > Gold was probably the second Fine (pure) gold is too soft for
° C metal to be worked by early most uses so it is alloyed with
Hardness –. humans, being discovered after other metals to achieve a desired
copper. Quality gold work can be hardness. During this process the
Specific gravity:
found from as early as  .. color, malleability, and melting
Cast .
> If all the gold ever found (about point can also be altered. Silver and
Worked .–. , tons) were cast into a copper are the two most common
Atomic weight . single ingot, it would make only a additives but many other metals can
-yard cube. be used.
> One ounce of gold can be The relative amount of gold in an
flattened to a sheet that will alloy is called the karat. This word
cover  square feet, or drawn to signifies proportion and should not
a wire almost a mile long. be confused with carat, which is a
> Gold can be made into a foil that unit of weight (except in the UK,
is less than five millionths of an where both words are spelled with
inch thick. At this point it is semi- a “c”). Think of karat as a fraction
transparent. with  as the denominator, e.g.,
> Pickles for gold include Sparex K—eighteen–twenty-fourths or
# or a mixture of  part nitric 3⁄4. This tells us that the alloy is 
acid (reagent grade) with  parts gold. By law, a metal described as
water. K must be at least  gold. The
Fluxes > Gold dissolves in aqua regia remainder of the alloy is not re-
and solutions of chlorine with stricted by law, which only specifies
When pouring gold ingots, sprinkle an
even mixture of powdered charcoal and
potassium cyanide or sodium the proportion of precious metal.
ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) cyanide.
on the metal while melting. This will
yield a bright, tough ingot that will Gold-filled
withstand rolling. Dangerous fumes are This term refers to a material on which a layer of gold
produced, so ventilation is required. has been bonded by fusing. The resulting ingot is rolled
If iron or steel is present (for or drawn to make sheet and wire. A standard practice
instance as a result of file wear), purify is to clad the base with  (weight) K gold. Since
the scraps by melting with a flux of  K is half pure this means that the final result, if it
part potassium nitrate (saltpeter) and were melted down and assayed, would equal  pure
 parts potassium carbonate. After gold. This is marked as 1⁄2 GF. This technique has two
cooling, remelt with the sal ammoniac advantages over plating: a thicker layer of gold can be
flux and pour the metal into a mold. achieved, and the gold is denser because it has been
worked. The term rolled gold refers to a similar material
Voluntary Product Standard – that has only half as thick a gold layer: 1⁄4.
This US law has set legal tolerances
for gold since . It allows variation Scientific Notation
of  parts per thousand (.K) on
An alternative system describes Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
unsoldered goods and  parts per
thousand (.K) on soldered objects. the precious content in parts per Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
This is called plumb (i.e., accurate) thousand (ppt), typically written Au   1⁄4 karat  gold
gold. Manufacturers were given as a decimal. An alloy containing Au   karat  gold
until  to dispose of their old 3⁄4 gold becomes / or . Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
merchandise made at lower standards. or Au . Here are some common Au   karat . gold
decimal equivalents. Au   karat . gold

 Materials > Precious Metals > Gold

 Gold

Alloys
• A mixture of roughly equal parts of gold and silver is called electrum.
Maximum hardness of this alloy is at a / mix.
• The hardest alloy of gold, silver, and copper is reached at //. This will
Electrum be  karat yellow.
• An increase of the copper content in a gold alloy up to  will lower its
melting point. To continue lowering, as when making solder, add silver.
• Many kinds and colors of gold solder are commercially available, but in a
pinch, a lower karat gold may be used.
Decimal • White gold usually has  to  nickel and can contain zinc, copper, or
Equivalents manganese. It has no silver.

