GATE Postal Correspondence Computer Sc.

& IT 1

Digital Logic
Computer Science
&
Information Technology (CS)

20 Rank under AIR 100

Postal Correspondence
 Examination Oriented Theory, Practice Set
 Key concepts, Analysis & Summary

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 GATE Postal Correspondence Computer Sc. & IT 2

C O N T E N T: D i g i t a l L o g i c
1. BINARY SYSTEM ………………………………………………………………………. 3-18

2. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA & LOGIC GATES …………………………………………… 19-41

3. GATE LEVEL MINIMIZATION ……………………………………………………… 42-50

4. DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES ……...…………………………………………………. . 51-80

5. COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS ……………………………………………………… 81-111

6. SEQUENTIAL DIGITAL CIRCUITS ………………………………………………… 112-134

7. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES ……………………………………………………. 135-141

8. A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS ………………………………………………………… 142-149

9. PRACTICE SET (DIGITAL COMPUTER SCIENCE) GATE ...……………………. 150-160

GATE Syllabus
Digital Logic: Logic functions, Minimization, Design and synthesis of combinational and
sequential circuits; Number representation and computer arithmetic (fixed and floating point).

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CHAPTER-1
BINARY SYSTEM
Base Conversion: A number an, an–1 … a2 , a1 a0  a–1 a–2 a–3 … expressed in a base r system has coefficient

multiplied by powers of r.

a n r n  a n 1r n 1  a n 2 r n 2  ...  a1r  a 0  a 1r1  a 2 r2  a 3r3  ... …(A)

Coefficients aj; range from 0 to r – 1

Key Points:

To convert a number of base r to decimal is done by expanding the number in a power series as in (A)

Then add all the terms.

Example 1: Convert following Binary number (11010.11)2 in to decimal number.

Solution:

Base r = 2

1 2 4  1 2 3  0  2 2  1 21  0  2 0  1 2 1  1 2 2

(11010.11)2 = (26.75)10

Example 2: Convert (4021.2)5 in to decimal equivalent

Solution: 4  53  0  5 2  2  51  1 5 0  2  5 1 = (511.4)10

Example 3: Convert (127.4)8 in to decimal equivalent.

Solution: 1 8 2  2  81  7  8 0  4  8 1 = (87.5)10

Numbers with Different bases:

Decimal (r = 10) Binary (r = 2) Octal (r = 8) Hexadecimal (r = 16)

00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8

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09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Example 4: Convert following hexadecimal number into decimal number: (B65F) 16

3 2 1 0
Solution: 1116  616  516 1516  (46.687)10

Conversion of decimal number to a number in base r:

 Separate the number into an integer part and fraction part.

 Divide the number and all successive quotients by r and accumulating the remainders.

 Conversion of decimal fraction is done by multiplying the fraction and all successive fraction and

integers are accumulated.

Example 1: Convert decimal number 41 to binary.

Solution:
Integer quotient Remainder Coefficient
41/2 = 20 + 1 a0 = 1
20/2 = 10 + 0 a1 = 0
10/2 = 5 + 0 a2 = 0
5/2 = 2 + 1 a3 = 1
2/2 = 1 + 0 a4 = 0
1/2 = 0 + 1 a5 = 1
(101001)2
(41)10  (101001)2
Example 2: Convert (153)10 to octal.

Solution:

Required base r is 8.

153 are divided by 8 to give integer quotient of 19 and remainder 1. Then 19 are divided by 8 to give integer

quotient of 2 and remainder 3. Finally 2 are divided by 8 to give quotient of 0 and remainder of 2.

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Thus (153)10  (231)8

Example 3: Convert (0.6875)10 to Binary.

Solution: 0.6875 is multiplied by 2to give an integer and a fraction. The new fraction is multiplied by 2 to

give a new integer and new fraction.

This process is continuing until the fraction becomes zero or until the numbers of digits have sufficient

accuracy.

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.6875 × 2 = 1 + 0.3750 a–1 = 1

0.3750 × 2 = 0 + 0.7500 a–2 = 0

0.7500 × 2 = 1 + 0.5000 a–3 = 1

0.500 × 2 = 1 + 0.0000 a–4 = 1

(0.6875)2  (0.1011)2
Example 4: Convert (0.513)10 to octal.
Solution:
0.513 × 8 = 4 + 0.104 a–1 = 4
0.104 × 8 = 0 + 0.832 a–2 = 0
0.832 × 8 = 6 + 0.656 a–3 = 6
0.656 × 8 = 5 + 0.248 a–4 = 5
0.248 × 8 = 1 + 0.984 a–5 = 1
0.984 × 8 = 7 + 0.872
Answer to seven significant figures is:

(0.406517…) 8

Thus (0.513)10  (0.406517)8

(41.6875)10  (101001.1011)2

(153.513)10  (231.406517)8
Octal and hexadecimal numbers:
Conversion from binary to octal is easily done by partitioning the binary number into groups of 3 digits each

starting from binary point & proceeding to left and to the right.