1K .0417 Testing
2K .0833 With a small file, make a scratch in an inconspicuous spot. Wearing rubber
3K .1250 gloves, use a wood, glass, or plastic stick to apply a drop of nitric acid to this
4K .1667 spot. Observe the reaction. When done, rinse everything well in running
5K .2083 water.
6K .2500 > no reaction gold
7K .2917 > bright green bubbling all over base metal
8K .3333 > green only in scratch gold layer over base metal
> milky in scratch gold over silver
9K .3750
10 K .4167
11 K .4583 What karat is it?
Determining karat requires a testing kit:
12 K .5000
• nitric acid and aqua regia
13 K .5417
• metal samples of known karat
14 K .5833 • touchstone (slate or ceramic)
15 K .6250 Rub the object to be tested on the stone (called
16 K .6667 “touching”) to leave a streak. Make a parallel line on the
17 K .7083 stone with one of the test needles. Flood both marks with
18 K .7500 acid and observe the reactions. When the two streaks change color at the
19 K .7917 same rate, a match has been made. Nitric acid is used for low-karat golds and
20 K .8333 aqua regia is used for high karats.
21 K .8750
22 K .9167 Formulas
23 K .9583 Alloying Down (to lower karat) Alloying Up (to raise karat)
24 K 1.0000 . Multiply the amount to be . Multiply the amount to be
lowered by its karat. changed by its karat.
. Multiply the same amount by the . Multiply the same amount by the
desired karat. desired karat.
. Subtract the amount you found in . Subtract the amount in Step 
Step  from the amount in Step . from the amount in Step .
. Divide the difference (Step ) by . Subtract the desired karat from
the desired karat. .
. Divide the answer to Step  by
the answer to Step .

Materials > Precious Metals > Gold 

 Silver

Silver Ag Silver
Melting point ° F Silver, known in the ancient world as argentum, was at one time thought to
.° C be more precious than gold because it appeared less commonly in nature.
Hardness . Pure silver, like pure gold, is soft and is therefore often alloyed. Though many
Specific gravity . metals may be used, copper is preferred because it greatly toughens the alloy
Atomic weight . without detracting from the bright shine of silver.

Sterling . Sterling

Melting point ° F Sterling is the alloy most commonly alloy was used in US coins until
° C used in jewelrymaking and  but now no silver is used in
Specific gravity . silversmithing. It was adopted as any US coin. An alloy popular in the
a standard alloy in England in the Far East uses – silver and the
th century when King Henry II balance zinc, producing a metal with
imported refiners from an area of a low melting point and a bright,
Germany known as the Easterling. white shine.
The product they made was of a In recent years a number of
consistent quality and was used alternate sterling alloys have been
as currency by , when it was patented. Most replace a small
known as Easterling silver. amount of the copper with a metal
Coin silver, an alloy once used that is less likely to oxidize such as
in currency, contains more copper tin, germanium, zinc, or platinum.
( to ) than sterling. It melts These alloys are commonly used in
at a lower temperature than sterling casting but have not become widely
and is more likely to tarnish. A  available as sheet and wire.

Britannia Silver Strength

Britannia silver (. parts per Annealed fine silver has a hardness
) was the legal alloy in England of Vickers  (tensile strength of 
from  to . It was contrived tons per square inch). Cold working
to discourage the melting of coins increases the hardness to Vickers
and is still a legal alloy there. Don’t – (tensile strength of –
confuse this with Britannia Metal, tons per square inch).
which is a form of pewter.

Silver resists aqua regia because

hydrochloric acid forms a dense
chloride film that resists corrosion.

 Materials > Precious Metals > Silver

 Silver

Heat Hardening
In conventional work-hardening, metal is made rigid by upsetting the
orderly arrangement of grains. A lesser degree of toughness can be achieved
by reducing the number of dislocations and vacancies, that is, by creating
extreme regularity. This is achieved by warming the metal sufficiently to
begin recrystallization and holding it at this temperature long enough to
allow gradual ordered crystal growth.
To harden sterling, heat a finished piece to ° F (° C) and hold it at
that temperature for at least one hour. Air cool. Pure metals like copper and
fine silver cannot be heat hardened because it is the arrangement of alloy
ingredients that contributes to the hardness. Though there is validity
to the theory of heat-hardening, in practice, tumbling with steel shot is more
commonly used to harden jewelry items. It is faster and significantly more
effective.