The corresponding octal digit is then assigned to each group.

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For conversion into hexadecimal, binary number is divided into group of 4 digits.

Example: (2 6 1 5 3.7 4 6 0)8 to binary number

Solution:

010 110 001 101 011  111 100 110 000

Thus binary number is

(010 110 001 101 011.11110011000)2

Example 5: Convert binary to hexadecimal number:

(10 1100 0110 1011.1111 0010)2

0010 1100 0110 1011. 1111 0010

2 C 6 B F 2 = (2C6B.F2)16

Example 6: (673.124)8 to binary number:

(673.124)8  (110 111 011  001 010 100)2

6 7 3 1 2 4

(306.D) 16 to binary number:

(306.D) 16  (0011 0000 0110 . 1101)2

3 0 6 D

Note: In communication, octal or hexadecimal represented is more desirable because it can be expressed more

compactly with a third or a quarter of the number of digits required for the equivalent binary number.

Complements: Complements are used in digital computer for simplifying the subtraction operations and for

logic manipulation. There are 2 types of complements for each base r system

1. Radix complements (r’s complement)

2. Diminished radix complement ((r – 1)’s complement

1. Diminished radix complement:

 Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r – 1)’s complement of N is defined as (rn – 1) – N.

 For decimal number r = 10, (r – 1)’s complement or 9’s complement of N is (10n – 1) – N.

9’s complement: (10n – 1) – N

 10n can be represented as single 1 followed by n 0’s

 10n – 1 is number represented by n 9’s.

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 Thus 9’s complement can be obtained by subtracting each digit of number N by 9’s.

Example 7: Find 9’s complement of 546700

Solution:

999999 – 546700 = 453299

9’s complement of 546700 is 453299

1’s Complement for binary number:

 It is given as (2n – 1) – N

 2n can be representing as binary number consist of single 1 followed by n 0’s.

 2n – 1 can be represented as n 1’s.

Example 8: 24  10000

24 – 1  (1111)2

 Thus 1’s complement can be obtained as (2n – 1) – N or subtracting each digit of number from 1.

Example 9: 1’s complement of 1011000.

Solution: 1111111 – 1011000 = 0100111

Note: It is similar to changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1 or complement each digit of number is similar to taking

1’s complement of the number.

Note: (r – 1)’s complement of octal or hexadecimal number is obtained by subtracting each digit from 7 and F

respectively.

Example 10: Obtain 15’s complement of number (3241)16

Solution: Subtracting each digit of number from FFFF:

FFFF

-3241

C DBE

15’s complement is (CDBE) 16.

(ii) Radix Complement:

r’s complement of n digit number N in base r is defined as rn – N for N  0 & 0 for N = 0

It is equivalent to adding 1 to (r – 1)’s complement.

If (r – 1)’s complement is given, r’s complement can be obtained.

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Example: Find r’s complement of 546700 if its 9’s complement is 453299.

Solution: r’s complement is 453299 + 1

r's complement = 453300

Example 11: 2’s complement of 1010110 is:

Solution: 1’s complement: complement each digit of number (1010110)  (0101001)2

Thus 2’s complement is 0101001 + 1

2’s complement = (0101010)2

Another Method to Obtain 10, 2’s Complement:

Leaving all least significant 0’s unchanged, subtracting the first non-zero least significant digit from 10 and

subtracting all higher significant digits from 9.

Example 12: Find 10’s complement of 012398.

Solution:

1. Subtract 8 from 10 in the least significant position

2. Subtracting all other digits from 9.

9999910

- 01239 8

98760 2

Thus 10’s complement of 012398 is 987602.

Example: 13 10’s complement of 246700.

Solution: Leaving 2 least significant 0’s unchanged, subtracting 7 from 10 and other 3 digits from 9.

999 10 00

- 246 7 00

753 3 00

Thus 10’s complement of 246700 is 753300

Similarly 2’s complement can be formed by leaving all least significant 0’s and first 1 unchanged and replacing

1’s with 0’s and 0’s with 1’s in all other higher significant digits.

Example 14: 2’s complement of (1101100)2:

Solution: 1101 1 00

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Remain unchanged

Remain unchanged

Reverse all digits

0010100

Thus 2’s complement of 1101100 is (0010100)2

Subtraction with complement:

1. Convert subtrahend N to r’s complement.

2. Then add to the minuend M.

3. If M  N, sum will produce end carry, which can be discarded, what is left is the result, M – N.

4. If M < N, sum does not produce carry and is equal to rn – (N – M), which is same as r’s complement of

(N – M).

5. To take the answer in familiar form, take the r’s complement of the sum and place a negative sign in

front.

Example 15: Using 10’s complement, subtract 72532 – 3250

Solution: M = 72532

N = 03250

10’s complement of N = 96750

Sum: 72532

+ 96750

169282

Discard end carry as M > N so result: 69282

Example 16: Using 10’s complement, subtract 3250 – 72532

Solution: M = 3250

N = 72532

10’s complement of 72532 is

9999 10

- 7253 2

10’s complement 27468

Sum: 3250

27468

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Sum 30718

Since N > M so no end carry.