The inner life of a human being Argyria Electrolytic Cleaning

Argyria, a condition caused by This kitchen version of
is a vast and varied realm and ingestion of silver, is evidenced by electrostripping is safe and easy.
a blue or blue-gray skin color. Until It’s especially useful for removing
does not concern itself alone
the s silver was used in several tarnish from flatware and
with stimulating arrangements medicines, and it is still sold as a hollowware. In a pot lined with
miracle cure for such ailments as aluminum foil, mix a dilute solution
of color, form, and design. leprosy, plague, and anthrax. In  of equal parts of baking soda, salt,
the Food and Drug Administration and liquid soap. A quarter cup of
prohibited sellers of colloidal silver each to a gallon of water is a typical
preparations from making claims mixture. Set the sterling in the
Edward Hopper about health benefits. pot; bring the mix to a simmer and
allow it to stand for – minutes
as the oxides are transferred to
the aluminum, which you’ll see
is darkened. Throw that away and
wash the silver before using it.

Materials > Precious Metals > Silver 

 Platinum

Platinum Pt Platinum
Melting point ° F Platinum is a dense white metal that has a high resistance to corrosion.
° C It was discovered by Spaniards in South America in . They called it
Hardness  – . platina because of its similarity to silver, plata. Today we refer collectively
Specific gravity . to six related metals as the platinum group: platinum, palladium, rhodium,
Atomic weight . ruthenium, iridium, and osmium.

Rhodium Working with Platinum

Palladium Rhodium was separated from Platinum group metals can be cast
Melting point ° F platinum in  and takes its name but because of their high melting
° C from the Greek word rodon (rose) points, a special investment must be
Specific gravity . because of the colors of the metal- used. When you buy this, request a
Atomic weight . lic salts. Rhodium is often plated data sheet and follow the mixing di-
over sterling articles to provide a rections carefully. No flux is needed
bright, tarnish-resistant outer layer. when melting.
Its reflectivity index ( of the Cleanliness is very important
visible spectrum) is slightly lower when heating metals of the plati-
than sterling’s but this lack of shine num group. An oxidizing flame is
is generally imperceptible. Worked recommended. Contamination by
rhodium has a Vickers hardness of silver, aluminum, iron, or lead will
 but electroplated rhodium has a cause intercrystalline cracking at
Vickers of –, indicating that it the grain boundaries. If contamina-
is extremely wear-resistant. tion occurs there is no way to cor-
rect the problem metallurgically.
The damaged area must be cut out
Platinum group metals dissolve and replaced with a patch.
slowly in aqua regia.

Platinum group metals require an oxygen torch for soldering or casting

because of their high melting points. These metals are well suited to settings
for precious stones because of their toughness and great resistance to tarnish.

Uses Is it platinum?
More than half of all platinum To determine whether a piece is
metals mined are used by the platinum, heat a sample to bright
jewelry industry. Other uses red and air cool. Metals of the plati-
include: num group will remain bright and
> medical implants shiny. Because of this resistance to
> architectural decoration, as leaf oxidation, no flux is needed when
> plating on the tips of fountain soldering.
pens for durability (especially
osmium)

 Materials > Precious Metals > Platinum

 Copper

Copper Cu History   Copper was discovered.

Melting point ° F Copper was probably the first metal   Egyptians used copper
° C to be put to use by our ancestors weapons.
Hardness  and remains important to us today.   Beginning of the Bronze
It conducts heat and electricity very Age.
Specific gravity .
well, can be formed and joined, and   Evidence of controlled
Atomic weight .
combines with many elements to bronze alloying.
form a broad range of alloys.   Egyptians made copper
pipes.

Copper is sold in standard sheets " x " (' x ') and in coils  and 
inches wide. When ordering, specify Hard, Half-hard, or Annealed.

When copper is hot-rolled it develops a slightly rough surface. For this

reason most craftspeople prefer cold-rolled material. Copper alloy # is
a common choice.

When exposed to moist air, copper forms poisonous acetates, sulfates,

and chlorides known collectively as verdigris. The name comes from vert-
de-grice, Old French for “Green of Greece,” a reference to metal sculp-
tures of antiquity. Because of these compounds, you should always wash
your hands after handling copper. Copper cookware and serving pieces
should either be plated with a noncorrosive metal such as tin or washed
before each use.