Therefore answer is – (10’s complement of 30718) = 69282

Example 16: Subtract 1010100 – 1000011

Solution: 2’s complement of N (1000011)=0111101

Sum: 1010100

+ 0111101

10010001

So result is 0010001

Example 17: Subtract: 1000011 – 1010100

Solution: 2’s complement of 1010100  0101100

Sum: 1000011

+ 0101100

1110111

There is no end carry. Therefore, answer is – (2’s complement of 1101111)

= -0010001

Note: Subtraction can also be done using (r – 1)’s complement.

Signed Binary numbers: When binary number is signed, left most bit represents the sign and rest of bits

represent the number.

 If binary number is unsigned, then left most bits is the most significant bit of the number.

 Positive or Negative can be represented by (0 or 1) bit which indicate the sign.

Example 19: String of bits 01001 can be considered as 9 (unsigned binary) or +9 (signed binary) because left

most bits are 0.

Example 20: String of bits 11001 represent 25 when considered as unsigned number or – 9 when considered as

signed number.

Negative number representation:

(i) Signed magnitude representation: In this representation number consist of a magnitude and a symbol (+ or

-) or bit (0 or 1) indicating the sign. left most bit represents sign of a number.

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 9

01001  +9

(ii) Signed complement system:

 In this system, negative number is indicated by its complement.

 It can use either 1’s or 2’s complement, but 2’s complement is most common.

Note:

1. 2’s complement of positive number remain number itself.

2. In both signed magnitude & signed complement representation, the left most significant bit of negative

numbers is always 1.

Example: +9 ® 00001001

- 9 ® 11110111 (2’s complement of +9)

Note: Signed complement of number can be obtained by taking 2’s complement of positive number including

the sign bit.

 Signed magnitude system is used in ordinary arithmetic, can not employed in computer arithmetic

because of separate handling of the sign and the magnitude.

 In computer arithmetic signed complement system is used to represent negative numbers.

Decimal Signed 2’Complement Signed 1’s complement Signed magnitude

+4 0100 0100 0100
+3 0011 0011 0011
+2 0010 0010 0010
+1 0001 0001 0001
+0 0000 0000 0000
-0 - 1111 1000
-1 1111 1110 1001
-2 1110 1101 1010
-3 1101 1100 1011
-4 1100 1011 1100

Arithmetic addition:

 Addition in signed magnitude system follows rules of ordinary arithmetic.

 EX. : +25 + - 37 = -37 + 25 = -12

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 Thus In this, comparison of sign and magnitude and them performing either addition or subtraction.

 But in signed complement system, only addition, it does not require comparison & subtraction.

 In signed complement system, negative numbers are represents in 2’s complement form and then

addition to other number including their sign bits.

Example: + 6 00000110 -6 11111010 (2’s complement)

+13 00001101 +13 00001101

+19 00010011 +7 100000111

+ 6 00000110 -6 11111010

- 13 11110011 -13 11110011

- 7 111111001 -19 11101011

[Left significant bit is 1 so number is negative, number will be –(2’s complement of 111111001)

= -(000000111) =  7

Number will be:  (2’s complement of 11101011) = (00010101) = (19)

Note: If result of sum is negative, then it is in 2’s complement form.

The left most significant bit of negative numbers is always 1.

 If we use signed complement system, computer needs only one hardware circuit to handle both

arithmetic (signed & unsigned), so generally signed complement system is used.

Binary Codes:

Any discrete element of information distinct among a group of quantities can be represented with a

binary code.

 n bit binary code is a group of n bits that have 2n distinct combinations of 1’s and 0’s with each

combination representing one element of the set that is being coded.

Example: With 2 bits 22 = 4 elements can be coded as: 00, 01, 10, 11

With 3 bits 23 = 8 elements can be coded as:

000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111

 Minimum number of bits required to code 2n distinct quantities in n.

 The bit combination of an n bit code is determined from the count in binary from 0 to 2n – 1.

Example: 3 bit combination

000 0

001 1

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010 2

011 3

100 4

101 5

110 6

111 7

BCD code:

Binary coded decimal

 A number with k decimal digits require 4 K bits in BCD.

 A decimal number in BCD is same as its equivalent binary number only when number is between 0 to

9.

 BCD number needs more bits that its equivalent binary.

 Example: (185)10 = (000110000101)BCD = (1011101)2

 In BCD number, each bit is represented by its equivalent binary representation.

Note: BCD numbers are decimal numbers and not binary numbers, although they use bits in their

representation.

 Decimal are written as 0,1,2,3,…,9 which BCD can be written as : 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, …, 1001

Benefits of BCD:-

 BCD helps to do arithmetic operation directly on decimal numbers without converting them into

equivalent binary numbers.

Decimal system BCD digits Binary equivalent

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0010
3 0011 0011
4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
6 0110 0110

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7 0111 0111
8 1000 1000
9 1001 1001
10 00010000 1010
11 00010001 1011

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