Most copper is electrolytically refined, i.e., electrically deposited on

an anode. This product is pure but contains oxygen atoms scattered
throughout the metal. When heated, this forms CuO₂, which breaks
down the bond between crystals and can weaken the metal as much as
. To alleviate this problem, most copper is alloyed with a deoxidizer
such as phosphorus.

Copper cannot be heat hardened, but responds to work-hardening.

Copper is available in more than Japanese Alloys

 alloys. Comprehensive data is
available from: Shaku-do . to  gold, with the balance copper. Melting point:
Copper Development Association –° F (–° C). This alloy is valued for the
 Madison Avenue deep purple color achieved through oxidation.
New York, NY 
-- Shibu-ichi  copper,  silver. Melting point ° F (° C). This
www.copper.org is a silvery pink alloy that darkens and reticulates easily.

Materials > Base Metals > Copper 

 Brass & Bronze

Yellow Brass  Brass Facts

Melting point ° F > Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and it can achieve a wide range of
° C properties and colors.
Specific gravity . > The practical limit of zinc in a copper alloy is . Beyond this the alloy
becomes too brittle for most uses.
> Low zinc brasses that contain up to  zinc are grouped under the term
“gilding metals.”
Jewelers Bronze  > Brass is mildly antibacterial.
Melting point ° F > The bronze of antiquity was a mix of – tin with the balance being
° C copper. Today the term bronze refers to any tin-bearing brass or golden-
Specific gravity . colored brass.
> To distinguish brass from bronze, dissolve a small sample in a  /
solution of nitric acid and water. Tin is indicated by the white precipitate
metastannic acid.

Alpha brasses less than  zinc good for cold working;
have a rich yellow color
Brass
Beta brasses more than  zinc good for hot working;
have a pale color

Common Alloys
Gun Metal Historically an alloy of  copper,  tin, and  zinc, it was
used to cast cannons and large industrial products.

Pinchbeck An alloy of about  copper and  zinc that was invented
by the English watchmaker Christopher Pinchbeck in England
around . It resembles gold, and was used to make costume
jewelry and inexpensive accessories. By extension, the word has
come to mean “cheap imitation.”

Nordic Gold Alloy of  copper,  aluminum,  zinc, and  tin that is
used for euro coins.

Bell Metal An alloy of roughly  copper and  tin, used for, you
guessed it, bells. It makes a rich tone when allowed to vibrate
The afternoon knows what the but is notoriously brittle when the blows are confined. For
proof, visit Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
morning never suspected.

Swedish Proverb

 Materials > Base Metals > Brass & Bronze

 Nickel

Nickel Ni Nickel
Melting point ° F The word nickel means “deceiver” in German, and was given to the ore
° C (niccolite) because it was easily mistaken for copper ore. Nickel is a hard
Specific gravity . white metal used primarily as an alloying ingredient. It increases hardness
Atomic weight . and resistance to corrosion without impairing ductility.

Nickel Silver
Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 
The term “nickel silver” refers to several alloys with roughly the proportions
shown above. The alloy was originally developed in the Far East and came
to be known as Paktong (a.k.a. Pakton, Pakfong, Paitun, Baitong, Baitung,
and other derivations). Other names include Alpacca, Argentium, Electrum,
Stainless NS, and Nevada Silver. Nickel silver gained in popularity after
 when electroplating created a need for an inexpensive silver-colored
substrate. This origin can still be seen in the abbreviation EPNS which stands
for electroplated nickel silver.
This metal is used in jewelry because of its low cost and generally
favorable working properties. It can be forged, stamped, soldered and
polished. Though it can be cast, its high melting point and tendency to
oxidize make casting difficult.

Common Alloys
Nickel silver Cu  This is the alloy most commonly used
(German silver) Ni  for jewelrymaking. In strength, cost,
Zn  malleability, and ductility, it is similar to
brass.

Monel Metal Ni  This tough, oxide-resistant metal has

Cu  many uses in industry but is rarely used in
Balance: Fe, the crafts. It melts at ° F (° C).
Mn, C, Si, S

Nichrome Ni  Because of its ability to resist oxidation

Cr  and its high melting point (° F, °
C), this metal is used in wire for the
heating element of electric kilns.

Nickel Alloy # Cu  This alloy will “swell” when heated above
Ni  ° F (° C). When its reticulated
Zn  oxide skin is removed in a nitric acid
pickle, the metal will be found to be
dramatically perforated. It can be soldered
and polished.

Materials > Base Metals > Nickel 

 Aluminum

Aluminum Al Properties History

Melting point ° F Aluminum is the most abundant Though the existence of aluminum
° C metallic element on the planet, was theorized in the s it was
Specific gravity . making up  of the earth’s not isolated until . When
crust. Because of its light weight, the Washington Monument was
Atomic weight .
resistance to corrosion and ability completed in , a  oz. pyramid
to alloy well, it is used structurally of aluminum was made to crown
(buildings, aircraft, cars), as it. At the time, this was the largest
architectural trim (siding), and in mass of aluminum ever made—
functional objects like cookware. before placement, it was displayed
It is the second most malleable in Tiffany’s window in New York
and sixth most ductile metal. It is City. Commercial production was
usually found in bauxite as an oxide devised in  and many alloys
called alumina: Al₂O₃. have been developed since then.

Alloys
As is the case with many metals, industry organizations have developed a
universal system to identify components of an aluminum alloy. The first digit
of a -digit number designates the principal ingredient, with the remaining
numbers specifying their proportions.
xxx pure or almost pure aluminum
xxx copper alloys
xxx manganese
xxx silicon
xxx magnesium
xxx magnesium & silicon
xxx zinc
xxx other elements
The , , and  series are commonly preferred for anodizing, but
many other alloys will work.

Joining
Aluminum can be soldered and joined only with special solders, many of
which are sold with their own flux. Welding can be done with S or #
wire used with # flux. Check with your supplier for detailed information.
Welding is made easier with a TIG (tungsten inert gas) welder, but can be
achieved with gas/oxygen systems.

Popular Alloys Anodizing

S — pure aluminum This is a process of electrically
S — Al + . Mn causing the formation of a resistant
S — Al + . Mn and  Mg oxide film on the surface of
S — Al +  Cu, . Mn, . Mg aluminum. The film may be colored
 — SAl + . Cu, . Mn, . Mg with dyes which can give finished
aluminum products a wide range
of color possibilities. For more
information, see Chapter .

 Materials > Base Metals > Aluminum

 Reactive Metals

Titanium Ti Reactive Metals

Melting point ° F This term refers to a group of six tough gray metals that are lightweight, have
° C a high melting point, and are resistant to corrosion. In order of importance,
Specific gravity . they are titanium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, tungsten, and hafnium. The
Atomic weight . first two are of interest to jewelers principally because of the colors produced
by their oxidation films. The others are included in this group by scientists
Niobium Nb but are not important to jewelers.
Melting point ° F
° C Working Properties
Specific gravity . Titanium and niobium cannot be soldered or annealed in the jeweler’s
Atomic weight . studio but both metals lend themselves to all other traditional processes.
They can be drilled, filed, drawn stamped, or raised, with conventional tools.
Pure titanium is ductile and shows low thermal and electrical conductivity.
It is twice as dense as aluminum and half as dense as iron. Its resistance to
corrosion, combined with light weight and toughness, make it well-suited
to use in prosthetics. It is added to steel to reduce grain size, to stainless to
reduce carbon content, to aluminum to refine grain development, and to
copper to harden it.

Titanium Niobium
Titanium is the ninth most In its pure form, niobium is soft
abundant element in the earth’s and ductile and polishes to look
crust and can be found in most like platinum. There is a good bit
rocks, clay, and sand. It was first of niobium on the planet; it is
identified in  but has been more plentiful than lead and less
commercially viable only since  common than copper. Niobium is
when the Kroll refining process extremely ductile. In drawing wire,
was invented. Titanium dioxide is for instance, the cross section can
a white powder used in paints and be reduced by as much as 
enamels. before annealing. This property
can of course be a drawback for
applications where strength is
required.
When this metal was first
discovered in  it was called
columbium, but it was rediscovered
and renamed in . After years of
confusion the scientific community
formally adopted the name
niobium, but the older name is still